SALTS

Definitions of a salt

A salt can be defined as follows:

1. A salt is formed, when the replaceable hydrogen atoms of an acid have been completely
or partially replaced by a metal or ammonium ion e.g.
a. When the hydrogen ion, H+ in hydrochloric acid, HC1 is replaced by sodium ion, Na+,
sodium chloride, NaCI is formed, i.e.
HCI (an acid) becomes NaCI (a salt)
b. When one of the hydrogen ions in H 2SO4 is replaced by potassium ion, K+, a salt is
formed.
H2SO4 (an acid) becomes KHSO4 (a salt).
2. A salt is formed when the positive ion (cation) of a base combines with the negative ion
(anion) of an acid; e.g.
a. Sodium ion in sodium hydroxide combines with the chloride ion in hydrochloric acid to
form sodium chloride salt:
NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) + H2O(1)
b. Copper (II) ion in copper (II) oxide, CuO, compbines with the tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion
in H2SO4, to form CuSO4:
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(1)

Types of Salts

There are six main types of salts: normal salts, acid salts, basic salts, hydrated salts, double salts
and complex salts.

1. A normal salt is formed when all the replaceable hydrogen atoms in an acid are
completely replace by metal or ammonium ions, e.g.

HC1 (monobasic acid) forms NaC1 (normal salt).

H2SO4 (dibasic) produces K2SO4 (normal salt).

H3PO4 (tribasic) forms Ca3(PO4)2 (normal salt).

Generally, monobasic acids, such as HC1 and HNO3 produce normal salts only.

2. Acid salt: is a salt formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions in an acid are partially
replaced by metal or ammonium ions e.g.
If only one of the two hydrogen atoms in H 2SO4 is replaced by a sodium atom, an acid
salt, NaHSO4 is formed (see table 14.1).

Table 15:1 some acids and their slats

Acid Acid salt Normal salt

HNO2 None NaNO2
HCN None KCN
H2SO4 KHSO4; Mg(HSO4)2 K2SO4; MgSO4
H2CO3 NaHCO3; Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3; Na2CO3
H2S KHS ; NH4HS K2S; (NH4)2S
COOH COONa COONa

COOH COOH COONa

H3PO4 NaH2PO4; Na2HPO4 Na3PO4; Ca3(PO4)2

Generally, dibasic and tribasic acids form both the normal and acid slats. This is because such
acids ionize in stages, e.g.

a. H2SO4 ionises in two stages:

Stage 1: H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- (acidic ion)

Stage 2: HSO4 H+ + SO42- (normal ion)

b. H3PO4 ionises in three stage

Stage 1: H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4-
Stage 2: H2PO4 H+ + HPO42-
Stage 3: HPO4- H+ + PO43-

An acid salt dissolve in water to produce hydrogen (or hydroxonium) ion; it is acidic, e.g.
KHSOs+ H2O(1) Na +(aq) + H3O + (aq) + SO42- (aq)

3. A basic salt is formed by the partial replacement of the hydroxide ions in a metallic
hydroxide:

Mg(OH) C1 is called magnesium hydrochloride.

4. A hydrate is a salt with water of crystallization. They are crystalline: Na 2CO3.10H2O

(white); CuSO4/5H2O (blue); FeSO4.7H2O (light green).
Salts without water of crystallization are said to be anhydrous.
5. A double salt is formed when two simple salts, with the same anion, combine, in
stoichiometric ratio, to form a single compound.
The general chemical formula for double salts is :
X2SO4.Y2(SO4)3
Where X = Na+, K+ or NH4+ (monovalent ion)
Y = A13+, Fe3+ or Cr3+ (trivalent ion)
Alum is an example of a double salt. The two types of alum are:
a. Potassium alum: K2SO4.A12(SO4)3.24H2O. This is the common alum used as a
coagulant. It is crystalline and white; its empirical formula is
KA1(SO4)2.12H2O.
b. Iron (III) alum: (NH4)2SO4.Fe(SO4)3.24H2O. It is crystalline and purple in colour. Its
empirical formula is NH4Fe(SO4)2.12H2O.
c. A double salt is obtained when a water solution of mixture of FeSO4 and (NH4) 2SO4
is recrystallised to give crystals of FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O.
An aqueous solution of a double salt will give a mixture of three different ions (two
cations and one anion), and undergo reactions of the constituents’ single salts.
6. A complex slat contains a complex ion. An ion in which a metal ion forms dative bonds
with anions or neutral molecules are complex ions, e.g. [Cu(NH4)] 2+, [Fe(CN)6]3+ and
[Fe(CN)6]4-. Hence, [Cu(NH4)](OH)2 and K4[Fe(CN)6] are complex salts. See section 7.6
for naming of complex salts.
Solubility of Salts in Water

Salts are ionic compounds that dissolve in water to produce hydrated ions; hence, they are
electrolytes.

However, some salts are only slightly or partially soluble in water. Their solubility in water is so
small that they are regarded as being insoluble – as indicated in the following rules.

Solubility rules

1. All salts of sodium, potassium, and ammonium are soluble in water

2. All trioxonitrate (V) salts (nitrates, NO3-) are soluble in water
3. All chlorides are soluble in water; except those of lead, mercury and silver that are
insoluble.
4. All tetraoxosulphate (VI) slats, [sulphates, SO42] are soluble in water; except those of lead
and barium. Calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI), CaSO4 is only slightly soluble in water.
5. All trioxosulphate (IV) salts [sulphites, SO32-] are insoluble in water; except those of
sodium, potassium and ammonium that are soluble.
6. All trioxocarbonate(IV) salts [carbonates, CO 32-] are insoluble in water; except those of
sodium, potassium and ammonium that are water-soluble.
7. All sulphides, S2- are insoluble in water; except those of sodium, potassium and
ammonium that are soluble.

Hydrated and anhydrous salts

1. Slats that contain water of crystallization are called hydrates or hydrated salts.
2. Water of crystallization is the definite amount of water with which salts are associated on
crystallizing from saturated solution.
3. Common examples of hydrated salts are:
Na2CO3.10H2O (white) CuSO4.5H2O (blue)
ZnSO4.7H2O (WHITE) FeSO4.7H2O (green)
Note: The dot (.) in the formula of a hydrate salt denotes a loose association
4. Hydrates are crystalline. Slats without water of crystallization are called anhydrous; they
are powdery, e.g. CuSO4 (white); Na2CO3 (white).
 5. All hydrate salts form crystals, but not all crystalline salts are hydrated. For instance:
NaC1 forms anhydrous crystals; it is not hydrated. Other examples of salts with
anhydrous crystals are KNO3, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4
6. The water of crystallization is usually given off partially or completely, when the crystals
are exposed or heated

Physical properties of salts

The following phenomena are the characteristic properties of salts;

1. Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the process whereby a hydrated salt loses its water of crystallization,
partially or completely, to the atmosphere. Such hydrated salts are said to be efflorescent
Example are:
Na2CO3.10H2O; FeSO4.7H2O
Efflorescent salts lose weight and their crystalline forms when heated , or when exposed
to the atmosphere, to become anhydrous and powdery:
Exposure to air
a. Na2CO3.1H2OO(s)
(white crystal) Na2Co3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)
(white powder)
Heat
b. CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
2. Deliquescence
Deliquescence is a phenomenon whereby, a compound absorbs moisture (or water
vapour) from the atmosphere to form a saturated solution. Such a salt is said to be
deliquescent, e.g. fused calcium chloride, CaC1 2; magnesium chloride, MgC12, iron (III)
chloride, FeC13; and calcium trioxonitrate(V), Ca(NO3)2.
Deliquescent salts gain weight when exposed to the atmosphere. They have great affinity
for water Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, and potassium hydroxide , KOH are deliquescent
alkalis, while phosphorus(V) oxide, P2Os is a deliquescent oxide.
 3. Hygroscopy is a phenomenon in which a compound absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere without forming a solution. Such a compound is hygroscopic, e.g. calcium
oxide (quick lime, CaO); copper(II) oxide, CuO; and anhydrous CuSO 4. Concentrated
H2SO4 is a hygroscopic liquid.
Hygroscopic compounds have great affinity for water; they gain weight when exposed to
the atmosphere.
Drying agents and Desiccants
Deliquescent and hygroscopic compounds are popularly used in the laboratory as drying
agents for gases, liquids and solids, e.g.
a. Concentrated H2SO4, CaO(s) and fused CaC12(s) are used as drying agents; for drying
gases.
b. Anhydrous MgSO4 and fused CaC12 are used as drying agents for organic solvents,
such as alcohols and propanone (acetone).
c. Fused CaC12, CaO(s), and silica gel are used as desiccants
A desiccant is a drying agent usually placed in the desiccator – a device used to keep
solids dry

Preparation of salts

Salts are classified into soluble and insoluble salts on the basis of there solubility in water. All
salts that are soluble in water are prepared by crystallization, while insoluble salts are prepared
by precipitation. Hence, it is essentiall to be familiar with the solubility rules

Preparation of normal salts

In a normal salt, all the hydrogen atoms in the acid have been replaced by a metal or ammonium
ion.

The following are the types of chemical reactions used in preparing normal salts in the
laboratory.

1. Reaction between an acid and a base (neutralization). It is the most general method
2. Action of an acid on a trioxocarbonate(IV) salt
3. Action of a dilute acid on a reactive metal
4. Precipitation reactions
 5. Direct combination of a metal and a non metal

1. Preparation of soluble salts by neutralization reactions

Neutralization reaction involves an acid and a base. These are two procedures: either from a
soluble base (an alkali) or an insoluble base.

a. Preparation of a soluble salt from an alkali by titration

Reagents required”
- Sodium hydroxide solution (2.0) moles per dm3; bench reagent)
- Hydrochloric acid (2.0 moles per dm3; bench reagent). Equation of reaction

HC1(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaC1(aq) + H2O(1)

Preparation of salt by neutralization

Note: All salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium can be obtained by titration method, from
the appropriate acids and alkalis: e.g.

To obtain KNO3 crystals

KOH(aq) + KNO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(1)

b. Preparation of a soluble salt from an insoluble base

preparation of CuSO4 crystals

equation of reaction

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(1)

(black) (blue)

2. Action of acid on a trioxocarbonate(IV)

This reaction leads to the formation of a salt and water, with the evolution of carbon(IV) oxide. It
is not a neutralization reaction.

Preparation of CuC12 crystals

CuCO3(s) + 2HC1(aq) → CuC12(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(1)

(dirty green) (light green)

3. Action of an acid a reactive metal

This reaction is used for the preparation of soluble salts of metals that are well above hydrogen
in the reactivity series, such as K, Na, Ca, Mg A1, Zn and Fe. Hydrogen gas is liberated during
the reaction.

Preparation of iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

Equation of reaction

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

(grey) (green)

4. Precipitation of an insoluble salt

(Double decomposition reaction)

Precipitation reactions are used for the preparation of insoluble salts. Aqucous soloutions of two
soluble compounds containing the metallic and acidic radicals of the desired salt are mixed
together to produce its precipitate. Hence, it is very important to be familiar with the solubility
rules

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaC1(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + PbC12(s)

(colourless) (colourless) (white)
Na2SO4(aq) + BaC12(aq) → 2NaC1(aq) + BasSO4(s)
(colourless) (colourless) (white)
5. Direct combination of elements
Anhydrous binary salts are usually prepared by this reaction
2Fe(s) + 3C12(g) → 2FeC13(s)
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
6 Preparation of Acid Salts
Acid salts are prepared by the use of oxoacids that have two or more replaceable hydrogen
atoms, e.g.
H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3 and H3PO4.
Generally, when an alkali reacts with an excess of such oxoacids, acid salts are obtained.
Stage 1: 2NaOH(a2q) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O
Stage 2: Na2SO4(aq) + HSO4(aq) → 2NaHSO4(aq)
Similarly, the acid salt, KHSO4 can be prepared.
Stage 1: CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2CO3(aq)

Stage 2: CO2(g) + Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (1) → 2NaHCO3(s)