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summary a half
Engineering Fundamentals

Most undergraduate engineering programs start with calculus-based math,

foundational physical sciences, and some natural sciences. This chapter reviews
topics students will encounter as they progress. Physics, broadly defined, is the
study of matter, energy, space, time, and their interactions. This study begins in
physics and continues through engineering courses like statics, dynamics, circuit
analysis, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics. Chemical and bioengineering
students also take chemistry and biology classes, which provide a foundation for
further study in areas like thermodynamics and chemical reaction kinetics. These
courses are typically taken during sophomore and junior years, followed by technical
electives and a capstone design experience.
This chapter reviews subjects from physics courses and includes a short
presentation of economics. These topics are fundamental engineering sciences and
are part of the professional licensing process. We hope this review prepares you for
future coursework and licensing endeavors.
Statics: Statics focuses on the equilibrium of bodies subjected to force systems. It
reviews forces and moments, the main components of statics
A force is the action of one body on another, either through direct contact or at a
distance (e.g., gravitational, magnetic). Forces are classified as body forces (acting
throughout a body’s volume) or surface forces (acting over a surface). If the surface
is small, we consider it a concentrated force at a point.
Forces are represented by vectors, which are directed line segments with a head and
tail. The orientation defines the line of action, and the arrow direction gives the
force’s sense. Vectors can be added, subtracted, and multiplied by scalars.
Force systems are concurrent if all forces act at a single point; otherwise, they are
non-concurrent. Parallel force systems are non-concurrent. Force systems can be
two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
A force creates a moment about an axis, which is the tendency to rotate the body.
The moment of a force is calculated by multiplying the force component by the
perpendicular distance to the axis. The resultant force of a system is the vector sum
of individual forces.
Equilibrium: When the resultant of all forces acting on a body is zero (both the vector
sum of forces and the resultant moment about each axis), the body is in equilibrium.
This condition is mathematically represented by six equations.

These conditions must hold for any orientation of the xyz-system. If forces are
concurrent and their vector sum is zero, the sum of moments is automatically
satisfied. In a single plane (e.g., the xy-plane), one force equation and two moment
equations are satisfied identically, simplifying equilibrium requirements.

To solve for three unknowns instead of six, a good free body diagram (FBD) is
essential. An FBD is a sketch showing all forces and moments acting on a body,
along with important dimensions. A two-force member is in equilibrium under two
equal and opposite forces. A three-force member’s forces must be coplanar and
concurrent unless they form a parallel system. Knowledge of reaction forces and
moments at supports is crucial for a correct FBD. Examples include a concrete block
under a horizontal pull and a cantilever beam with loads, as shown in Figures 17.3
and 17.4.

Dynamics is divided into kinematics (study of motion without forces) and kinetics
(study of forces and resulting motions). Newton’s laws of motion are essential:
1. A particle remains at rest or moves in a straight line at constant velocity if no
unbalanced force acts on it.
2. A particle’s acceleration is proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass; acceleration direction matches force direction.
3. Action and reaction forces between contacting bodies are equal, opposite,
and colinear. The law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between
two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
Kinematics: In rectilinear motion, where a particle moves in a straight line, the
acceleration (a), velocity (v), and displacement (s) are related.
If acceleration is a known function of time, it can be integrated to find ( v(t) ) and
( s(t) ). For constant acceleration, integration provides these results

where at t =0, v = vo and s0= 0.

Angular displacement ( \theta ) is the angle a line makes with a fixed axis, usually the
positive x-axis. Counterclockwise motion is positive. Angular acceleration ( \alpha ),
angular velocity ( \omega ), and ( \theta ) are related

If α is constant, integrating these equations results in

where we have assumed that ω = ωo and θo = 0 at t = 0.

When a particle moves on a plane curve, its motion can be described using
coordinates along the normal (n) and tangent (t) to the curve at the particle’s
position. The acceleration is the vector sum of the normal acceleration (an) and the
tangential acceleration (at).

The radius of curvature is ( r ) and the velocity magnitude is ( v ). Since velocity is

always tangential to the curve, no subscript is needed. A rigid body moving without
rotation can be considered as particle motion.
Kinetics
Newton’s laws of motion relate the force on a body to its motion. Newton’s second
law is used in the form

Where the mass of the body is constant, and the vector is the acceleration of the
center of mass if the body is rotating. The gravitational force between two bodies is
given by
Where ( K = 5 \times 6.67 \times 10^{-11} , \text{N} \cdot \text{m} 2/\text{kg}2 ). Note:
Mass must be in kilograms. Weight is related to mass by ( W = mg ), where ( g =
9.8 , \text{m/s}^2 ), unless otherwise stated.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics involves the storage, transformation, and transfer of energy.
Energy is stored as internal, kinetic, and potential energy; it is transformed between
these forms and transferred as work or heat. This overview focuses on ideal gases
but also applies to substances that change phase, like water and refrigerants.
Overview, Definitions, and Laws
● System: A fixed quantity of matter.
● Control Volume: A volume where substances flow in and out (also called an
“open system”).
● Phase: Homogeneous matter.
● Mixture: Matter with more than one phase.
● Property: Describes a system.
● Simple System: Single phase, free of magnetic, electrical, and surface effects.
● State: Condition of a system described by its properties.
● Intensive Property: Independent of mass.
● Extensive Property: Depends on mass.
● Specific Property: Extensive property divided by mass.
● Thermodynamic Equilibrium: No property variation within the system.
● Process: Path of successive states.
● Quasi-equilibrium: Infinitesimal deviation from equilibrium.
● Reversible Process: No change in system or surroundings when reversed.
● Isothermal: Constant temperature.
● Isobaric: Constant pressure.
● Isometric/Isochoric: Constant volume.
● Isentropic: Constant entropy.
● Adiabatic: No heat transfer.
Laws and Principles
● Zero-th Law: If two bodies are equal in temperature to a third, they are equal
to each other.
● First Law: Net heat transfer minus net work output equals the change in
energy.
● Second Law: Net entropy of the universe cannot decrease.
● Boyle’s Law: Volume varies inversely with pressure for an ideal gas.
● Charles’ Law: Volume varies directly with temperature for an ideal gas.
● Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of different ideal gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain an equal number of molecules.
● Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: In a gas mixture, each gas exerts a partial
pressure, and the sum equals the total pressure of the mixture.
Density, Pressure, and Temperature

● Density (ρ): Mass divided by volume,

ρ=Vm
.
● Specific Volume (υ): Reciprocal of density,
υ=ρ1=mV
.
● Pressure (P): Normal force divided by the area it acts on. Use absolute
pressure in thermodynamics:
Pabs=Pgauge+Patmospheric
, with atmospheric pressure typically 100 kPa (14.7 psi). Negative gauge
pressure indicates a vacuum.
● Temperature Scale: Degrees between ice point (0°C) and steam point (100°C)
at 101 kPa absolute. Absolute temperature:
Tk=TCelsius+273
and
TR=TFahrenheit+460
.
● Ideal Gas Law: Relates temperature, pressure, and specific volume for an ideal
gas.

The universal gas constant ( R = 8.314 , \text{kJ} / \text{kmol} \cdot \text{K} ), ( n ) is

the number of moles, ( M ) is the molar mass, and ( R ) is the specific gas constant.
For air, ( R = 0.287 , \text{kJ/kg} \cdot \text{K} ). Note that symbols for these
constants may vary in different references. In a gas mixture, each gas exerts a partial
pressure contributing to the total pressure. For gases A, B, and C, each partial
pressure can be calculated.

Where ( n_i ) is the number of moles of substance ( i ) and ( V ) is the total volume of
the gas mixture.
The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the “energy equation,” states that
the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. This means energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. For a
cycle, it is expressed as the net energy transferred to the system in the form of heat
and work.
and for a process as

Q is the heat transfer, W is the work, and E represents the system’s energy (kinetic,
potential, and internal). Heat transfer to the system and work done by the system are
positive. Some authors define work done on the system as positive, so Q + W = ΔU.
In thermodynamics, internal energy is the focus, with kinetic and potential energy
changes often neglected

where the specific internal energy, heat transfer per unit mass, and specific work are:

Heat transfer occurs in three modes. Conduction is heat transfer due to molecular
activity. Fourier’s law states for steady-state heat transfer through a constant wall
area.

k is the conductivity (material-dependent), R is the resistance factor, and L is the

length normal to heat flow. A dot signifies a rate, so Q has units of J/s. Convection is
heat transfer due to fluid motion. The mathematical expression used is

h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (dependent on surface geometry, fluid

velocity, viscosity, density, and temperature difference). Radiation is heat transfer
due to wave transmission. The heat transfer from body 1 is

The Stefan-Boltzmann constant is

σ=5.67×10−11kJ/s⋅m2⋅K4. The emissivity,

, is 1 for a black body, and the shape factor,

F1−2

, is 1 if body 2 encloses body 1. For a two-layer composite wall with inner and outer
convection layers, we use resistance factors to obtain the result.

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, distinct from internal energy in Eq. 17.3.8.
Mechanical work can be done by moving a boundary, leading to a quasi-equilibrium
work mode.

It can also be done in non-quasi-equilibrium modes like with a paddle wheel or

electrical resistance, but Eq. 17.3.14 won’t apply. We introduce enthalpy for
convenience and define it as

For ideal gases, we assume constant specific heats

Where ( c_v ) is the constant volume specific heat and ( c_p ) is the constant
pressure specific heat. From this, ( c_p = c_v + R ). The ratio of specific heats ( k ) is (
k = \frac{c_p}{c_v} ). For air, ( c_v = 0.716 ) kJ/kg·K, ( c_p = 1.00 ) kJ/kg·K, and ( k =
1.4 ). For most solids and liquids, we find heat transfer using

Here’s a shortened version of your text:

For water,

cp=4.18kJ/kg⋅K

, and for ice,

cp≈2.1kJ/kg⋅K

. When a substance changes phase, latent heat is involved. The energy to melt a unit mass
of solid is the heat of fusion; to vaporize a unit mass of liquid is the heat of vaporization; and
to vaporize a unit mass of solid is the heat of sublimation. For ice, the heat of fusion is about
320 kJ/kg and the heat of sublimation is about 2040 kJ/kg. The heat of vaporization of water
varies from 2050 kJ/kg at 0°C to zero at very high pressures.
The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume: The continuity equation, which
accounts for mass conservation, is

mA=ρ1A1V1=ρ2A2V2

, where (V) is velocity and (m) is mass flux. Assuming steady flow with one inlet and one
outlet, the first law takes the form:

Q˙−W˙=dtd∫CVρedV+in∑m˙i(hi+2Vi2+gzi)−out∑m˙e(he+2Ve2+gze)

The dot signifies a rate, so (Q) and (W_s) have units of kJ/s. Potential energy change
is usually negligible, and kinetic energy change can often be ignored unless sufficient
information is given (e.g., in a nozzle). The first law is simplified to (Q - W = m(h_2 -
h_1)).
For specific devices:
● Valve/Throttle Plate: (h_2 - h_1) (neglecting kinetic energy change).
● Turbine: (W_T = m(h_1 - h_2)) (negligible heat transfer).
● Compressor: (W_c = m(h_2 - h_1)) (negligible heat transfer).
● Boiler/Condenser: (Q = m(h_2 - h_1)).
● Nozzle/Diffuser: Include kinetic energy change, no work or heat transfer.

For a pump or hydroturbine, we use a different approach, returning to Eq. 17.3.38 and
writing it with ( v = \frac{1}{\rho} ) and Eq. 17.3.15.

In most ideal situations, we assume no heat transfer and constant temperature (u2 =
u1), often neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes.

This determines the minimum pump power or maximum turbine output. Including
efficiency increases pump power or decreases turbine output. Gas turbine or
compressor efficiency is based on an isentropic process.

Electrical Circuits
Electric circuits interconnect electrical components to generate/distribute power,
convert power to other forms (light, heat, torque), or process electrical signals. They
typically include power sources, passive components (store/dissipate energy), and
active components (change energy/information form).
Types of Circuits:
● DC Circuits: Currents/voltages do not vary with time.
● AC Circuits: Currents/voltages vary sinusoidally with time.
● Steady State: Constant or purely sinusoidal current/voltage.
● Transient Condition: Occurs when a switch turns a source on/off.
Circuit Components:
● Resistors: Absorb energy, resistance ( R ) in ohms: ( I = \frac{V}{R} )
● Inductors: Store energy, inductance ( L ) in henries: ( V = L \frac{dI}{dt} )
● Capacitors: Store energy, capacitance ( C ) in farads: ( I = C \frac{dV}{dt} )
Sources of Electrical Energy:
● Independent Sources: Not dependent on other circuit values.
● Figure 17.7: Shows ideal and linear models for current and voltage sources.
Kirchhoff’s Laws

Two conservation laws govern electrical circuits:

1. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): States that the sum of voltage rises or drops
around any closed path in an electrical circuit must be zero.

2. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the sum of charges flowing into
(positive) or out of (negative) any node in a circuit must be zero.

Ohm’s Law: It describes the relationship between voltage (V) and current (I) in a
component. For DC circuits with resistors, it’s ( V = IR ) or ( I = V/R ). For AC circuits with
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, it’s ( V = IZ ) or ( V/Z ), where ( Z ) is impedance.

Reference Voltage Polarity and Current Direction: Circuit analysis starts with defining a
reference current direction using an arrow. Voltage polarity marks are placed on components
so current flows from the positive (+) to the negative (-) mark. Current and voltage values
can be positive or negative, indicating direction and energy changes. Voltage drops occur
from + to -, and voltage rises from - to +.

Circuit Equations: When writing circuit equations, assume positive current and voltage
values as per reference marks. To write Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) equations, sum all
voltage rises or drops around a closed path. For example, ( V_s - IR_1 - IR_2 - IR_3 = 0 ).
These equations can be solved for unknown currents.
Circuit Equations Using Branch Currents In Figure 17.9, two KVL equations can be
written for the meshes. There are three branches with assumed currents and indicated
polarities:

● -V_s + I_1R_1 + I_3R_2 + I_1R_3 = 0

● -I_3R_2 + I_2R_4 + I_2R_5 + I_2R_6 = 0

A KCL equation at node a is also needed:

I_1 - I_2 - I_3 = 0

. These equations solve for

I_1, I_2,

and

I_3

Circuit Equations Using Mesh Currents Using mesh currents simplifies the equations.
Redefine currents as shown in Figure 17.10, reducing unknowns to two:

● -V_s + I_1 (R_1 + R_2 + R_3) - I_2R_2 = 0

● -I_1R_2 + I_2 (R_2 + R_4 + R_5 + R_6) = 0

These solve for

I_1

and

I_2

Circuit Simplification Simplify circuits by combining similar components using Kirchhoff’s

laws. For example, two inductors in series:

L_{eq} = L_1 + L_2

. Combinations are summarized in Table 17.2.

Here’s a shortened version of the text:

DC Circuits In DC circuits, resistors are crucial. Inductors act as short circuits, and
capacitors act as open circuits. These components are summarized in Table 17.3.

Economics Designs aim for good results but come with costs. The best design balances
good and bad outcomes, often evaluated in monetary terms.

Value and Interest The value of money depends on when it’s received or spent. A dollar
today is worth more than a dollar in the future due to interest, often expressed as a time rate
(e.g., 10% per year).

Cash Flow Diagrams Economics problems use cash flow diagrams with a time axis and
dollar amounts as vectors. Income vectors point up, expenditures down. These diagrams
help analyze and communicate economic problems.

Cash Flow Patterns Economics problems involve four cash flow patterns:

● P-pattern: Single amount at the start of n years.

● F-pattern: Single amount at the end of n years.
● A-pattern: Equal amounts at the end of each of n years.
● G-pattern: End-of-year amounts increasing by a gradient, starting at the end of the
second year.

Equivalence of Cash Flow Patterns

Two cash flow patterns are equivalent if they have the same value. In economics, much
effort goes into finding a cash flow pattern equivalent to a combination of others. For
instance, Example 17.22 involves finding an F-pattern amount equivalent to $1,000 in a P-
pattern. The proportionality factor depends on the interest rate (i) and the number of periods
(n). Different pairs of cash flow patterns have unique factors, represented by mnemonic
symbols to avoid errors. Example 17.23 shows the proportionality factor in use, with Table
17.4 listing common symbols and formulas. Table 17.5 provides numerical values for
selected interest rates and periods, with linear interpolation acceptable for intermediate
values.

Unusual Cash Flows and Interest Periods

Sometimes, economics problems deviate from the norm of year-end cash flows and annual
compounding. This section’s examples illustrate handling such situations.

summary a quarter
Engineering Fundamentals

Undergraduate engineering starts with calculus-based math, physical sciences, and natural
sciences. This chapter reviews key topics for ongoing studies.
Physics, the study of matter, energy, space, time, and their interactions, is foundational. It
covers forces, statics, dynamics, circuits, power, electricity, thermodynamics, materials,
solids, and fluids. Chemical and bioengineering students also study chemistry and biology
for thermodynamics, mass and energy balances, reaction kinetics, and reactor design.

Sophomore and junior years focus on these subjects, followed by technical electives and a
capstone design project. This chapter reviews essential engineering sciences and
economics, crucial for professional licensing.

Statics

Statics deals with the equilibrium of bodies under force systems, focusing on forces and
moments.

Forces, Moments, and Resultants

A force is the action of one body on another, either through contact or at a distance (e.g.,
gravity, magnetism). Forces are classified as body forces (acting throughout a volume) or
surface forces (acting over a surface). Forces are vectors, represented by directed line
segments. Vectors can be added, subtracted, and multiplied by scalars.

Force systems can be concurrent (acting at a single point) or non-concurrent. They can also
be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. A force creates a moment, which is a tendency to
rotate a body about an axis. The moment of a force is calculated as the force multiplied by
the perpendicular distance to the axis.

Equilibrium

A body is in equilibrium if the vector sum of all forces and moments acting on it is zero. This
requires six equations to be satisfied.

For any orientation of the xyz-system, if forces are concurrent and their vector sum is zero,
the sum of moments is automatically satisfied. In the xy-plane, one force equation and two
moment equations are identically satisfied, requiring only equilibrium.

We can solve for three unknowns instead of six using Eqs. 17.1.2. The solution for unknown
forces and moments in equilibrium problems relies on a good free body diagram (FBD),
which is a sketch showing all forces and moments acting on the body with important
dimensions. A two-force member in equilibrium has two equal and opposite forces along the
line joining their points of application. A three-force member’s forces must be coplanar and
concurrent. Knowledge of reaction forces and moments at supports is crucial for a correct
FBD. Examples include a concrete block under a horizontal pull and a cantilever beam with
distributed and concentrated loads.

Dynamics is divided into kinematics (motion without forces) and kinetics (forces and
resulting motions). Newton’s laws of motion are essential:

1. First law: A particle remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
2. Second law: Acceleration is proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass.
3. Third law: Action and reaction forces are equal, opposite, and colinear.
4. Law of gravitation: Attraction between two bodies is proportional to their mass
product and inversely proportional to the square of their distance.

Kinematics: In straight-line motion, acceleration (a), velocity (v), and displacement

(s) are related.

If acceleration is a known function of time, it can be integrated to find (v(t)) and

(s(t)). For constant acceleration, integration provides these functions.

At ( t = 0 ), ( v = v_0 ) and ( s_0 = 0 ). Angular displacement ( \theta ) is the angle a line

makes with a fixed axis, usually the positive x-axis. Counterclockwise motion is positive.
Angular acceleration ( \alpha ), angular velocity ( \omega ), and ( \theta ) are related.

If ( \alpha ) is constant, integrating these equations results in

Assuming

\omega = \omega_0

and

\theta_0 = 0

at
 t=0

, a particle’s motion on a plane curve can be described using normal (

) and tangential (

) coordinates at its instantaneous position. The total acceleration is the vector sum of normal
acceleration (

a_n

) and tangential acceleration (

a_t

).

The radius of curvature is

, and the velocity

is always tangential to the curve. A rigid body moving without rotation can be treated as
particle motion.

Kinetics: Newton’s laws of motion relate the force on a body to its motion. Newton’s second
law states that force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).

When the mass is constant, the vector represents the acceleration of the center of mass (or
center of gravity) if the body is rotating. The gravitational force between two bodies is given
by Newton’s law of gravitation.

Constants and Units:

 ● K = 6.67 \times 10^{-11} \, \text{N} \cdot \text{m}^2/\text{kg}^2
● Mass in kilograms
● Weight:
● W = mg
● with
● g = 9.8 \, \text{m/s}^2

Thermodynamics:

● Energy stored as internal, kinetic, and potential energy

● Transformed between forms and transferred as work or heat
● Concepts apply to ideal gases and phase-changing substances

Key Definitions:

● System: Fixed matter

● Control Volume: Volume with substance flow
● Phase: Homogeneous matter
● Mixture: Multiple phases
● Property: Describes a system
● Simple System: Single phase, no magnetic/electrical effects
● State: System condition
● Intensive Property: Mass-independent
● Extensive Property: Mass-dependent
● Specific Property: Extensive property per mass
● Thermodynamic Equilibrium: No property variation
● Process: Path of states
● Quasi-equilibrium: Infinitesimal deviation from equilibrium
● Reversible Process: No change when reversed
● Isothermal: Constant temperature
● Isobaric: Constant pressure
● Isochoric: Constant volume
● Isentropic: Constant entropy
● Adiabatic: No heat transfer

Laws:

● Zeroth Law: Equal temperature bodies

● First Law: Net heat transfer minus work equals energy change
● Second Law: Net entropy of the universe cannot decrease
● Boyle’s Law: Volume inversely with pressure
● Charles’ Law: Volume directly with temperature
● Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of gases have equal molecules
● Dalton’s Law: Total pressure equals sum of partial pressures

Density, Pressure, and Temperature

● Density (ρ): Mass divided by volume,

● \rho = \frac{m}{V}
● .
● Specific Volume (υ): Reciprocal of density,
● \upsilon = \frac{1}{\rho} = \frac{V}{m}
● .
 ● Pressure (P): Normal force divided by area. Absolute pressure:
● P_{abs} = P_{gauge} + P_{atmospheric}
● (atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa).
● Temperature Scale: Degrees between ice point (0°C) and steam point (100°C) at
101 kPa. Absolute temperatures:
● T_k = T_{Celsius} + 273
● ,
● T_R = T_{Fahrenheit} + 460
● .
● Ideal Gas Law: Relates temperature, pressure, and specific volume for an ideal gas.

The universal gas constant ( R = 8.314 , \text{kJ} / \text{kmol} \cdot \text{K} ). For air, the
specific gas constant is ( 0.287 , \text{kJ} / \text{kg} \cdot \text{K} ). Different sources may
use symbols like ( R_u ) and ( R ) for these constants. In gas mixtures, each gas exerts a
partial pressure contributing to the total pressure.

where ( n_i ) is the moles of substance ( i ) and ( V ) is the gas mixture’s volume.

The first law of thermodynamics, or the ‘energy equation,’ is expressed for a cycle as

and for a process as

Q is heat transfer, W is work, and E is the system’s energy (kinetic, potential, internal). Heat
transfer to the system and work done by the system are positive. In thermodynamics,
internal energy is the focus, often neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes.

Specific internal energy, heat transfer per unit mass, and specific work are as follows:
Heat transfer occurs in three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction
involves heat transfer through molecular activity. Fourier’s law describes steady-state heat
transfer through a constant wall area.

Conductivity ( k ) depends on the material, ( R ) is the resistance factor, and length ( L ) is

normal to heat flow. ( \dot{Q} ) has units of J/s. Convection involves heat transfer due to fluid
motion.

Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) depends on surface geometry, fluid velocity,
viscosity, density, and temperature difference. Radiation involves heat transfer via wave
transmission.

The Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) is (5.67 \times 10^{-11} , \text{kJ/s} \cdot \text{m}^2 \
cdot \text{K}^4). Emissivity (ε) is 1 for a black body. Shape factor (F1−2) is 1 if body 2
encloses body 1. For a two-layer composite wall with inner and outer convection layers,
we use resistance factors.

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, not to be confused with internal energy (Eq. 17.3.8).
Mechanical work can be done by moving a boundary, leading to a quasi-equilibrium work
mode.

Non-quasi-equilibrium modes (e.g., paddle wheel, electrical resistance) can’t use Eq.
17.3.14. Enthalpy is introduced for convenience and defined as
For ideal gases, we assume constant specific heats.

Sure, here’s the shortened version:

c_p = c_v + R

The ratio of specific heats is

k = \frac{c_p}{c_v}

For air:

● c_v = 0.716 \, \

For water, $$c_p = 4.18 , \text{kJ/kg·K}

The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume involves the continuity equation for
mass conservation:

m = \rho_1 A_1 V_1 = \rho_2 A_2 V_2

. Here, (V) is velocity and (m) is mass flux. Assuming steady flow with one inlet and one
outlet, the first law applies.

Here’s a shortened version:

The dot signifies a rate, so (Q) and (W_s) are in kJ/s. Potential energy change is usually
negligible, and kinetic energy change can often be ignored. The simplified first law is (Q - W
= m(h_2 - h_1)).
 ● Valve/Throttle Plate: (h_2 - h_1)
● Turbine: (W_T = m(h_1 - h_2))
● Compressor: (W_c = m(h_2 - h_1))
● Boiler/Condenser: (Q = m(h_2 - h_1))
● Nozzle/Diffuser: Include kinetic energy change.

For a pump or hydroturbine, we use a different method. We rewrite Eq. 17.3.38 with ( v = \
frac{1}{\rho} ) and Eq. 17.3.15 as:

\text{Equation} \ 17.3.38 \ \text{with} \ v = \frac{1}{\rho} \ \text{and} \ \text{Equation} \ 17.3.15

In ideal situations, we assume no heat transfer and constant temperature, making ( u_2 =
u_1 ). Kinetic and potential energy changes are often negligible.

This gives the minimum pump power or maximum turbine output. Adding efficiency
increases pump power or decreases turbine output. Gas turbine/compressor efficiency is
based on an ideal isentropic process.

Wa is the actual power, and Ws is the power assuming an isentropic process.

Here’s a condensed version:

Electrical Circuits

Electric circuits interconnect components to generate/distribute power, convert power to

other forms (light, heat, torque), or process electrical signals. They contain power sources,
passive components (store/dissipate energy), and active components (change energy form).

Types of Circuits:

● DC Circuits: Currents/voltages constant over time.

● AC Circuits: Currents/voltages vary sinusoidally over time.
● Steady State: Constant or purely sinusoidal current/voltage.
● Transient Condition: Occurs when a switch turns a source on/off.

Circuit Components:
 ● Resistors: Absorb energy, ( R ) in ohms, ( I = \frac{V}{R} ).
● Inductors: Store energy, ( L ) in henries, ( V = L \frac{dI}{dt} ).
● Capacitors: Store energy, ( C ) in farads, ( I = C \frac{dV}{dt} ).

Sources of Electrical Energy:

● Independent sources only considered. Figure 17.7 shows ideal/linear models for
current and voltage sources.

Kirchhoff’s Laws:

1. Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of voltage rises or drops around any closed path in a
circuit must be zero (conservation of energy).

2. Current Law (KCL): The sum of currents entering or leaving any node in a circuit
must be zero (conservation of charge).

Ohm’s Law: For DC circuits, ( V = IR ) or ( I = V/R ). For AC circuits, ( V = IZ ) or ( V/Z ) with

complex variables.

Reference Voltage Polarity and Current Direction: Define reference current direction with
an arrow. Voltage polarity marks follow the current flow from plus to minus. Positive current
flows in the reference direction; negative flows opposite. Positive voltage indicates energy
loss; negative indicates energy gain. Voltage drops occur from plus to minus; voltage rises
from minus to plus.

Circuit Equations: Assume positive current in the reference direction and positive voltage
by polarity marks. For KVL, sum all voltage rises or drops around a closed path. Example:
( V_s - IR_1 - IR_2 - IR_3 = 0 ). Solve for the unknown current.

where ( R_{eq} ) is the circuit’s equivalent resistance.

Circuit Equations Using Branch Currents

In Figure 17.9, two KVL equations can be written for the meshes. Three branches have
unknown currents with assumed directions. Polarity marks are indicated for each resistor.
Write two KVL equations:

● -V_s + I_1R_1 + I_3R_2 + I_1R_3 = 0

● -I_3R_2 + I_2R_4 + I_2R_5 + I_2R_6 = 0
Write one KCL equation at node a:

● I_1 - I_2 - I_3 = 0

Solve these equations for (I_1), (I_2), and (I_3).

Circuit Equations Using Mesh Currents

Using mesh currents simplifies Figure 17.9. Note (I_3 = I_1 - I_2). Redefine reference
currents as in Figure 17.10. Now, solve for two unknown currents. The current through (R_1)
and (R_3) is (I_1). The current through (R_4), (R_5), and (R_6) is (I_2). The current through
(R_2) is (I_1 - I_2). Write two KVL equations:

● -V_s + I_1 (R_1 + R_2 + R_3) - I_2R_2 = 0

● -I_1R_2 + I_2 (R_2 + R_4 + R_5 + R_6) = 0

Solve these equations for (I_1) and (I_2).

Circuit Simplification

Simplify circuits by combining similar components using Kirchhoff’s laws. For example, two
inductors in series have an equivalent inductance of (L_{eq} = L_1 + L_2). See Table 17.2
for more combinations.

DC Circuits

In DC circuits, resistors are crucial. Inductors act as short circuits, and capacitors as open
circuits. See Table 17.3 for details.

Economics

Designs aim for good results but come with costs. Designers compare outcomes, often using
economic analysis if outcomes are in dollars.

Value and Interest

Value depends on timing. A dollar today is worth more than a dollar in the future due to
interest, typically expressed annually.

Cash Flow Diagrams

Economics problems use cash flow diagrams with a time axis and dollar vectors. Income
points up, expenses down. Consistency in viewpoint is key.

Cash Flow Patterns

Four patterns:

● P-pattern: Single amount at the start.

● F-pattern: Single amount at the end.
● A-pattern: Equal annual amounts.
● G-pattern: Increasing amounts annually.

Equivalence of Cash Flow Patterns

Two cash flow patterns are equivalent if they have the same value. The main task in
economics is to find a cash flow pattern that matches a combination of other patterns. For
instance, finding an F-pattern amount equivalent to $1,000 in a P-pattern involves
proportional amounts based on interest rate (i) and periods (n). Each pair of cash flow
patterns has a unique proportionality factor, with mnemonic symbols to avoid errors.
Analysts use these symbols to ensure correct factors are chosen, even though algebraic
canceling isn’t performed. Tables list symbols and formulas for common factors, and values
for selected interest rates and periods are tabulated, allowing linear interpolation for
intermediate values.

Unusual Cash Flows and Interest Periods

Sometimes, problems deviate from the norm of year-end cash flows and annual
compounding. Examples in this section show how to handle these situations.