Galileo Galilei

 Galileo Galilei ----- Law of inertia.
 Huygens ------ Wave theory of light

 Hess ----- Cosmic radiation
 C.H. Townes ------ Maser; Laser
 1 fermi = 1 f = 10-15 m
 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m
 1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance of the Sun from the Earth) = 1.496 × 10 11
m
 1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015 m (distance that light travels with velocity of 3 × 108 m
s-1 in 1 year)
 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m (Parsec is the distance at which average radius of earth’s
orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc second)
 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope
including the mass of electrons = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows : 3 2 P a b /

c d .The percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%,
respectively. What is the percentage error in the quantity P ? NCERT CHAPTER 2
QUES13.
 An interesting feature of a velocity-time graph for any moving object is that the area
under the curve represents the displacement over a given time interval.
 Galileo’s law of oddnumbers : “The distances traversed, during equal intervals of

time, by a body falling from rest, stand to one another in the same ratio as the odd
numbers beginning with unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].”.
 ALSO 1:4:9:16….. OTHER CASE.
 The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero
acceleration at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-
zero acceleration. For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its
uppermost point but the acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration
due to gravity.
 R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos@
 An object that is in flight after being thrown or projected is called a projectile.
 the path of the projectile is a parabola
……………..TOPIC PROJECTILE………….
The acceleration of an object moving with speed v in a circle of radius R has a

magnitude V2/R and is always directed towards the centre. This is why this
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration (a term proposed by Newton).
ALL FORMULAE OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE.

External agencies (e.g. gravitational and magnetic forces ) can exert force
on a body even from a distance.
Aristotelian law(FALLACY) of motion may be phrased thus: An external force is

required to keep a body in motion
first law of motion: Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise.
OR
If the net external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero. Acceleration
can be non zero only if there is a net external force on the body.
Momentum
Momentum of a body is defined to be the product of its mass m and velocity v, and
is denoted by p: p = mv.
Momentum is clearly a vector quantity.
Second law of motion by Newton :

The rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the direction in which the force
acts.
F= ma
The force Fin the law stands for the net external force.
Any internal forces in the system are not to be included in F
IMPULSE::
The product of force and time,

which is the change in momentum of the body
remains a measurable quantity. This product is
called impulse:
Impulse = Force × time duration
= Change in momentum
A large force acting for a short time to produce a

finite change in momentum is called an impulsive force.
Third law of motion.
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a body A by B is equal and opposite to
the force on the body B by A.
LAWS OF FRICTION::
1.
2.
Motion of a car on a banked road::
BENDING OF CYCLIST:
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect

relation between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be
called action and the other reaction. Action and reaction act on different
bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out
work-energy (WE) theorem : The change in kinetic energy of a particle is

equal to the work done on it by the net force.
1 erg = __________ joules

1 kwh= __________ joules
1 eV =___________ joules
1 cal= ____________ joules
(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the

example above. A weightlifter holding a 150
kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s
does no work on the load during this time.
(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth

horizontal table is not acted upon by a
horizontal force (since there is no friction), but
may undergo a large displacement.
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually

perpendicular. This is so since, for = /2 rad
(= 90o), cos (2) = 0. For the block moving on
a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational
force mg does no work since it acts at right
angles to the displacement. If we assume that
the moon’s orbits around the earth is
perfectly circular then the earth’s
gravitational force does no work. The moon’s
instantaneous displacement is tangential
while the earth’s force is radially inwards and
= /2.
Work can be both positive and negative.

If is between 0o and 90o, cos in Eq. (6.4) is positive.
If is between 90o and 180o, cos is negative.
In many examples the frictional force opposes
displacement and = 180o.
Then the work done by friction is negative (cos 180o = –1).
CONSERVATIVE FORCE:
A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived from a scalar quantity
The work done by the conservative force depends only on the end points
A third definition states that the work done by this force in a closed path is zero
FORCE EXERTED BY SPRING
WORK DONE BY A SPRING( POTENTIAL ENERGY)
The spring force is a conservative force.

Friction, forexample, is a non-conservative force
It is useful to remember that 36 km /h = 10 m /s
TABLE 6.3 PAGE NO 127 IS IMPORTANT.
1 hp = 746 W
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is

transferred.
Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape.

The distances between all pairs of particles of such a body do not
change.
In pure translational motion at any instant of time, all particles of the body have
the same velocity.
The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is
either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation. The
motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation.
PROPERTIES OF SCALAR PRODUCT AND VECTOR PRODUCT
The rotational analogue of force in linear motion is moment of force. It is

also referred to as torque or couple.
RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION.
The centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass in uniform
gravity or gravity-free space.
If the body is so extended that g varies from part to part of the body, then the
centre of gravity and centre of mass will not coincide.
Radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be

defined as the distance from the axis of a mass point whose mass is equal to
the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the
moment of inertia of the body about the axis.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on

1) the mass of the body
2) its shape and size;
3) distribution of mass about the axis of rotation,
4) the position and orientation of the axis of rotation
TABLE 7.1 VERY IMPORTANT

THEOREM OF PERPENDICULAR AXES
The moment of inertia of a planar body (lamina) about an axis perpendicular to
its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about two perpendicular
axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.
IZ = I X + I Y
THEOREM OF PARALLER AXES

The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the
moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of
mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the
two parallel axes
IZ’ = IZ + Ma2
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero : F,
and
(2) it is in rotational equilibrium, i.e. the total external torque on it is zero :
t 0 .
TABLE OF PAGE 177
The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of

mass only if the gravitational field does not vary from one part
of the body to the other.
KEPLER’S LAWS:
1) Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits with the

Sun situated at one of the foci of the ellipse.
NOTE: COPERNICUS HAD SAID THAT ORBITS ARE CICULAR.
2) LAW OF AREAS: The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas
in equal intervals of time. This law comes from the observations that planets
appear to move slower when they are farther from the sun than when they
are nearer.
From Kepler’s second law, equal areas are swept in equal times
THIS MEANS AREAL VELOCITY IS CONSTANT.
AREA SWEPT BY EARTH IN TIME ,T IS = ½ rvT
AREAL VELOCITY IS , A/T = ½ rv = ½ rp/m = ½ L/m = constant
3. Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is

proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse traced out by the
planet.
T 2 = K . R3
K=
CENTRAL FORCE: A central force is such that the force on the planet is along
the vector joining the Sun and the planet.
A ‘central’ force is always directed towards or away from a fixed point.
EX.. Gravitation is a central force
PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL FORCES:
1) In the motion under a central force the angular momentum is always

conserved.
2) The motion of a particle under the central force is always confined to a
plane.
3) the position vector sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the particle
moves under the influence of the central force.
In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another

object the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum

(b) Total mechanical energy
Linear momentum is not conserved.
The force of attraction between a hollow spherical shell of uniform density and a
point mass situated outside is just as if the entire mass of the shell is
concentrated at the centre of the shell.
The force of attraction due to a hollow spherical shell of uniform density, on a

point mass situated inside it is zero.
Universal Law of Gravitation :
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
F = G.Mm/ R2
where G is the universal gravitational constant,
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2
g at height h from the earth surface is given by
g=
g at depth d from the earth surface is given by
g=
ESCAPE VELOCITY: the minimum speed required for an object

to reach infinity (i.e. escape from the earth) is called escape velocity.
VE = UNDER ROOT 2Rg
FOR EARTH
VE = 11.2 km/s
FOR MOON
VE = 2.3 km/s
Geostationary Satellite:
A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in the

equatorial plane at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the earth’s centre.
Mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg, radius = 6400 km.
mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg;

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 Galileo Galilei ----- Law of inertia.

 Huygens ------ Wave theory of light

 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows : 3 2 P a b /

 Galileo’s law of oddnumbers : “The distances traversed, during equal intervals of

 An object that is in flight after being thrown or projected is called a projectile.

 the path of the projectile is a parabola

The acceleration of an object moving with speed v in a circle of radius R has a

ALL FORMULAE OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE.

Aristotelian law(FALLACY) of motion may be phrased thus: An external force is

Second law of motion by Newton :

The product of force and time,

A large force acting for a short time to produce a

Motion of a car on a banked road::

Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect

work-energy (WE) theorem : The change in kinetic energy of a particle is

1 erg = __________ joules

(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the

(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth

(iii) the force and displacement are mutually

Work can be both positive and negative.

FORCE EXERTED BY SPRING

WORK DONE BY A SPRING( POTENTIAL ENERGY)

The spring force is a conservative force.

It is useful to remember that 36 km /h = 10 m /s

TABLE 6.3 PAGE NO 127 IS IMPORTANT.

Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is

Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape.

PROPERTIES OF SCALAR PRODUCT AND VECTOR PRODUCT

The rotational analogue of force in linear motion is moment of force. It is

RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR VELOCITY AND

Radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be

The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on

TABLE 7.1 VERY IMPORTANT

THEOREM OF PARALLER AXES

TABLE OF PAGE 177

The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of

1) Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits with the

3. Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is

PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL FORCES:

1) In the motion under a central force the angular momentum is always

In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another

(a) Angular momentum

Linear momentum is not conserved.

The force of attraction due to a hollow spherical shell of uniform density, on a

Universal Law of Gravitation :

g at height h from the earth surface is given by

g at depth d from the earth surface is given by

ESCAPE VELOCITY: the minimum speed required for an object

VE = UNDER ROOT 2Rg

A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in the

Mass of the earth = 6.0×1024 kg, radius = 6400 km.

mass of the sun = 2×1030 kg;

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