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IMPORTANT FORMULAS ON HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER-1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
1. HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
1.1. Pavement surface characteristics
(i) Friction
➢ For the calculation of stopping distance, the longitudinal friction coefficient values of
0.35 to 0.40 have been recommended by IRC.
➢ IRC has recommended the lateral friction coefficient value of 0.15
(ii) Unevenness

Value of Unevenness Type of pavement

< 1500 mm/km Good

1500-2500 mm/km Satisfactory
2500-3500 mm/km Bad
> 3500 mm/km Unsatisfactory

Bump integrater(mm/km)=630(IRI{m/km})1.12
1.2. Cross Slope or Camber
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road in the transverse direction to
drain off the rainwater from the road surface.

Recommended values of camber:

Range of camber in areas
of
Type of roads
Heavy Low
rainfall rainfall
Cement concrete and high type bituminous
2% 1.7%
surface
Thin bituminous surface 2.5% 2%
Water bound macadam and gravel pavement 3.0% 2.5%
Earthen roads 4.0% 3.0%

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1.3. Width of Pavement or Carriageway

➢ The Portion of carriageway width intended for one line of traffic movement is called a
traffic lane width of carriageway recommended by the IRC.

Class of road Width of the carriageway (m)

single lane road 3.75
Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0
Two lanes, with raised kerb 7.5
Intermediate carriageway (except on important roads) 5.5
Multilane pavements 3.5 per lane

1.4. Medians or Traffic separators

➢ The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0 m for medians of rural highways, which
way be reduced to 3.0 m where land is restricted.
➢ Width of median for bridge should be 1.2 to 1.5 metres.

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1.5 Shoulder
➢ Shoulder is provided to accommodate stopped vehicles and to provide lateral confinement to
thr pavement layer.
➢ Derirable width is 4.6m with a minimum of 2.5m for two lane rural road.
➢ Formation width of a single lane/ two lane NH section is 12m as per IRC.
➢ Slope of shoulder should be at least 0.5% steeper than slope of camber subjected to a minimum
of 3%.
1.6 Kerbs
➢ Kerbs indicate the boundary between the pavement and median or footpath or island or
shoulder.

1.5. Right of way and land width

Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width of
the acquired land for the right of way is known as ‘Land width’.

2. SIGHT DISTANCE

It is the length of the road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.
2.1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
a. SSD = lag distance + breaking distance.
Case I:No gradient is present on the road

𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣 × 𝑡𝑟 +
2𝑔𝑓𝑏

➢ Lag distance = v × tr

v2
➢ Braking distance =
2 g  f b
Here, v = speed with which vehicle was moving initially
tr = reaction time (s){ as per IRC it should be 2.5 sec}
b= brake efficiency

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Case II: Gradient is present on the road

𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣 × 𝑡𝑟 +
2𝑔(𝑓𝑏 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)

+ → up gradient
– → down gradient
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛/100

Speed (kmph) f (longitudinal friction as per IRC)

< 30 0.4

60 0.36

> 80 0.35

Note:
➢ Relation between types of roads and SSD.

Road SSD

One lane one way SSD

Two-lane one way SSD

Two-lane two way SSD

One lane two way 2SSD or (SSD1 + SSD2)

2.2. OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

➢ OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

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➢ If vb is not given,
Vb = V – 16 (Vb in km/hr)
vb = v – 4.5 (vb in m/s)
➢ S = 0.7 vb + 6 (vb in m/s)
S = 0.2Vb + 6 (Vb in km/hr)
2.2.1. IRC recommendation on OSD :
(i) on divided highways and roads with one-way traffic regulation → OSD = d1 + d2
(ii) on divided highways with four (or) more lanes, IRC suggests no need to provide
OSD. However, SSD should always be provided
(iii) Effect of the gradient is not considered while calculating OSD
(iv) If OSD can not be provided throughout the length of the road, we provide
overtaking zone at a certain interval
• The length of overtaking zone is five times OSD , Subjected to a minimum of three
times OSD

2.3. Intermediate right distance (ISD)

➢ Mathematically, ISD = 2SSD
➢ In case OSD is not provided, we try to provide ISD.
Note:
➢ Relation between sight distances is, OSD > ISD > SSD
➢ Height of driver and object considered during calculations are given in the table below:

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Sight distance Height of driver Height of object

SSD 1.2 m 0.15 m

ISD 1.2 m 1.2 m

OSD 1.2 m 1.2 m

3. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Condition for No skidding and overturning:

P = centrifugal force
w =mg= weight of vehicle
R = radius of circular curve
v = Speed of vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity.
b= center to cernter distance between wheels of vehicle
h= height of C.G of vehicle above the road level

P
 f =
w
P
Here is the centrifugal ratio
w

i. When the road surface is flat (i.e., no cross slope)

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➢ For no overturning:

➢ For no skidding:

v2
 f
gR
➢ To avoid both:

P b
  f
mg 2h

ii. When the vehicle is moving on a banked road

➢ For no overturning:

➢ For no skidding:

4. Super Elevation
➢ The rate of superelevation, ‘e’, is expressed as the ratio of the height of the outer edge with
respect to the horizontal width.

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v2
 e+f =
gR

V= velocity in m/sec
R= radius in meter
f= design value of lateral friction = 0.15
e= superelevation

Terrian emax emin

Plain and Rolling 7% Camber

Hilly terrain (snowbound) 7% Camber

Hilly terrain (not bounded by snow) 10% Camber

Urban Area 4% Camber

(i) Equilibrium super elevation:

➢ If only super elevation counteracts, full centrifugal force is assumed to be zero. Therefore,

pressure at the inner and outer tyres is the same.

R A = RB

(ii) Design super elevation:

➢ Step 1. Calculate the equilibrium corresponding to 75% of the design speed (as per IRC for

mixed traffic),

(0.75v)2 V2
e= (here v is in m/s) or e = (here V is in kmph)
gR 225R

If calculated e<0.07 it is acceptable and if not then move to step 2.

v2
➢ Step 2. Provide e=0.07, check for friction coefficient  e+f =
gR

If f<0.15 then accepted, otherewise move to step 3.

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➢ Step 3. Calculate maximum permessible speed for maximum values of f and e by using

v2
 0.15 + 0.07 = and restrict the speed for that particular section of the road.
gR

➢ Note: minimum superelevation is provided for drainage of water hence camber I staken as

the value of minimum superelevation. Minimum radius of curve beyond which no

(0.75v)2
superelevation is provide as per IRC is  Rmin =
gC

vrulling2
➢ Note: Rulling minimum radius  Rrullingmin =
(e + f)max g

vmin design2
➢ Note: absolute minimum radius  R absolute min =
(e + f)max g

(iii) Design Speed:

Plain terrain Rolling terrain

Types of
road Rolling design Minimum Rolling design Minimum
speed speed speed speed
NH and SH 100 80 80 65

MDR 80 65 65 50

ODR 65 50 50 40

VR 50 40 40 35

5. Extra widening on the horizontal curve (We):

➢ Extra widening is the sum of mechanical widening and psychological widening.

Mathematically,
We = Wmech. + WPsy

nl2 V nl2 v
 we = + or +
2R 9.5 R 2R 2.64 R

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here, V = speed of vehiclein kmph and v = speed of vehicle in m/s.
l = length of wheel base, in m (take l = 6 m, if not given)
n = number of lanes.
Note: for single lane road only mechanical widening is provided.
Note: if radius of the curve is more than 300m then extra widening is not provided as per IRC.

6. Transition curve
➢ A transition curve has a radius that decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve.
➢ IRC recommends a “spiral curve” as the shape of the transition curve.
• In the case of spiral curve, we have
length of a curve (l) ∝ 1/R
centrifugal force (P) ∝ 1/R
➢ At the beginning of transition curve one leg of cambered section is made horizontal and by
the ned of transition curve full superelevation is provided.
➢ Extra widening is provided along the transition curve gradually 50% on each side of the road,
on sharp curves,on hills extra widening is provided on inner side of the road.
➢ If transition curve is not provided then 2/3rd of the superelevation and extra widening is
provided on the straight portion itself and remaining 1/3 rd is provided in the circular portion.
6.1. Types of transition curves:
The types of transition curves commonly adopted in the horizontal alignment of highways
are
(i) Spiral
(ii) Lemniscate
(iii) Cubic parabola

6.2. Length of transition curve:

(i) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration:

v3
Ls =
CR
Where, v = speed of vehicle in m/s
R = radius of the curve
Ls = length of transition curve, and

80
C=
75 + V

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Where V is in km/hr
C is in m/s3 , Also, 0.5 ≤ C ≤ 0.8
ii. Rate of the introduction of superelevation:

➢ For plain terrain

Ls = e  N  (w + we )
➢ For hilly terrain,
e  N  ( w + we )
Ls =
2
Where N = 150 (minimum) for plain and rolling terrain
N = 100(minimum) for built-up area
N = 60 (minimum) for hilly area.
(iii) based onthe empirical formula:

2.7V 2 35v 2
LS = orLS = (for plain and rolling terrain)
R R
V2 12.96v 2
LS = orLS = (for hilly terrain)
R R
Here, V is in km/hr and v is in m/s.
R is in m.
Ls is in m.
Note: Insertion of Transition Curve

• When transition curves are introduced between the tangents and a circular curve of radius
R, the circular curve is ‘shifted’ inwards from its original position by an amount AB = S
(the shift) as shown in the above figure such that the curve can meet tangentially.
• This is equivalent to have a circular curve of radius (R+S) connecting the tangents replaced
by two transition curves and a circular curve of radius R, although the tangent points are
not the same, being A and B.

L2 L
The amount of shift S = and TC = CD =
24 R 2

Setting out transition Curve

To locate the tangent point T:

1. Calculate the shift S from the expression below

L2
S=
24 R
Δ
2. Calculate VA = (R + S) tan
2

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L
3. Since TA =
2

Δ L
Then VT = (R+S) tan +
2 2

Measure this length back from V and mark/set the point T.

The next step depends on whether it is intended to set out the transition with tapes using
the cubic spiral or cubic parabola, or by the theodolite using the cubic spiral.

4. Either calculate offsets from

l3 y3
x= or x =
6LR 6LR

Each peg is located by swinging a chord length from the preceding peg.

7. Setback distance (m)

➢ The clearance distance is required from the centre line of the horizontal curve to an obstruction
on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance is called set back Distance
(m).
➢ The set back (m) distance or clearance depends upon the following factors:
(i) Required sight distance, S
(ii) Radius of the horizontal curve, R
(iii) Length of the curve, Lc, may be greater or lesser than S (SSD).
Case 1: If, Lc> S

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(a) For single-lane road

 S 180 𝑆
 =  degree {∵ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛}
2 2R  2𝑅

 m = R(1 − cos  /2)

(b) For two-lane road

⇒ m = R − (R − d)cos  /2

4d = w + we

 S 180
 =  degree
2 2(R − d) 

Case 2: If, Lc< S

(a) For single-lane road

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 S − Lc  
m = R(1 − cos  /2) +   sin 2
 2 

 L C 180
 =  degree
2 2R 

(b) For two-lane road

 S − Lc  
m = R − (R − d)cos  /2 +   sin
 2  2

 Lc 180
 =  degree
2 2(R − d) 

8. GRADE COMPENSATION
➢ Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4%
30 + R 
Grade compensation = GC =
R 

75 
=
R minimum

compensated grade = Gradient – GC, should not be less than 4%.

Note: Rulling gradient = 2  camber

9. Curve resistance:
➢ loss of pulling power = T(1 – cosθ)
where T = tractive effort of vehicle
θ = angle of the turn
➢ IRC recommendation for vertical alignment gradients.

Terrain Rolling Limiting Exceptional

(i) Plain/Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7%

(ii) Mountainous 5% 6% 7%

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10. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

10.1. Summit curve

➢ Summit curves are convex upward or concave downwards.

➢ The ideal shape of the summit curve is circular because site distance is always constant for a
circular curve. But generally,a square parabola is preferred due to best riding quality (rate of
change of grade is constant) and simplicity of calculation.
➢ Length of summit curve:
While designing the length of the parabolic summit curve, it is necessary to consider SSD and
OSD separately.
Case 1: L > SSD or OSD
The general equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by:

NS2
L=
( 2H + 2h)2

where L = length of summit curve, m

S = sight distance
N =Deviation angle, equal to the algebraic difference in grades, radians or tangent of deviation
angle.
H = height of eye level of the driver above roadway surface, m
h = height of the object above the road surface, m
For SSD (H = 1.2 and h = 0.15 m)

NS2 NS2
L=  L=
( 2  1.2 + 2  0.15)2 4.4

For OSD and ISD (H = 1.2 m and h = 1.2 m)

NS2 NS2
L=  L=
( 2  1.2 + 2  1.2)2 9.6

Case 2: L < SSD or OSD

The general equation for the length of the parabolic summit curve, when it is less than the
sight distance, is given by:

(√2𝐻 + √2ℎ)2
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁
For SSD (H = 1.2 m and h = 0.15 m)

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4.4
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁
For OSD and ISD (H = 1.2 m and h = 1.2 m)
9.6
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁
10.2. Valley curve/sag curve
➢ Valley curves are concave upward convex downward.
➢ Cubic parabola is generally preferred for valley curves to introduce centrifugal force gradually.

Howere IRC recommend square parabola. But for small deviation angles, a cubic parabola is

similar toa square parabola. IRC has recommended providing square parabola due to its

simplicity.

(a) Length of valley curve for comfort condition:

The length of transition curve, Ls fulfilling allowable rate of change of centrifugal

acceleration, C is given as

𝑣3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝐶𝑅
Here,

Ls = R × N

LS
⇒R =
N
𝑣3
⇒ 𝐿𝑠 =
𝐿
𝐶× 𝑠
𝑁

𝑁𝑣 3
𝐿𝑠 = √
𝐶

if not given take C = 0.6 m/s3

Length of valley curve from comfort condition criterion is given as
𝐿 = 2 𝐿𝑠

𝑁𝑣 3
𝐿 = 2√
𝐶

(b) Length of valley curve for headlight sight distance:

Case 1: When L > SSD

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Here,

NS2
h1 + S tanα = as2 =
2h
It the average height of the headlight is taken as h 1 = 0.75 m and the beam angle α =
1°, by substituting these values in the above equation, we get
𝑁𝑆 2
𝐿=
(1.5 + 0.035𝑆)

Where L = total length of valley curve, m

S = sight distance
N = deviation angle
Case 2: When L < SSD
1.5 + 0.035𝑆
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁
Note: Length of valley curve is provided for the following factors.
(i) Comfort condition
(ii) Headlight sight distance
(iii) Cross drainage control.
(iv) Aesthetic appearance.

CHAPTER-2 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

1. Dimensions of vehicle (According to IRC)
Dimension Detail Maximum dimension, (m)
Width ---- 2.44
Height (a) Single decked vehicle 3.81
(b) Double decked vehicle 4.72
Length (a) Single unit 2 axle 10.67
(b) Single unit more than two-axle 12.19
(c) Semi trailer-tractor 15.24
(d) Tractor and trailer 18.29

2. TRAFFIC STUDIES

2.1. Traffic Volume Study

2.1.1. Counting of Traffic Volume
(i) Mechanical Counter

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(ii) Manual Counting
(iii) Moving Car Method
na + ny
Traffic volume, q =
ta + t y

ny
And average journey time, t = t y −
q

Here,

q = vehicle/minute in one direction

na = number of vehicles met in travelling against the stream

ny = number of vehicles overtaking the test car minus number of vehicles overtaken by the

test car.

ta = travel time of test vehicle travelling against the stream in minutes

ty = travel time of the test vehicle travelling with the stream in minutes

2.1.2. Presentation of traffic volume study data:

(i) AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic):The average of 24 hr. volumes at a location is
calculated over 365 days. It includes a seasonal variation of traffic.
(ii) ADT (Average Daily Traffic): includes a weekly variation of traffic
(iii) Trend chart: volume trend over a year is calculated
(iv) Traffic flow map along the route: It gives an idea of traffic at a glance
(v) 30th highest hourly volume: It is taken as design hourly volume or design capacity.
It is exceeded only 29 times in a year.

2.2. Traffic speed study:

(i) Spot speed:
(a) It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle of a particular location.
(b) It is measured using the “Endoscope” pressure contact tube, doppler radar and loop
deflector.

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(ii) Average speed:
(a) Time mean speed: It is the arithmetic mean of spot speed.
n
 Vi
1
Vt =
n
Here, n → no. of the vehicle crossing the location in a given interval time,

Vi→ spot speed of an ith vehicle at that location

(b) Space mean speed: It is the harmonic mean of spot speed.

1
V=
n
1 1
n
 Vi
1

∵ AM ≥ HM ⇒ Vt ≥ V

2.2.1. Cumulative speed distribution curve

➢ For design purposes, 98th percentile speed is taken.

➢ For maximum safe speed, 85th percentile speed is taken.
➢ For minimum speed (to avoid congestion), the 15 th percentile speed is taken.
2.3. Speed and Delay Study
(a) Floating car or riding check method
(b) Interview technique
(c) Elevated observations and Photographic technique
2.4. Origin and Destination Studies
➢ It determines information like duration of travel, selection of route and length of the route.
➢ Various methods of collecting O and D data:
(i) Roadside interview method
(ii) License plate method
(iii) Return postcard method
(iv) Tag on car method
(v) Home interview method

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2.5. TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

Note:
Number of lanes Number of potential conflicts
Road Both roads A:1-way, Both roads
Road A
B two way B:2-way two way
2 2 24 11 6
2 3 24 11 8
2 4 32 17 10
3 3 24 13 11
4 4 44 25 18

2.6. Traffic capacity study:

➢ Traffic volume (q): no. of the vehicle crossing a given point in unit time (vehicle/hr).
➢ Traffic density (k); no. of vehicle occupying the unit length of road at a given time
(vehicle/km)
➢ Time headway: The time interval between the passes of the rear bumper of the successive
vehicle at a point is called “time headway”.
1
traffic volume ( q) =
average time headway (hr / veh)

➢ Space headway:Distance between the rear bumper of the successive vehicle

1
traffic density (k ) =
average space headway (km / veh)

2.6.1. Calculation of theoretical maximum capacity:

(i) from space headway:
1000V
C=
S {S → in m}

C = capacity of a single lane (veh/hr)

V = speed (km/hr)
S = space headway maximum of ({vt+L},{0.7v + L})

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• In this case, the driver remains alert because the vehicle ahead can stop anytime. So,
reaction time is considered as 0.7 sec instead of 2.5 sec.
• v is meter /sec
L = length of vehicle (if not given, assume L = 6 m)
(ii) from time headway:
3600
C= h → in sec 
ht  t

3. TRAFFIC SIGNALS

(i) cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation to all indications provided

G A R

(ii) Intervals:
(a) change interval
➢ It warns traffic about the coming of the red signal.
➢ It gives time for traffic that has entered the intersection to clear it before green time starts.
(b) Clearance interval: It is used to clear the vehicle from the intersection.
(iii) Loss time:
(a) start-up loss:It is due to the reaction time of the driver.
(b) clearance loss: when the signal turns green to yellow, the latter Portion of amber is
generally not utilised during this interval.
3.1. Detemination od cycles length:
Let the cycle length be c sec

3600
No of cycle in 1 hr =
c

3600 n 3600 
Total loss time in 1 hr = tli = ntl  (It losses in all phases are equal)
c 1=1 c 
n is number of phase

tei is loss in 1th Phase Per cycle.

3600
Effective green time in 1hr = 3600 − (ntl ).
c
3600(ntl )
3600 − = Vc  h
c
nte Vc
1− =
c s

nte
c=
v
1− c
s

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VC = critical lane volume (sum. Of all phases) and h = saturation time head way.

➢ It losses and saturation time head away of different Phases and not same.

n
 tei
c= 1
n vci
1− 
1 s
i

vci
➢ It  1 Then number of lanes must be increased so that critical lane volume
si
decrease. No. of lanes is so selected that the value of c is neither too small nor too
large.
➢ Generallyue by to keep cycle time around 50-90 sec.

3.2. Webster Method

1.5  L + 5
Optimum cycle length, Co =
1−y

Where,
CO=cycle time in sec
L = total time lost in a cycle length = n.tSL + All red time
tSL = start up loss per phase
Assume tSL = 2 sec, if not provided.
L = 2n + All red time.
n = number of phasesi.e., 2 [we generally design for 2 phase signed]
Y = ratio of critical flow to saturation ratio
n n q
and, i.e., Y =  yi =  Sci
1 1 i

qci = critical lane volume for ith phase

Si = saturation flow per lane for ith phase

Effective green time for ith phase is given as

yi
gi = ( C – L )
y

3.3. ROTARY
3.3.1. IRC guidelines for traffic rotary:

(i) According to IRC, the maximum traffic that a rotary can efficiently handle is 3000 veh/hr,
and the minimum is 500 veh/hr.
(ii) Generally,the rotary is provided when 4 to 7 roads meet at an intersection.

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(iii) Given mixed traffic conditions, it is suggested by the IRC that a rotary must be provided if
intersecting traffic is about 50% of total traffic or fast turning traffic towards the right is at
least 30% of total traffic.
(iv) Entry width is kept smaller than approach width to forcefully reduce the driver’s speed
while entering and increase it while exiting. The minimum entry width is 5 m.
3.2.2. Design parameters:
(i) design speed: for urban rotary: 30 kmph, for rural rotary: 40 kmph
(ii) Entry radius: for urban rotary: 20 m, for rural rotary: 25 m
(iii) Exit radius is generally taken as (1.5 to 2) times entry radius.
(iv) width at entry and exit: Acceleration to IRC, a two-lane road of 7 m width should be kept
at 7 m for urban roads and 6.5 m for rural roads.

L = length of weaving section

e1 = width of entry
e2 = width of exit
w = width of rotary
 = weaving angle
➢ The superelevation is not provided at a rotary, and thus stability is only provided by the
Coefficient of friction. So,
𝑣2
Rentry =
127𝑓
•
• Rexit = (1.5 to 2) × Rentry
• For central island,
R CI = 1.33  R

• If not provided, take e1 = e2

𝑒1 +𝑒2
• 𝑒=
2

• w = e + 3.5
➢ The practical capacity of rotary is given by,

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𝑒 𝑝
280𝑤 (1 + ) (1 − )
𝑃= 𝜔 3
𝜔
(1 + )
𝐿
Here,
w = width of weaving section (6 to 18 m)
𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑏+𝑐
p= = In the range of 0.4 to 1.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑏+𝑐+𝑎+𝑑

a = left-turning traffic moving along left extreme lane

b = right-turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
c = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards the right while entering the rotary
d = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary

➢ The formula for practical capacity is applicable only when

(a) 6 m ≤ w ≤ 18 m
𝑒
(b) = 0.4 𝑡𝑜 1.0
𝜔
𝜔
(c) = 0.12 𝑡𝑜 0.4
𝐿

(d) p = 0.4 to 1.0

4. PARKING
Two types:
(i) On-street or kerb parking
(ii) Off-street parking
➢ The number of parking spaces can be calculated as:
𝐿
• For parallel parking: 𝑁 =
5.9

L = length of kerb in m

𝐿
• For 30° parking: 𝑁 =
2.5

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𝐿−2.16
• For 60° parking: 𝑁 =
2.89
𝐿−1.77
• For 45° parking:𝑁 =
3.54
𝐿
• For 90° parking:𝑁 =
2.5

5. LIGHTING
𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 × 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑀𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑢𝑥 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 → 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ → 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
➢ The Coefficient of utilization depends upon the ratio of the width of the road and mounting
height.
6. TRAFFIC DISTRIBUTION
6.1. Greenshield’s Distribution Model

Vf
v= Kj
K + Vf

q = KV
VSF  K j
qmax =
4

VSF = Free mean speed, K= traffic density, V= traffic velocity, Kj= Traffic density at jam

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6.2. Greenberg’s Distribution Model
𝑘𝑗
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑙𝑛
𝑘
𝑘𝑗
𝑞 = 𝑘 × 𝑣 = 𝑘 × 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑙𝑛
𝑘
𝑘𝑗
at 𝑘 = , 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑆𝐹
𝑒

6.3. Exponential Model

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑒 −𝑘/𝑘𝑗
𝑉𝑆𝐹 × 𝑘𝑗
∴𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑒

7. Vehicle Arrival Rate Distribution

7.1. Exponential Distribution

➢ f(t) = λe–λt
where, λ = vehicle arrival rate vehicle/time
➢ Find the probability that t ≥ h sec.
∞
∞
–𝜆𝑡
𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃[ℎ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ ∞] = ∫ 𝜆𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 [ ] = 𝑒 −𝜆ℎ
ℎ −𝜆 ℎ

➢ P[0 ≤ t ≤ h] = 1 – e–λh

7.2. Poisson Distribution

➢ Probability of passing of ‘n’ vehicle in ‘t’ time is

(𝜆𝑡)𝑛 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑡) =
𝑛!
➢ The probability of passing of zero vehicles in ‘t1’ is

(𝜆𝑡1 )0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1
𝑃(0, 𝑡1 ) = = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1
1!
i.e. probability that time headway is greater than t1= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1

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8. DELAY ANALYSIS:
assumptions:

1. Arrival Process is deterministic and vehicle arrive at a uniform rate.

2. System is unsaturated, i.e. total number of vehicle arriving in a period is less than total number
of vechicles that can be served by the system, it implies that vechicles arriving in a cycle and
cleared in the same cycle

C = the cycle time,

g = effective green time.

di= the delay for ith vehicle.

V = slope of cumulative arrival line i.e. uniform rate of arrival

S = slope of cumulative divestiture line i.e. saturation from rate.

1
Assuming the number of vehicles to be large we have total delay =  (c − g )  l  (  d i )
2

No of vehicles arriving in time t = no. of vehicles cleansed in time [t – (c – g)]

Vt = S(t – (c - g))

S (c − g )
t=
s−v

sv (c − g )
i* = vt  i =
s−v

1 (c − g )  sv(c − g ) 1 (c − g ) 2 sv
Total delay =  =
2 s−v 2 ( s − v)

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1 ( c − g ) 2 sv 1 (c − g) 2 s
av. Delay  av  delay pc vehicle =
2 ( s − v) cv 2 (s − v)c
total number of
vehicle in one cycle = CV

2
 g
c 1 − 
av. delay per vehicle = 
c
 v
2 1 − 
 s

➢ Horizontal ordinate between cumulative arrival and cummulative departure line represents
delay
➢ Vertical ordinate between cummulative arrival and cummulative departure line represents
queue (cummulation).
➢ Area of triangle between cummulative arrival and cummulative departure line is equal to total
delay of all vehicles.
➢ Saturation flow rate = arrival rate + rate of decrease of queue
9. PEAK HOURLY FACTOR
➢ It is used to represent the variation in hourly traffic, it is defined as the ratio of 60 min volume
in Peak hour to 4 times peak 15 min volume.

V60 1 1 1 1
( PHF )15min =
4  V15 0 4 0 0

(PHF) 15 min =1 (for uniform flow)

= 0.25 ( for maximum variation)
➢ Similarly for 20 min
1 1 1
0 3 0

(PHF)20 ⇒ (0.33 to 1)
10. ACCIDENT STUDIES
It is of the following types:
(i) Moving vehicle collides with a parked vehicle
(ii) Two moving vehicles from different directions collide at an intersection.
(iii) Head-on collision.
10.1. When Moving Vehicle Collides with Parked Vehicle/Object

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1 1
➢ Before collision: 𝑚𝐴 𝑣12 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑣22 + 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔𝑠1 ⇒ 𝑉12 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑠1 + 𝑉22
2 2

➢ At collision: (Assumption → Collision is purely inelastic)

Initial momentum = final momentum
MA V2+ MB × 0 = MAV3 + MBV3
MAV2 = (MA + MB) V3
𝑚𝐴 +𝑚𝐵 𝑀𝐵
⇒𝑉2 = ( ) 𝑉3 = (1 + ) 𝑉3
𝑚𝐴 𝑀𝐴
1
After collision: (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 )𝑉32 − 0 = 𝑓(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 )𝑔𝑆2 ⇒ 𝑉3 = √2𝑔𝑓𝑠2
2

10.2. Two Vehicles from Different Directions Collide at An Intersection

➢ Before collision: In the E-W direction,
1 1
𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝑚 𝑣 2 + 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠𝐴1
2 𝐴 𝐴1 2 𝐴 𝐴2
𝑉𝐴21 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐴1 + 𝑉𝐴22
in N–S direction,
1 1
𝑀𝐵 𝑉𝐵21 = 𝑀𝐵 𝑉𝐵22 + 𝑓𝑀𝐵 𝑔𝑆𝐵1
2 2
𝑉𝐵21 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑉𝐵22

➢ After collision: Momentum is conserved in E-W direction,

MA  VA2 + 0 = mA VA3 cos A + mB VB3 sin B
𝑚𝐵
𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑉𝐴3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐴 + ( ) 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐴 𝐵3
Momentum is conserved in N-S direction,
0 + 𝑀𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑉𝐴3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐵2 = ( ) 𝑉𝐴3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐵
1
For vehicle 𝐴: 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴23 − 0 = 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔𝑆𝐴2 ⇒ 𝑉𝐴3 = √2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐴2
2
1
for vehicle 𝐵: 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵23 − 0 = 𝑓𝑚𝐵 𝑔𝑆𝐵2 ⇒ 𝑉𝐵3 = √2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐵2
2

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CHAPTER-3 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

1. Group Index of Soil
Group index for soil can be defined as:
𝐺𝐼 = 0.2𝑎 + 0.005𝑎𝑐 + 0.01𝑏𝑑
Here,
a =p-35,
b=p-15, (a and b areexpressed as a whole number from 0 to 40)
c =WL-40,
d =Ip-10 (c, d areexpressed as a whole number from 0 to 20)
p= % passing 0.075 mm sieve,
Ip= plastic index.
WL= liquid limit.
Classification of soil based on group index:
Group Index Class

0-1 Good

2-4 Fair

5-9 Poor

10-20 very poor

2. Strength Evaluation of Soil

(i) Plate Bearing Test:
Pressure sustained
k=
Deformation

p
 k= , Here, Δ = 0.125 cm

➢ The K value obtained from the plate bearing test have to be corrected under the following
conditions:
(a) Correction for a soaked condition:

Ps P
=
ks k

Here,
Ks = modulus of subgrade reaction in soaked condition.
Ps = pressure sustained in soaked condition.
(b) Correction for the size of plate:

k1d1 = k 2d2

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(ii) California Bearing Ratio Test:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑎𝑡 2.5 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝐵𝑅(%) = × 100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
➢ If CBR2.5mm > CBR5.0mm then ok and take CBR2.5mm
But if CBR5.0mm> CBR2.5mm then repeat the test and if the same result come again then report
CBR5.0mm.
➢ Loading is applied through a 50mm diameter plunger and at a rate of 1.25m/min.
➢ The standard load values given below can be directly used to compute the CBR value of the
material.

Penetration
Standard load (kg) Unit standard load (kg/cm2)
(mm)
2.5 1370 70
5 2055 105

3. Tests on Road Aggregates

(i) Crushing test
w2
Aggregate crushing value =  100
w1
Here,
w1 = weight of aggregates before the test (passing 12.5 mm and retaining on 10 mm
size sieve).
w2 = weight of aggregate after testpassing 2.36 mm.
➢ Aggregate crushing value for a good quality aggregate:
• / 30% for surface course
• / 45% for base course
(ii) Los Angeles Abrasion Test:

 Abrasion  W2
 =  100
 value  W1
w1 = initially weight of aggregate.
w2 = weight of abraded aggregate passing through 1.7 mm sieve.
➢ Abrasion value for a good quality aggregate
• / 30% far surface course
• / 50% for the base course
(iii) Impact Test
𝑤2
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = × 10
𝑤1

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w1 = weight of aggregates before the test
= weight of aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retaining on 10 mm size sieve.
w2 = weight of aggregate after test
= weight of aggregate passing 2.36 mm.
➢ Impact value for a good aggregate
• / 30% for the surface cause.
• / 40% for bituminous macadam

(iv) Shape Test

a. Flakiness Index
w1
Flakiness Index =  100
w2
w1 = Initial weight of aggregate.
w2 = weight of aggregate having least dimension less than 0.6 times the mean dimension.

b. Elongation Index
Note: Elongation index test is performed only on a sample from which flaky particles have
been removed.
w2
Elongation Index =  100
w1
w1 = Initial weight of aggregate.
w2 = weight of aggregate having greatest dimension more than 1.8 times the mean dimension.
➢ Elongated and flaky particles are less workable and are likely to break under small load,
flakiness and elongation index value in excess of 15% is generally udesirable.
➢ MORTH has specified maximum value of combined index for coarse aggregate as 30% for
WMM, DBM, and BC coarse.
c. Angularity Number Test
100w
Angularity number = 67 −
C  Ga

w = weight of aggregate.
C = weight of water filling the cylinder.
Ga = specific gravity of aggregate.
(v) Soundness test:
➢ To determine resistance against weathering (durability) aggregate are subjected to
alternate cycles of wetting and drying in saturated solution of sodium sulphate or
magnesium sulphate for 16-18 hr and drying over an oven at 105-110 dergree till constant
mass.
➢ After five cycles loss in weight should not be;

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As per IRC recommandations: not more than 12% for sodium sulphate and not more than
18% for magnesium sulphate.
(vi) Water Absorption Test:
➢ The percentage of water absorbed with respect to the initial aggregate weight should not
be more than 0.6% of the initial aggregate weight
4. Design of Bituminous mixes by Marshall Method
➢ The phase diagram for the bituminous mixture can be expressed as

So, total weight of mix (w) = w1 + w2 + w3 + wb

And total volume of mix (V) = V1 + V2 + V3 + Vb + Vv
(i) Apparent specific gravity or theoretical specific gravity
It is the specific gravity calculated excluding air voids, it is denoted by ‘Gt’.
Mathematically,

w
 Gt =
w1 w2 w3 wb
+ + +
G1 G2 G3 Gb

In terms of percentage, Gt can be expressed as,

100%
Gt =
w1 % w2 % w3 % wb %
+ + +
G1 G2 G3 Gb

(ii) Mass Specific gravity:

The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix is found out by:

100%
Gt =
w1 % w2 % w3 % wb %
+ + + + Vair
G1 G2 G3 Gb
𝑊𝑚
It can also be calculated by following method, 𝐺𝑚 = weight of sample in water=
𝑊𝑚 −𝑊𝑤

weight of sample in air- total volume* unit weight of water

here, Wm = weight of mix in air andWw= weight of mix in water
Note: Gt>Gm, always true.

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(iii) Percentage air voids in the mix:
It is expressed as the ratio of the volume of the air void to the total volumes of the mix

Vv
 %Vv =  100
V
In terms of apparent and bulk specific gravity,

 G − Gm 
%Vv =  t   100
 Gt 

(iv) Percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA):

It is expressed as

%VMA = %Vv + %Vb

wb Gm
 %Vb =   100
w Gb

(v) Percent voids filled with Bitumen (VFB)

%Vb
VFB =
%Vb + %Vv

4.1. Some Important Graphical Representations:

 ++ 
Optimum bitumen %= 3

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5. PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
5.1. Viscosity
➢ It is the property of bitumen which resist flow due to internal friction.
➢ It is estimated using plak viscometer or efflux viscometer.
➢ VG→ Viscosity Grade.
➢ VG 30 ⇒ (100 ± 20) 30 = 2400 – 3600{Viscosity in Poise at 60° C}.
5.2. Ductility
➢ Bitumen binder should be sufficiently ductile i.e. it shoued be capable of being stretched
without breaking.
➢ The distance in am the briquette can be stretched at 27°C under water at 5cm/min without
breaking is called ductility
➢ It very from 5-100 and minimum value of 50 is commonly specified.
5.3. Penetration
➢ It is an indirect measure of hardness a penetration grade 80-100 means that the
penetration of 100gm needle when left for 5sec at 25°C in bitumen was 8-10 mm.

Note:Safe limit for heating bitumen is 50° under flash point

5.4. Specific Gravity

It is estimated from Acnometer method at 27°C.It varies from 0.97 – 1.02
5.5. Loss on heating
It should not be more then 1% when 50gm bitumen is heated at 163°C over an over for
5hr.
5.6. Water content
To avoid foaming the maximum water content in bitumen should not exceed 0.2% by
weight.
Cut back bitumen:
➢ Bitumen in volatile dilution like, kerosene diesel Naphthaetc. used in cold weather.
Emulsion
➢ Aqueous Bitumen, used in wet condition.

Grades of Tar→ It varies from RT1 (Road Tar 1) (Lowest viscosity, used in surface paintings) to
RT5 (highest viscosity, used in grouting)

Bitumen Tar
1. obtained from fractional distillation of 1. obtained from destructive distillation of
crude oil coal or wood.
2. Soluble in carbon di sulphide. 2. Soluble in toluene (Ratny benzene)
3. More rest, to temp & water 3. Insoluble in water.
4. Contains more free carbon constant.

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Asphalt Pavement dispesses

Bleeding:- Migration of excess bitumen from the mix do the road surface which is deposited as a thin
shiny film making the road slippery.

It is caused by (a) excessive binder in mix design (b) low air void(c) use of low viscosity bitumen(d)
too heavy tach coat

Note: apply hot sand and roll it during hot weather to bloat out extra asphalt binder at the surface.

Rabeling:- It is progressive disintegration of asphalt surface which is the result of dislodgment of

aggregate particles in the mix at the surface, it occurs due to lack of sufficient cohesion within the
asphalt mix due to inadequate binder content, low density, lack of fines and aging. HoweverRabling
due to aging occurs after many years.

Stripping:- It is the braking of adhesion between aggregate and asphalt binder usually in the pressure
of moisture.

Scaling:- Thin wearing course separates due to intrusion of moisture between binder and wearing
course.

CHAPTER-4 PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

1. Low or negligible flexure strength. 1. High flexural strength.

2. Load is transferred from grain to grain contact. 2. Load is transferred from slab action.

3. Joints are absent. 3. Joints are present

4. Low initial cost but high maintenance cost. 4. High initial cost but low maintenance cost.

5. If deformation is in the bottom layer, the same

5. Localised deformations are contained.
can be reflected in the upper layers.

6. Night visibility is poor. 6. Night visibility is good.

7. Elastic layer theory is used for stress

7. Infinite layer theory is used for stress analysis.
analysis.
8. Curing period is less, and thus the road can be
8. Curing period is more,i.e. 28 days.
opened for the traffic in a short period (24 hrs)

2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:
2.1 Subgrade:
➢ it is prepared from natural soil by it to 95-98% of proctor’s density.

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➢ Generally 500mm is compacted, for rural low value road 300mm.
➢ It is designed to receive stresses from the upper layer such that vertical compressive tress
does not exceeds its permissible value.
2.2 Subbase:
➢ Its main function is to provide drainage and structural support ti the upper pavement layers.
➢ It also reduces the intrusion of fines into the pavement.
➢ High quality subgrade with steep slope may not require subbase.
2.3 Base course:
➢ If provides structural support by bearing high stresses coming from the top layer abd
distributes them to the lower layers.
➢ It also contributes in sub surface drainage.

2.4 Surface coarse:

➢ It is also known as wearing coarse.
➢ It is of highest quality and generally bituminious mix is used.
➢ It provides an overall smooth surface, skid resistance for tyres and sustains
environmental and weathering action. It also act as waterproof at surface.
2.5 Failue of flexible pavement:
Major mode of failure are:
➢ Fatigue cracking (alligator and crocodile cracking).
➢ Thermal cracking.
➢ Rutting (IRC consider rutting deformation due to subgrade deformation only).
➢ As per IRC37:2001 fatigue cracking should not occur on more than 20% of the pavement area
and rutting deformation depth should not be greater than 20mm in design life of the pavement.
➢ As per IRC37:2012 fatigue cracking in 20% area has been considered for traffic upto 30msa
and 10% for traffic is more than 30msa. For rutting deformation should not be greater than
20mm in 20% of length for traffic upto 30msa and 10% of length for traffic beyond 30msa.
Note: To control fatigue cracking we limit the tensile strain at the bottom of surface course
and to control rutting we limit the axial compression strain at the subgrade layer.
Note: different types of coats are-
➢ Seal coat: improve impermeability and skid resistance.
➢ Tack coat: provides bonding between two layers.
➢ Prime coat: pluges voids of base coarse and prepare the surface for applicationof tack coat.

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3. RIGID PAVEMENT:
➢ In this case load is distributed due to flexure action of the slab, purpose of base coarse is to
prevent mud pumping, provide drainage and reduce deflection
➢ Base/sub base course is optional in rigid pavement.

➢ Failure of rigid pavement: various modes are-

• Fatigue cracking
• Thermal cracking
• Mud pumping
Note: IRC gives design steps for fatigue cracking only, not for mud pumping.
4. LOAD AND TRAFFIC BASIC CONCEPT:
4.1 Stress at Any Depth Below the Wheel load
a = radius of the circular contact area
𝑧3
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑝 [1 − ]
(𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2

4.2 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL):

• It is the single wheel replacement of multiple wheels such that some vertical deflection
or strain or stress is caused at any depth ‘z’.

Here,

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S = centre to centre spacing
d = clear gap between wheels
Also, S= d + 2a.
i. Relation between Depth and ESWL:

Depth ESWL
1. 0≤z≤d/2 P
2. d/2 <z< 2S P < ESWL < 2P
3. z≥2 S 2P
ii. Value of ESWL if Depth is d/2 < Z < 2S
Graphically, it can be represented as

𝑂𝐶 𝐴𝐵
By similar triangle theorem in ΔOAB and ΔOCD, we get, =
𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐵

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 𝑃 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃

⇒ =
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 𝑆 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑 /2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑍 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑 /2
Where, z = depth at which ESWL (i.e equal to P 1) is to be calculated.
4.3 Rigidity factor (RF)
➢ The factors show the degree of tension developed on the walls of the tyre.
➢ Mathematically, the rigidity factor is expressed as
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑃
𝑅𝐹 = =
𝑇𝑦𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑃
➢ If CP > TP, it means tyres in compression.

T.P

CP
➢ If CP < TP, then tyres are in tension.

Tyre Pressure Contact Pressure Rigidity Factor

< 7 kg/cm2 > 7 kg/cm2 >1

> 7 kg/cm2 < 7 kg/cm2 <1

= 7 kg/cm2 = 7 kg/cm2 =1

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4.4 Equivalent axle load factor
➢ The damaging effect of wheel load P1 with respect to standard axle load P is given by
‘Equivalent wheel load factor’ (EWLF) or ‘Equivalent axle load factor’ (EALF) or ‘vehicle
damage factor’ (VDF).
• If not given, take P=80 KN or 8000 kg
• Mathematically,
𝑃1 4
𝐸𝑊𝐿𝐹 = ( )
𝑃
Total number of standard axle=N1.f1+N2.f2+……
where Ni is number of vehicle of ith class interval
and fi is EALF for ith class interval.
Note: Total number of standard axles when divided by number of vehicles surveyed
will give VDF.
Note: Minimum sample size to be surveyed for CVPD upto 3000 is 20%, for CVPD
3000 to 6000 it is 15% and for CVPD more than 6000 it is 10% of the vehicles.
4.5 Cummulative standard axles:
➢ In this, the number of repetitions of cumulative standard axle (N s) is calculated as,
𝑟 𝑛
365𝐴 [(1 + ) − 1]
𝑁𝑠 = 100 × 𝑉𝐷𝐹 × 𝐿𝐷𝐹 × 𝐿𝑆𝐹
(𝑟/100)
Where,
A = Number of commercial vehicles per day when construction is complete.
r = Rate of growth of traffic (5 as per IRC27:2012 and 7.5 % as per IRC37:2001).
n = Design life (15 years for NH and SH, 20 years for expressway for flexible and
30 years for rigid pavement).
VDF = Vehicle damage factor.
LDF = Lane distribution factor.
LSF = Load Safety factor.
𝑟 𝑥
Here, 𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100

Where, x = construction period and, P = Present day traffic count.

Single Carriageway Dual Carriageway

No. of Lane LDF No. of lane LDF

1 1 2 0.75

2 0.75 3 0.60

4 0.4 4 0.45

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5. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
5.1.California bearing ratio (CBR) method

1.75𝑃
𝑡(𝑐𝑚) = √ − 𝑎2
𝐶𝐵𝑅(%)

Where,
P = Wheel load, kg. (If not given, take P = 4100 kg)
a = radius of contact area.
➢ IRC37:1970 has provided design charts to calculate the pavement thickness based on CBR
value and anticipated traffic per day at the end of design life.
➢ IRC37:2012 has provide design chart for calculation of pavement thickness for various
layers based on CBR value and cummulative number of standard axles.
5.2.California Resistance Value (CRV) Method.
The general formula that is used for this method is
0.166 × 𝑇𝐼 × (90 − 𝑅)
𝑇(𝑐𝑚) =
𝐶 1/5
where,
TI = Traffic index
R = Stabliometer value
C = Cohesionmeter value
TI = 1.35 × (Equivalent wheel load)0.11

EWL= summation of (AADT*EWLconstant)

No. of axle EWLconstant

2 330

3 1070

4 2460

5 4620

𝑇1 𝐶 1/5
➢ In this method equivalency used is = [ 2] , it means T1 thickness of material C1 is
𝑇2 𝐶1

equivalent to T2thicness of material C2.

➢ While designing forst we calculate the thickness of pavement corresponding to one material
and then by using the equivalency we convert this thickness to thickness of different
material to be used.
5.3 Triaxial Method
The general formula used in this method is given
3
3𝑃𝑋𝑌 2 𝐸𝑠
𝑇1 (𝑐𝑚) = √( ) − 𝑎2 ( )
2𝜋𝐸𝑠 𝛥 𝐸𝑝

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Where,
P = wheel load in kg (if not given, take P = 4100 kg)
X = Traffic Coefficient
Y = saturation Coefficient
Es=Modulus of Elasticity of soil subgrades in kg/cm2
Ep= modulus of elasticity of pavement in kg/cm 2
Δ = Design deflection in cm
a = Radius of the contact area of wheel load in cm.
𝑇1 𝐸 1/3
➢ In this method equivalency used is = [ 2] ,it means T1 thickness of material with
𝑇2 𝐸1

modulus of elasticityE1 is equivalent to T2 thickness of material with modulus of elasticityE2.

5.4 Burmester Method
Assumptions involved in this method are
➢ It wheel load test/flexible plate is used, then deflection is given as
1.5𝑝𝑎
𝛥= ×𝐹
𝐸𝑠
where,𝛥 =design deflection in cm, assumed to be 0.25cm if not given.
P = contact pressure in kg/cm2
a = radius of contact area in cm.
Es = Modulus of Elasticity of soil sub grade
F = deflection factor or displacement factor, it svalue depends on ratios h/a and Es/Ep.
➢ For calculation of Es/Ep testing is done on subgrade and pavement layer of an existing
pavement having same modulus of elasticity.
➢ In this plate load test/Rigid plate is used, then deflection is given as
1.18𝑝𝑎
𝛥= ×𝐹
𝐸
Here, 𝛥 =deflection recorded in PBT in cm.
P= pressure used in PBT (kg/cm2)
a= radius of plate used for test
E = modulus of elasticity of subgrade
During testing F=1.
6. DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
6.1 Design Parameters
i. Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k
➢ It is used to measure soil resistance in terms of deformation corresponding to the load
applied.
𝑝 𝑝
𝑘= =
𝛥 0.125 𝑐𝑚
Here k is in kg/cm3
➢ The value of k depends on size of plate used in plate bearing test and for rigid pavement
we generally use 75cm diameter plate. Also k.a= constant.

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ii. Radius of Relative Stiffness, l
➢ The general formula for the radius of relative stiffness is given as
1/4
𝐸ℎ3
𝑙=[ ]
12𝑘(1 − 𝜇 2 )
Where,E = Modulus of Elasticity of concrete kg/cm2.
h = Thickness of concrete slab or pavement in cm.
μ = Poisson’s ratio (0.15)
k = Modulus of sub grade reaction kg/cm3.
iii. Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section, b
➢ The general formula for the equivalent radius of the resisting section is given as.

𝑏 = √1.6 𝑎2 + ℎ2 − 0.675ℎ(𝑖𝑓𝑎 < 1.724ℎ)

𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑖𝑓𝑎 > 1.724ℎ)
Where b = Equivalent radius of resisting section in cm.
h = Thickness of pavement in cm
a = Radius of the contact area of wheel load in cm.
6.2 Wheel Load Stresses
6.2.1 Westergaard Analysis
0.316𝑃 𝑙
➢ Stress at the interior, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 = [4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 1.069]
ℎ2 𝑏

0.572𝑃 𝑙
➢ Stress at the edge, 𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = [4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 0.359]
ℎ2 𝑏
0.6
3𝑃 𝑎√2
➢ Stress at the corner, 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = [1 − ( ) ]
ℎ2 𝑙

6.2.2 IRC Formula

• Sint is calculated using Westergaard formula.
• Sedge is calculated by the Teller formula. According to this,
0.529𝑃 𝑙
𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = (1 + 0.54𝜇) [4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑏 − 0.4048]
ℎ2 𝑏
• Scorner is calculated by Kelly’s formula. According to which stress can be calculated as
1.2
3𝑃 𝑎√2
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 2 [1 − ( ) ]
ℎ 𝑙

where,P = wheel load (kg)

μ = Poisson’s ratio of concrete
a = radius of wheel load contact area (cm)
l = radius of relative stiffness (cm)
b = Equivalent radius of resisting section (cm)
6.2.3 Temperature Stresses
Warping Stress
➢ Daily variation of temperature causes warping, stress variation due to temperature
gradient is called warping stresses.

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𝐸𝛼𝑡 𝐶𝑥 + 𝜇𝐶𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 = [ ]
2 1 − 𝜇2
𝐶𝑥 𝐸𝛼𝑡 𝐶𝑦 𝐸𝛼𝑡
𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( , ),
2 2
𝐸𝛼𝑡 𝑎
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = √
3(1 − 𝜇) 𝑙
Where,
E = Modules of elasticity of concrete.
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion.
μ = Poisson’s ratio.
t = temperature difference between the top and bottom of the slab.
a = radius of wheel load contact area.
l = radius of relative stiffness.
𝐿𝑥
Cx and Cy are coefficients in x, and y-direction respectively depends on and
𝑙
𝐿𝑦
Ratiorespectively.
𝑙

Lx and Ly are the lengths of the slab in x and y directions, respectively which are almost
equal to spacing longitudinal and transverse joints.
Day-TimeNight-Time

Frictional stress:
➢ Seasonal variation caused frictional stress due to overall change in slab length.
➢ In summer overall length of the slab increases and friction will try to compress the slab so
compressive stresses are generated in summer, similarly tensile stresses are generated in
winter.

➢ Average friction coefficient is taken as 1.5.

NATURE OF STRESSES

Here, C→compression and T→tension

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Wheel load Warping stress Frictional stress

Section
stresses Day Night Summers Winters

Top C C T C T
Interior
Bottom T T C C T

Top C C T C T
Edge
Bottom T T C C T

Top T C T C T
Corner
Bottom C T C C T
Critical combination of stresses:
➢ Out of the various wheel load stresses, corner stress is maximum and interior stress is
minimum and edge stress is intermediate.
➢ In case of temperature stresses interior stresses come out to be maximum and edge
stresses come out to be minimum and edge stress is intermediate.
6.3 JOINTS
(i) Expansion joint:
➢ The prupose of expansion joint is to allow for expansion of pavement due to rise in
pavement temperature with respect to construction tempearure.
➢ As per IRC maximum spacing between expansion joint is 140m and maximum gap of joint
is 2.5cm.
➢ At expansion joint dowel bars are provided which develops bending, bearing and shearing
stress and helps in load transfer. One end of dowel bar is bonded with concrete and the
other end is free to move also filler is provided to seal the joint.

L e (T) = 
2 c
Le = Spacing of expansion joint
 = gap in expansion joint, filler material is assumed to be 50% compressible.
 = Coefficient of thermal expansion
(ii) Contraction joint (Lc)
➢ It is provided to control cracks due to shrinkage, to regulate the crackes. i.e to ensure that
crackesdevelopes at a predetermined location, the slab is weakened at certain location,
these location are called contraction joint.
➢ Note: As per IRC maximum spacing between contraction joint can be 4.5m.
a. When reinforcement is not provided
f cBhL c 2
Bh = = L c =
2 f c
Lc = Spacing of contraction joint
 = Allowable stress in tension in cement concrete

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 c = Unit weight of cement concrete

f= friction
b. When reinforcement is provided
2  st  As
Lc =
B  h  c  f

st = Allowable tensile stress in steel

As = Total Area of steel

(iii) Longitudinal Joints:
➢ Tie bars are provided at longitudinal joint to ensure that slab remains together fermally.
➢ Tie bars are not designed as load transfer device, load is transferred through aggregate
interlocking to the adjacent slab.
b  h  c  f
AS =
st
As = area of steel required per meter length of joint
b= Distance between the joint and nearest free edge
h= Thickness of pavement
f= friction coefficient
 c = unit wt of concrete

st = Allowable working stress in tension for steel

****

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