Sensory memory:

Sensory memory is a brief storage of information in humans wherein information is

momentarily registered until it is recognized and perhaps transferred to short-term memory.
Sensory memory allows for retaining sensory impressions following the cessation of the original
stimulus (Coltheart, 1980). Throughout our lives, we absorb tremendous information via our
visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory senses (Coltheart, 1980). Since it is impossible
to permanently register each and every impression we have captured via these senses, as we
momentarily focus on a pertinent detail in our environment, our sensory memory registers a brief
snapshot of our environment, lasting for several hundred milliseconds. Attention is the first step
in remembering something, and if a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores,
then the data is transferred to short-term memory.
Iconic memory: The word 'iconic' refers to an icon, and an icon is a pictorial representation or
image. So, iconic memory is the storage for visual memory that allows us to visualize an image
after the physical stimulus is no longer present. For example, look at an object in the room you
are in now, and then close your eyes and visualize that object. The image you "see" in your mind
is your iconic memory of that visual stimulus.
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory register that stores visual images after its
stimulus has ceased (Pratte, 2018). While iconic memory contains a huge capacity, it declines
rapidly (Sperling, 1960). Information stored in iconic memory generally disappears within half a
second (depending on the brightness). This fleeting storage of visual information allows the brain
to process and understand visual stimuli from our environment. It’s named ‘iconic’ due to its
relation to visual icons or images.
Iconic memory is primarily stored and processed in the occipital lobe, which also
contains the visual cortex.8 Visual information is transmitted from the eyes to the occipital lobe.
It can then be briefly stored, as it is for iconic memory. Paying attention to visual information
may result in it being transmitted to other regions of the brain where it can then enter short-term
memory or, potentially, long-term memory.
Echoic memory: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that specifically pertains to
auditory information (sounds). It refers to the brief retention of sounds in our memory after the
original noise has ceased. This short-term auditory memory, which can last several seconds,
allows the brain to process and comprehend sounds and spoken language even after the sound
source is no longer present. The information which we hear enters our organism as sound waves.
These are sensed by the ears’ hair cells and processed afterward in the temporal lobe. The
processing of echoic memories generally takes 2 to 3 seconds
When you hear something, your auditory nerve sends the sound to your brain. It does this
by transmitting electrical signals. At this point, the sound is “raw” and unprocessed audio
information. Echoic memory occurs when this information is received and held by the brain.
Specifically, it’s stored in the primary auditory cortex (PAC), which is found in both
hemispheres of the brain. The information is held in the PAC opposite of the ear that heard the
sound. For instance, if you hear a sound in your right ear, the left PAC will hold the memory.
But if you hear a sound through both ears, both the left and right PAC will retain the information.
After a few seconds, the echoic memory moves into your short-term memory. This is where your
brain processes the information and gives meaning to the sound.
The process of echoic memory is automatic. This means audio information enters your
echoic memory even if you don’t purposely try to listen. In fact, your mind is constantly forming
echoic memories. For example: Talking to another person, Spoken language is a common
example. When someone talks, your echoic memory retains each individual syllable. Your brain
recognizes words by connecting each syllable to the previous one.
Dichotic listening task
A dichotic task is a cognitive psychology experiment where different auditory stimuli are
presented simultaneously to each ear. Participants are typically asked to attend to one ear while
ignoring the other, and then perform a task related to the attended stimuli. This type of task is
often used to study selective attention and how the brain processes competing auditory
information.
In a dichotic task, participants typically wear headphones through which different auditory
stimuli are simultaneously presented to each ear. These stimuli can be various sounds, words, or
numbers. Participants are instructed to focus on one ear (the attended ear) and to ignore the
information presented to the other ear (the unattended ear).
After the stimuli are presented, participants are asked to perform a task related to the information
presented to the attended ear. This task could involve repeating back the words or numbers they
heard, identifying specific features of the stimuli, or making judgments about the content.
Researchers analyze participants' performance to understand how attention operates in the
presence of competing auditory information.
Dichotic tasks have been used in research to investigate various aspects of auditory perception,
selective attention, language processing, and cognitive control. They provide insight into how the
brain processes and prioritizes different auditory inputs when faced with competing information.

Neural Basis of mental imagery

Mental imagery allows individuals to simulate sensory experiences, such as visual
scenes, sounds, tastes, and tactile sensations, in the mind's eye. It plays a crucial role in various
cognitive processes, including memory retrieval, problem-solving, and creative thinking.
Understanding the neural mechanisms that underlie mental imagery can provide valuable
insights into how the brain represents and manipulates information internally.
Neuroimaging Techniques:
Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have enabled researchers to investigate the
neural correlates of mental imagery with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows researchers to identify brain regions
involved in mental imagery tasks based on changes in blood oxygenation levels.
Electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) provide millisecond-level
temporal information about neural activity during mental imagery tasks, offering insights into the
dynamic nature of imagery processes.
Modalities of Mental Imagery: Studies have investigated mental imagery across different sensory
modalities, including visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory domains. Visual imagery,
in particular, has been extensively studied due to its relevance in domains such as memory,
perception, and problem-solving. Neuroimaging studies have identified a network of brain
regions, including the visual cortex, parietal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, involved in generating
and manipulating visual mental images.
Cognitive Domains: Mental imagery is not limited to sensory modalities but also extends to
abstract concepts and motor actions. Neuroimaging studies have revealed overlapping neural
substrates for different types of imagery, suggesting common mechanisms underlying the
generation and manipulation of mental representations. Additionally, studies have explored the
role of mental imagery in cognitive processes such as spatial navigation, language
comprehension, and motor planning, shedding light on the functional significance of imagery
abilities.
Future research directions in the study of mental imagery may involve investigating individual
differences in imagery abilities, exploring the developmental trajectory of imagery skills, and
examining the therapeutic applications of imagery-based interventions. Integrating findings from
neuroimaging studies with computational models of mental imagery could provide a more
comprehensive understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms.
Neuroimaging studies have made significant strides in elucidating the neural basis of mental
imagery across different modalities and cognitive domains. By leveraging advanced
neuroimaging techniques, researchers continue to uncover the intricate neural networks involved
in generating, maintaining, and manipulating mental representations. A deeper understanding of
the neural mechanisms of mental imagery holds promise for applications in fields such as
education, rehabilitation, and mental health.
Indeed, the advent of additional technologies, such as DIFFUSE OPTICAL TOMOGRAPHY
(DOT), (A neuroimaging technique that uses arrays of lasers and detectors to measure changes in
the absorption of near-infrared light caused by neural activation. The most widely used type of
DOT measures changes in blood oxygenation caused by neural activity) promises to facilitate
studies of the neural bases of imagery. This technique is portable, very inexpensive, and more
forgiving than fMRI when subjects move. It is also totally silent. The drawback is that it can only
monitor cortical activity, and not even all of that.However, it can assess the lion’s share of
cortex, and will allow largescale individual-differences studies to be done. Such studies can
relate differences in patterns of brain activation to differences in performance, which should, in
turn, tell us not only about what the brain is doing, but also about how and why people differ in
their modes of thinking.
Size-distance paradox
The size-distance paradox refers to the phenomenon where our perception of an object's
size can be influenced by its distance from us. Objects that are farther away may appear smaller,
even if they are actually the same size as objects that are closer to us. This paradox arises
because our brains use contextual clues, such as the size of nearby objects or the size of familiar
objects, to interpret the size of an object in relation to its distance.
The perceived size of a fixated object is known to be a function of the perceived fixation
distance. The size-distance paradox has been posited as evidence that the perceived distance of a
fixated object is, in turn, influenced by the object’s perceived size. If this is correct then it
challenges a widely accepted account (modified weak fusion) of how the nervous system
combines multiple sources of information.
 Perceptual Interpretation: Our perception of the world is not a direct reflection of reality
but rather a constructed interpretation based on sensory input and cognitive processes.
When we observe objects in our environment, our brains are constantly interpreting
visual cues to make sense of their size, distance, and spatial relationships.

 Visual Cues and Depth Perception: Depth perception allows us to perceive the three-
dimensional structure of our surroundings. Visual cues such as relative size, overlap,
aerial perspective, and motion parallax provide valuable information about an object's
distance from us. These cues help us create a mental representation of the spatial layout
of our environment.
 Relative Size and Distance: The principle of relative size states that objects of the same
physical size will appear smaller when they are farther away and larger when they are
closer. Our brains use this cue to estimate the distance of objects. When we see an object
that appears smaller, our brain interprets it as being farther away, even if we know
intellectually that it is the same size as closer objects.
 Size Constancy: Size constancy is the tendency to perceive the size of an object as
constant, regardless of changes in its distance from us. This perceptual mechanism allows
us to recognize familiar objects at varying distances and angles. However, size constancy
relies on having familiar reference points in our visual field. In the absence of such
reference points, our perception of size may be influenced more strongly by distance
cues.
 Cognitive Influences: Our perception is not solely determined by sensory input but is also
influenced by cognitive factors such as expectations, past experiences, and cultural
norms. These cognitive influences can shape how we interpret visual information and
contribute to perceptual biases and illusions.
 Optical Illusions: Optical illusions are compelling demonstrations of how our brains
interpret visual information. Illusions like the Ames room or the Ponzo illusion exploit
our brain's reliance on depth cues and size constancy to create perceptual distortions.
These illusions highlight the complex interplay between sensory input, cognitive
processing, and our subjective experience of the world.
In summary, the size-distance paradox underscores the dynamic and multifaceted nature of
human perception. Our perception of size and distance is not always accurate but is instead
shaped by a combination of sensory cues, cognitive processes, and contextual factors.
Understanding the mechanisms underlying the size-distance paradox can provide valuable
insights into the complexities of human perception and cognition.
Mental rotation
 Mental rotation usually takes place in the right cerebral hemisphere, in the areas where
perception also occurs. It is associated with the rate of spatial processing and intelligence
(Johnson 1990, Jones 1982, Hertzog 1991). Mental rotation is the ability to rotate mental
representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual
representation of such rotation within the human mind. There is a relationship between areas of
the brain associated with perception and mental rotation. There could also be a relationship
between the cognitive rate of spatial processing, general intelligence and mental rotation.
Mental rotation can be described as the brain moving objects in order to help understand
what they are and where they belong. Mental rotation has been studied to try to figure out how
the mind recognizes objects in their environment. Researchers generally call such objects stimuli.
Mental rotation is one cognitive function for the person to figure out what the altered object is.
Mental rotation can be separated into the following cognitive stages:
 Create a mental image of an object from all directions (imagining where it continues
straight vs. turns).
 Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made (orientating the stimulus to
other figure).
 Make the comparison.
 Decide if the objects are the same or not.
 Report the decision (reaction time is recorded when a lever is pulled or a button is
pressed).
In a mental rotation test, the subject is asked to compare two 3D objects (or letters) and state
if they are the same image or if they are mirror images (enantiomorphs). Commonly, the test will
have pairs of images each rotated a specific amount of degrees (eg. 15º or 45º). Some pairs will
be the same image rotated, and others will be mirrored. The subject will be shown a set number
of the pairs. The subject will be judged on how accurately and rapidly they can distinguish
between the mirrored and non-mirrored pairs.
Many neuroimaging studies of ‘mental rotation’ have been reported, all of which have shown
that multiple brain areas are activated during mental rotation. For example, Richter et al.
measured brain activation with fMRI while subjects mentally rotated the three-dimensional
multi-armed angular stimuli invented by Shepard and Metzler28 (which look as if they had been
constructed by gluing small cubes together to form the arms). Subjects were shown pairs of such
shapes and asked to report whether the figures in each pair were the same or mirror reversed.
Richter et al. report that the superior parietal lobules (in both hemispheres) were activated during
this task, as well as the premotor cortex (in both hemispheres), supplementary motor cortex and
the left primary motor cortex.