INTRODUCTION

Perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through our senses. The way we
perceive our environment is what makes us different from other animals and different
from each other. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but
subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious
awareness.

Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th Century, psychology's understanding
of perception has progressed by combining a variety of
techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical
qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the brain
mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be
studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in
philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color
exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver.
Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study
of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems
actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active
debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing,
analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this
process unnecessary.
The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as
stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying.
Human and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing
different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory
maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These
different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, taste is
strongly influenced by smell.
OVERVIEW
The following aspects of perception are covered by this study;
1. Definition of perception (see page 2)
2. Perception process (see pages 2-3)
3. Types of perception (see pages 3-6)
4. Theories of perception (see pages 6-7)
5. Factors influencing perception (see pages 8-10)
6. Summary and bibliography (see page 10)

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DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION

 Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory

information in order to represent and understand the environment
 Perception is the way we interpret the information we sense
 Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and
interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses

THE PERCEPTION PROCESS

The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with stimuli in the environment
and ends with our interpretation of those stimuli. This process is typically unconscious and
happens hundreds of thousands of times a day. An unconscious process is simply one that
happens without awareness or intention. When you open your eyes, you do not need to
tell your brain to interpret the light falling onto your retinas from the object in front of
you as "computer" because this has happened unconsciously. When you step out into a
chilly night, your brain does not need to be told "cold" because the stimuli trigger the
processes and categories automatically.

 SELECTION/IDENTIFICATION
The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we might attend to,
but our brains do not have the resources to pay attention to everything. Thus, the first
step of perception is the (usually unconscious, but sometimes intentional) decision of
what to attend to. Depending on the environment, and depending on us as individuals, we
might focus on a familiar stimulus or something new. When we attend to one specific
thing in our environment—whether it is a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else
entirely—it becomes the attended stimulus.
 ORGANIZATION
Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment (consciously or
unconsciously, though usually the latter), the choice sets off a series of reactions in our
brain. This neural process starts with the activation of our sensory receptors (touch, taste,
smell, sight, and hearing). The receptors transduce the input energy into neural
activity, which is transmitted to our brains, where we construct a mental representation
of the stimulus (or, in most cases, the multiple related stimuli) called a percept. An
ambiguous stimulus may be translated into multiple percepts, experienced randomly, one
at a time, in what is called "multistable perception."

 INTERPRETATION/DESCRIMINATION
After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and organized the
information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense using our existing information

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about the world. Interpretation simply means that we take the information that we have
sensed and organized and turn it into something that we can categorize. For instance, in
the Rubin's Vase illusion mentioned earlier, some individuals will interpret the sensory
information as "vase," while some will interpret it as "faces." This happens unconsciously
thousands of times a day. By putting different stimuli into categories, we can better
understand and react to the world around us.

TYPES OF PERCEPTION

 PERCEPTION OF SOUND
Hearing (or audition) is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations. Frequencies
capable of being heard by humans are called audio or sonic. The range is typically
considered to be between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than audio are
referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic.
The auditory system includes the outer ears which collect and filter sound waves,
the middle ear for transforming the sound pressure (impedance matching), and the inner
ear which produces neural signals in response to the sound. By the ascending pathway
these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain,
which is where the auditory information arrives in the cerebral cortex and is further
processed there.
Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple
sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves the
computationally complex task of separating out the sources of interest, often estimating
their distance and direction as well as identifying them.
 PERCEPTION OF SPEECH
Speech perception is the process by which the sounds of language are heard, interpreted
and understood. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners
recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. The
sound of a word can vary widely according to words around it and the tempo of the
speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent and mood of the speaker. Listeners
manage to perceive words across this wide range of different conditions. Another
variation is that reverberation can make a large difference in sound between a word
spoken from the far side of a room and the same word spoken up close. Experiments have
shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech.
The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound within the auditory
signal and the process of audition. After processing the initial auditory signal, speech
sounds are further processed to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. This
speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as word
recognition. Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. That is, higher-level
language processes connected with morphology, syntax, or semantics may interact with

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basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds. It may be the
case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize
phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. In one experiment,
Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects
restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty and what is more,
they were not able to identify accurately which phoneme had been disturbed.
 PERCEPTION OF TOUCH
Haptic perception is the process of recognizing objects through touch. It involves a
combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges,
curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. People
can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch. This involves
exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or
holding the entire object in the hand. Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced
during touch.
Gibson defined the haptic system as "The sensibility of the individual to the world
adjacent to his body by use of his body". Gibson and others emphasized the close link
between haptic perception and body movement: haptic perception is active exploration.
The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept ofextended physiological
proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual
experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool.
 PERCEPTION OF TASTE
Taste (or, the more formal term, gustation) is the ability to perceive the flavor of
substances including, but not limited to, food. Humans receive tastes through sensory
organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of
the tongue. The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly
ten thousand taste buds. There are five primary
tastes: sweetness, bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and umami. Other tastes can be
mimicked by combining these basic tastes. The recognition and awareness of umami is a
relatively recent development in Western cuisine. The basic tastes contribute only
partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth — other factors include smell,
detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety
of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; and temperature, detected
by thermoreceptors. All basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive,
depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial.
 PERCEPTION OF THE OTHER SENSES
Other senses enable perception of body balance, acceleration, gravity, position of body
parts, temperature, pain, time, and perception of internal senses such as suffocation, gag
reflex, intestinal distension, fullness of rectum and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in
the throat and lungs.

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 PERCEPTION OF THE SOCIAL WORLD
Social perception is the part of perception that allows people to understand the
individuals and groups of their social world, and thus an element of social cognition.
However, According to thescience.one, the different types of perception were identified;

 AMODAL PERCEPTION

Amodal perception is one of the most recognizable types of perception in psychology. It is

the observation and interpretation of things in terms of depth and motion. For instance,
even if one sees only three points in a triangular object, he or she knows that the object is
three-dimensional and that there are hidden points on the other side.

 COLOR PERCEPTION

Color perception, on the other hand, describes the way the visual senses, denoting the
eyes, observe hues and contextualize them in the environment. For example, by
interpreting blue as the color of depression, the eyes will tend to always attribute all
things of this tinge to be melancholic.

 SPEECH PERCEPTION

The other types of perception in psychology include those that interpret verbal output.
Speech perception, for one, helps in not only understanding one another, but deducing
meaning from mere sounds. It also indicates the mechanical arrangement of the vocals
when another person speaks which means that the listener interprets the speech through
the phonetics such as syllables to create meaning.

 HARMONIC PERCEPTION

Harmonic perception, on the other hand, owes to the understanding that the ear usually
perceives inter-related notes, as one, to create meaning in sounds. For instance, riffs in a
guitar mixed with those of other instruments lead to interpretation of the music as a
single output that is simple to listen to rather than one that actually consists of different
notes.

 RHYTHMIC PERCEPTION

Rhythmic perception also follows the same theories in its interpretative methodology,
whereby the ear gets into a groove by practically responding to it. For instance, one can
easily listen to a beat while humming along to it or tapping along as it continues courtesy
of its rhythmic harmony.

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 DEPTH PERCEPTION

Depth perception also acts as one of the types of perception psychology. It relates to the
way the human eye identifies and contextualizes things in space. For instance, though the
naked eye cannot see the end of a tunnel, it interprets its possible depth through past
experiences such as scientific measurements to know how deep the tunnel can be.

 FORM PERCEPTION

Finally, form perception indicates the contextualization of particular objects in a given

environment, whereby the eyes sees them as primarily 2-D and at times as 3-D depending
on the way of their placement. It is also the understanding of what characterizes the inner
and outer core of an object. After seeing an orange, one immediately knows that it is
round and has a rough texture on the skin that protects the soft interior.

THEORIES OF PERCEPTION

1. PERCEPTION AS DIRECT PERCEPTION

Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This (with
reference to perception) is the claim that sensations are, by themselves, unable to provide
a unique description of the world. Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the
mental model. A different type of theory is the perceptual ecology approach of James J.
Gibson. Gibson rejected the assumption of a poverty of stimulus by rejecting the notion
that perception is based upon sensations – instead, he investigated what information is
actually presented to the perceptual systems. His theory "assumes the existence of stable,
unbounded, and permanent stimulus-information in the ambient optic array. And it
supposes that the visual system can explore and detect this information. The theory is
information-based, not sensation-based."
2. PERCEPTION-IN-ACTION
An ecological understanding of perception derived from Gibson's early work is that of
"perception-in-action", the notion that perception is a requisite property of animate
action; that without perception, action would be unguided, and without action,
perception would serve no purpose. Animate actions require both perception and motion,
and perception and movement can be described as "two sides of the same coin, the coin
is action". Gibson works from the assumption that singular entities, which he calls
"invariants", already exist in the real world and that all that the perception process does is
to home in upon them. A view known as constructivism (held by such philosophers
as Ernst von Glasersfeld) regards the continual adjustment of perception and action to the
external input as precisely what constitutes the "entity", which is therefore far from being
invariant.
Glasersfeld considers an "invariant" as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic
necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the

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updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not and need not represent
an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired
or feared by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This social
constructionist theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.
A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been devised and investigated in many
forms of controlled movement, and has been described in many different species of
organism using the General Tau Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or
time-to-goal information is the fundamental 'percept' in perception.
3. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY (EP) AND PERCEPTION
Many philosophers, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the purpose of perception is
knowledge, but evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide
action. For example, they say, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us
know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in
space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use
eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not
providing knowledge.
Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve
only when they improve an organism's fitness. More than half the brain is devoted to
processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's
metabolic resources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits to
fitness. Perception accurately mirrors the world; animals get useful, accurate information
through their senses.
Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as
adaptations. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each
of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the
narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through
objects. Sound waves provide useful information about the sources of and distances to
objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower-frequency sounds and smaller
animals making and hearing higher-frequency sounds. Taste and smell respond to
chemicals in the environment that were significant for fitness in the environment of
evolutionary adaptedness. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure,
heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation
for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less
sensitive to sensation. For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright
ambient light. Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with
the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to
the sounds that the bats make.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PERCEPTION
The three important factors influencing the perception, i.e., (a) Characteristics of the
Perceiver, (b) Characteristics of the Perceived, and (c) Characteristics of the Situation.

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER:

When a person looks at a target and attempts to interpreter what he sees, his
interpretation is greatly influenced by his personal characteristics which are discussed as
follows:
1. Needs and Motives:
Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive things. A need is a feeling of
discomfort or tension when one things he is missing something or requires something.
Therefore, unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong
influence on their perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are
engaged in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but
imaginary world. In such cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their
wishful thinking. Motives also influence the perception of people. People who are devious
are prone to see others as also devious.
2. Self Concept:
Self concept indicates how we perceive ourselves which then influences how we perceive
others and the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves, the more we are
able to perceive others accurately. For example, secure people tend to see others as
warm and friendly. Less secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving ourselves
accurately and enhancing our-self concept are factors that enhance accurate perception.
3. Past Experience:
Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what we expect to see. A
person’s past experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation. If a person
has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new
friendship that he might be in the process of developing.
4. Current Psychological State:
The psychological and emotional states of an individual are likely to influence how things
are perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation
differently than if he is elated. Similarly, if a person is scared out of wits by seeing a snake
in the garden, she is likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake.
5. Beliefs:
A person’s beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not
on what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus
inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.
6. Expectations:
Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of
anticipation of particular behaviour from a person. For example, a technical manager will
expect that the non- technical people will be ignorant about the technical features of the
product.

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7. Situation:
Elements in the environment surrounding an individual like time, location, light, heat etc.,
influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or events is very
important.
8. Cultural Upbringing:
A person’s ethics, values and his cultural upbringing also play an important role in his
perception about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality of a person raised in
another culture because our judgment is based upon our own values.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVED:

Characteristics of the person who is being observed can affect what is perceived. Though,
it may go against logic and objectivity, but it cannot be denied that our perceptions about
others are influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearances, age, gender,
manner of communication as well as personality traits and other forms of behaviour. For
example, loud people are more likely to be noticed in a group than are quite ones. So too
are extremely attractive or extremely ugly individuals.
Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other tend to be grouped together.
People dressed in business suits are generally thought to be professionals, while
employees dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level employees.
Manner of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, affect our perception about
others. For example, the choice of words and precision of language can form impressions
about the education and sophistication of the person. The tone of voice indicates the
mood of the person. The depth of conversation and choice of topics provide clues of
people’s intelligence. The body language or expressive behaviour such as how a person
sits and the movement of his eyes or a smile can indicate whether he is nervous or self
confident.
The status or occupation of a person also influences the perception. We tend to behave in
a more respectful way when we are introduced to the principal of a school in which our
child is studying, judge of the high court or Supreme Court or a famous cricket player.
Sometimes our perception of a person tends to be; biased, depending upon the
description given to us by other persons. When we meet a person who is described to us
as warm and friendly, we treat him differently as compared to meeting a person who is
known to be cold & calculating.

C. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATION:

The context in which we see objects or events is very important. The surrounding
environment and the elements present in it influence our perception while perceiving a
particular situation or event, its physical, social and organisational setting can also
influence the perception. For example, if you meet a person for the first time and he is
with a person whom you respect and admire, you will create a favourable image about
him in your mind as compared to a situation in which you see him with another person
whom you intensely dislike. Of course, the initial impressions may change with the

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passage of time, but the saying that “First impression is the last impression” is very
valued.

SUMMARY

Perception is the way we interpret the information we sense

The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with stimuli in the environment
and ends with our interpretation of those stimuli; it involves the use of our special senses;
EYE, EAR, NOSE, SKIN, TONGUE as well as other SENSES thus the following types of
perception exists with respect to individual sense SIGHT, SOUND, SMELL,
TOUCH/PRESSURE, etc…
Perception involves the selection/identification of stimuli; organizing such perceived
stimuli and interpretation of stimuli.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boundless (2016). Boundless Psychology. Retrieved from
https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-
textbook/sensation-and-perception-5/introduction-to-perception-39/introducing-
the-perception-process-167-12702/
Factors Influencing the Perceptual Set: 3 Factors. (2015). YourArticleLibrary.com: The Next
Generation Library. Retrieved 29 October 2016, from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization/perception/factors-influencing-the-
perceptual-set-3-factors/63824/

Perception. (2016). En.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 29 October 2016, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception

Types of Perception in Psychology. (2016). Thescience.one. Retrieved 29 October 2016,

from http://thescience.one/types-of-perception-in-psychology/

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