Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

https://doi.org/10.26525/jtfs2021.33.1.69

SPACING, PIT SIZE AND IRRIGATION INFLUENCE EARLY

GROWTH PERFORMANCES OF FOREST TREE SPECIES
Mohammad N1, *, Rajkumar M1, Singh K1, Nain NPS2, Singh S2, Rao GR1 & Prakasham U3

1
Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) – 482 021, India
2
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun (Uttarakhand) – 248 006, India
3
Madhya Pradesh State Forest Department, Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) – 4620 04, India

*[email protected]

Submitted May 2020; accepted August 2020

This experiment is a standardisation of plantation techniques of four native, promising forestry species,
namely, Dalbergia latifolia, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellirica and Gmelina arborea, with respect to effects of
tree spacing, pit size and irrigation. The experiment was set up in a tropical mixed deciduous forest patch
of Madhya Pradesh, central India. We tested three spacings (2 m × 2 m, 3 m × 3 m and 5 m × 5 m), three pit
sizes (30 cm × 30 cm× 30 cm, 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm and 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm) and two moisture regimes
(rainfed and irrigated). Growth data were recorded for four years, from the first year of plantation in 2013
to 2017. From the four-year growth performance, D. latifolia, T. arjuna and T. bellirica performed better
in irrigated conditions, whereas G. arborea, performed well under rainfed condition. Terminalia bellirica
performed best with largest pit size, i.e. 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm, while the other three species performed
best with 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm pit size. In terms of tree spacing, G. arborea and D. latifolia responded best
to 3 m × 3 m spacing while T. arjuna and T. bellirica performed best with 5 m × 5 m spacing.

Keywords: Rainfed, irrigated, collar diameter, seedling height, central India

INTRODUCTION

Plantation forests represent about 4% of the requirement for raw wood. However, cultivation
global forest area and have potential to meet of exotic species is not a permanent solution as
the world’s entire wood requirements (Fenning they vigorously invade over indigenous species.
& Gershenzon 2002) and, therefore, are now Besides, exotic tree species have many limitations
taken up as systematic programmes by many such as site specificity and higher moisture and
countries and are expected to increase with nutrient requirements. Additionally, arguments
time (Putz 2015). Presently, India is the second surrounding the negative effects of monoculture
most populous country in the world and fails to of exotic trees on soil health, ground water and
meet the population’s large demand for wood ecological threats to native vegetation lead to
from its own resources and is a net importer more ambiguity.
of timber and allied products. India’s timber In this context, indigenous species such as
imports in 2025 and 2030 are projected to be Dalbergia latifolia, Terminalia arjuna, Ailanthus
27.01 and 31.5 million m3 respectively. In India, excelsa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia bellirica,
Forest Development Corporations (FDCs) are Melia dubia, Gmelina arborea, Azadirachta indica,
entrusted with the mandate to raise plantations Shorea robusta, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstroemia
of economically important species to fulfil the parviflora, Toona ciliata, Mangifera spp., Quercus
timber demand of the country. Although, the spp., Dalbergia spp., and Bombax spp. are promising
FDCs have not been able to fulfil this demand, species and have great potential to fulfil both
they contribute significantly (~60%) to the timber and biomass demands of the country, with
total annual production of timber from forest added advantage of being native. However, there
(Agarwal & Saxena 2017). Until recently, FDCs, exist many hurdles in promoting these species
wood-based industries and plantation companies for commercial cultivations, including absence
were more inclined towards the introduction of improved planting stock, lack of standardised
and cultivation of exotic trees such as Eucalyptus, plantation techniques, package of practices and
Casuarina, Poplar and Leucaena to fulfil the cost-benefit economics. Due to the government’s

© Forest Research Institute Malaysia 69

Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

recent emphasis on the importance of native MATERIALS AND METHODS

species, considerable progress has been made to
prioritise native species over exotics. Site selection and procurement of planting
There are many reports indicating significant stock
effect of irrigation, spacings and pit sizes on the
overall growth rate of forest tree plantations. Such Suitable site for the establishment of plantation
reports are ample for temperate trees (Linder et was finalised after consultation with the State
al. 1987, Neilsen et al. 1997, Albaugh et al. 2004), Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh. The site
but limited for indigenous multipurpose tropical chosen was a tropical mixed deciduous forest
forest trees species such as D. latifolia, T. arjuna, patch located in Moyanala village of Bijadandi
T. bellirica and G. arborea (Priya & Bhat 1999, range, Mandla (West) Forest Division (Figure 1).
Zahabu et al. 2015). The plot was cleared of weeds and debris in April–
The present study was aimed at raising an May 2013. Quality planting stocks of the targeted
experimental plantation with different planting species, i.e. D. latifolia, T. arjuna, T. bellirica, and
designs so as to investigate the effect of inter-tree G. arborea were procured from the nursery of the
spacings, pit sizes and irrigation on early growth Forest Research and Extension Circle (Jabalpur),
parameters of D. latifolia, T arjuna, T. bellirica Madhya Pradesh Forest Department.
and G. arborea for better understanding and
optimising standard plantation techniques. We Experimental design
hypothesised that appropriate spacing, pit size
and moisture availability in early growth years Factorial experiment was designed with three
would determine the success of native forest tree factors, namely, A (condition): A1 = irrigated and
plantations. A2 = rainfed; B (spacing): B1 = 2 m × 2 m, B2 =

80°8'5"N 80°8'10"N
23°0'30"N
23°0'30"N

23°0'25"N
23°0'25"N

80°8'5"E 80°8'10"E

Figure 1 Location of the experimental site in Mandla (West)

Forest Division, Madhya Pradesh, India

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Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

3 m × 3 m and B3 = 5 m × 5 m; and C (pit size): the four years period. Highest average seedling
C1 = 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm, C2 = 45 cm × 45 cm height (148.62 cm) was recorded under irrigated
× 45 cm and C3 = 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm. Thus, condition with 3 m × 3 m spacing and 45 cm ×
factor A had two levels and factors B and C had 45 cm × 45 cm pit size (i.e. A1 × B2 × C2). Lowest
three levels each. For each forestry species, 18 height (100.62 cm) was observed under rainfed
treatment combinations were tested (Table 1). condition with 5 m × 5 m spacing and 60 cm ×
The experiment was laid out in randomised 60 cm × 60 cm pit size. Under rainfed condition,
complete block design with two replications. highest average height was recorded with 5 m ×
One-year-old seedlings were planted in June 5 m spacing and 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm pit size
2013. Irrigation was provided once a week (Figure 2). Earlier published reports indicate that
in summer using buried clay pot method full light, porous soil, free of weeds infestation
(Bainbridge 2001), which is one of the most and adequate moisture in the soil are the decisive
efficient traditional systems of irrigation. All factors for overall development of the D. latifolia
standard package of practices were followed to seedlings (Kadambi 1954). Dalbergia latifolia
raise a healthy plantation. survives up to temperatures of 37–50 °C and is well
known as a drought tolerant tree, but at seedling
Data recording and statistical analysis stage, it is sensitive to drought (Troup 1921).
However, in the present investigation, irrigation
Height and collar diameter were measured on did not influence the growth significantly, but its
12 seedlings per plot in December every year till effect on D. latifolia seedling height was evident
2017, i.e. up to four years. Three factor analyses of and maximum average height was recorded with
variance (Tucker 1966) was performed to assess irrigated condition. Therefore, irrigation was
the effects of conditions (rainfed/irrigation), recommended for the first three years of planting.
spacings and pit sizes of growth parameters using Linear increase in dry weight was observed for
statistical package OPSTAT, version 1998. Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and
E. grandis after irrigation (Hunter 2001). Similarly,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION D. sissoo seedlings also showed better growth and
biomass production in an experiment to assess
Average performances of D. latifolia, T. arjuna, the effect of soil water stress regimes on biomass
T. bellirica and G. arborea for the four years production (Singh & Singh 2009).
(2013–2017) are presented in Figure 2. Statistical Although T. arjuna and T. bellirica have varied
significances of the effects of irrigation/rainfed, uses such as timber, biomass and medicine,
spacings, pit sizes and their interactions on research on standardisation of plantation
growth parameters of the four species studied techniques and package of practices for
for 2013–2017 are presented in Table 2. Seedling raising healthy plantations of this species are
height and collar diameter of D. latifolia were lacking. Conditions (irrigated/rainfed), and
not affected by the three factors, i.e. condition, their interaction with spacings and pit sizes
spacing, pit size and their interactions during had significantly affected T. arjuna seedling

Table 1 Three factorial experiments designed to assess the effects of spacing, pit sizes and irrigation on
four different indigenous forestry species

Irrigated (A1) Rainfed (A2)

Spacing (B) Spacing (B)
Replicate B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3
(2 m × (3 m × (5 m × (2 m × (3 m × (5 m ×
2 m) 3 m) 5 m) 2 m) 3 m) 5 m)
C1 R-1 T1 T4 T7 T10 T13 T16
(30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm) R-2 T1 T4 T7 T10 T13 T16
Pit size (C)

C2 R-1 T2 T5 T8 T11 T14 T17

(45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm) R-2 T2 T5 T8 T11 T14 T17
C3 R-1 T3 T6 T9 T12 T15 T18
(60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm) R-2 T3 T6 T9 T12 T15 T18

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Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

150 3.0

2.5
Seedling height (cm)

Collar diameter (cm)

100 2.0

1.5
Treatment Treatment

(3×3 m) Irrigated
2
(3×3 m)2 Irrigated
(4×4 m)2 Irrigated (4×4 m)2 Irrigated
50 (5×5 m)2 Irrigated 10 (5×5 m)2 Irrigated
(3×3 m)2 Rainfed (3×3 m)2 Rainfed
(4×4 m)2 Rainfed (4×4 m)2 Rainfed
(5×5 m)2 Rainfed (5×5 m)2 Rainfed
(30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated
(45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated 0.5 (45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated
(60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated (60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated
(30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed (30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed
(45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed (45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed
(60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed (60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed
0 0.0
Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017 Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017
Year Year
A-1) D. latifolia A-2) D. latifolia

140 3.0

120 2.5

Collar diameter (cm)

Seedling height (cm)

100 2.0

Treatment Treatment
80 (3×3 m)2 Irrigated
1.5 (3×3 m)2 Irrigated
(4×4 m)2 Irrigated (4×4 m)2 Irrigated
(5×5 m)2 Irrigated (5×5 m)2 Irrigated
(3×3 m)2 Rainfed (3×3 m)2 Rainfed
(4×4 m)2 Rainfed (4×4 m)2 Rainfed
(5×5 m)2 Rainfed (5×5 m)2 Rainfed
60 (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated 1.0 (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated
(45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated (45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated
(60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated (60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated
(30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed (30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed
(45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed (45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed
(60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed (60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed
40 0.5
Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017 Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017
Year Year
B-1) T. arjuna B-2) T. arjuna

140 3.0

120 2.5
Seedling height (cm)

Collar diameter (cm)

100 2.0

80 1.5
Treatment Treatment

(3×3 m)2 Irrigated (3×3 m)2 Irrigated

(4×4 m)2 Irrigated (4×4 m)2 Irrigated
60 (5×5 m)2 Irrigated 10 (5×5 m)2 Irrigated
(3×3 m)2 Rainfed (3×3 m)2 Rainfed
(4×4 m)2 Rainfed (4×4 m)2 Rainfed
(5×5 m)2 Rainfed (5×5 m)2 Rainfed
(30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated
40 (45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated 0.5 (45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated
(60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated (60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated
(30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed (30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed
(45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed (45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed
(60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed (60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed
20 0.0
Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017 Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017
Year Year
C-1) T. bellirica C-2) T. bellirica

250 5

200 4
Seedling height (cm)

Collar diameter (cm)

150 3

Treatment Treatment
100 (3×3 m)2 Irrigated 2 (3×3 m)2 Irrigated
(4×4 m)2 Irrigated (4×4 m)2 Irrigated
(5×5 m)2 Irrigated (5×5 m)2 Irrigated
(3×3 m)2 Rainfed (3×3 m)2 Rainfed
(4×4 m)2 Rainfed (4×4 m)2 Rainfed
(5×5 m)2 Rainfed (5×5 m)2 Rainfed
50 (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated 1 (30×30×30 cm)2 Irrigated
(45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated (45×45×45 cm)2 Irrigated
(60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated (60×60×60 cm)2 Irrigated
(30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed (30×30×30 cm)2 Rainfed
(45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed (45×45×45 cm)2 Rainfed
(60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed (60×60×60 cm)2 Rainfed
0 0
Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017 Dec_2013 Dec_2014 Dec_2015 Dec_2016 Dec_2017
Year Year
D-1) G. arborea D-2) G. arborea

Figure 2 Yearly growth performance of Dalbergia latifolia (A-1 & 2), Terminalia arjuna (B-1 & 2), T. bellirica (C-1 & 2)
and Gmelina arborea (D-1 & 2) under different planting spacings, pit sizes and moisture regimes

© Forest Research Institute Malaysia 72

 Table 2 Summary of the statistical significance of different factors (irrigation/rainfed, spacing, pit size) and interactions on growth parameters of four
indigenous forestry species over a period of four years

Source of Critical difference values for seedling height

variation
Dalbergia latifolia Terminalia arjuna Terminalia bellerica Gmelina arborea

Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17
Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17
Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17

© Forest Research Institute Malaysia

Dec -17
Replication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Factor A ns ns ns ns ns 4.8 ns ns ns ns 5.00 ns 7.2 ns 13.95 ns ns ns ns ns
Factor B ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
A×B ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Factor C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 17.09 ns ns ns ns ns
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021)

A×C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 21.5 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 12.73 ns ns ns ns

B×C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
A×B×C ns ns ns ns ns 14.53 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Error - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

73
Source of Critical difference values for collar diameter
variation
Dalbergia latifolia Terminalia arjuna Terminalia bellerica Gmelina arborea
Dec-16
Dec-17
Dec-13

Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17
Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17
Dec-13
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-14
Dec-15
Dec-16
Dec-17

Replication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Factor A ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Factor B ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 0.37 0.55 0.53
A× B ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Factor C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
A×C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
B×C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
A×B×C ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Error - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

ns = non-significant
Mohammad N et al.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

height in one or more years during the study spacing and 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm pit size
period. However, the effect of irrigation and followed by 192 cm in 2 m × 2 m spacing and
its interaction with pit spacings and pit sizes 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm pit size. Under irrigated
became insignificant as growth progressed. At condition, highest average height (146.75 cm)
the end of fifth year, only factor spacing exhibited was recorded in 2 m × 2 m spacing and 45 cm ×
significant influence on the seedling height. 45 cm × 45 cm pit size. For G. arborea, Mayavel et
Highest average seedling height (130.87 cm) al. (2014) recommended 3 m × 3 m spacing and
was recorded in irrigated condition with 5 m × 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm pit for optimal growth. It is
5 m spacing with 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm pit size a light-demanding and drought-resistant species
(A1 × B3 × C2) followed by 130.50 cm in irrigated and can adapt well to a wide range of soil and
condition with 2 m × 2 m spacing and 45 cm × climatic conditions of tropical and subtropical
45 cm × 45 cm pit size (A1 × B1 × C2). A similar regions (Chaturvedi et al. 2017). This could be
trend was recorded for collar diameter. Highest one of the reasons for the insignificant difference
value (2.83 cm) was recorded in A1 × B3 × C2 and in growth performance of G. arborea between
in A1 × B1 × C3 followed by 2.53 cm in A1 × B1 × rainfed and irrigated conditions in the present
C2. However, these values were not significantly study.
different (Figure 2). Seedling collar diameters of the four species
Seedling height of T. bellirica was also were not significantly affected by the studied
significantly affected by condition (irrigated/ factors and their interactions. Seedling height
rainfed) and pit size, but effects of spacing was generally more affected by irrigation and
and interactions were statistically insignificant. spacing compared with collar diameter. Effect of
Highest average height (128 cm) was obtained the spacing will be more visible in later years after
under irrigated condition with A 1 × B 3 × C 3 full canopy development due to competition
followed by 120.5 cm in A1 × B1 × C3 treatment (Smith & Reukema 1986, Hebert et al. 2016).
combination. Under rainfed condition, highest Determination of proper spacing is important for
average seedling height (105.62 cm) was observed producing more quality wood (Kerr 2003, Rais et
in A2 × B1 × C3 treatment. None of the factors and al. 2014).
their interactions exhibited significant effect on It is difficult to raise successful plantations
collar diameter. in the tropics, because tropical trees are
Our findings concur with the recommendation highly sensitive to site conditions, and several
by NMPB (2008) that 6 m × 6 m spacing and 45 cm plantations in the tropics have poor rates
× 45 cm × 45 cm pit size should be applied of success. Therefore, with a high degree of
for Terminalia spp. Olaoye and Oyun (2019) confidence, assessments from the current study
investigated early growth of indigenous tree can be applied elsewhere in the tropics with
species in response to watering regimes and parallel land contexts. Findings of the study are
found that Terminalia spp. require watering not only valuable for foresters and plantation
thrice a week for optimal growth. Terminalia managers, but also for cross-sectoral approaches
spp. prefer moist physical environment and are such as agroforestry. Species such as G. arborea
largely distributed along the bank of streams and D. latifolia have high prospects for rural
(Paarakh 2010) and riparian forests (Nagaraja et livelihood improvement through agroforestry
al. 2014). The present investigation also showed (Parthiban et al. 2014), especially when countries
better results of growth parameters with irrigated are prioritising towards climate solutions (Deb
condition and a wider planting spacing of 5 m × et al. 2018) for achieving their Nationally
5 m was best for T. arjuna and T. bellirica. Determined Contributions in mitigating climate
Height and collar diameter of G. arborea change through afforestation, reforestation,
were significantly affected by spacing but not sustainable forest management and improved
irrigation and pit size. However, in the second forest plantations.
year of planting, interaction between irrigation
and spacing had significant effects on height CONCLUSIONS
and collar diameter, but these effects became
non-significant in later years. At the end of fifth Restoration of degraded land is gaining
year, highest average height (260.87 cm) was importance as never before and is becoming
recorded under rainfed condition with 3 m × 3 m top priorities of respective governments.

© Forest Research Institute Malaysia 74

Journal of Tropical Forest Science 33(1): 69–76 (2021) Mohammad N et al.

Therefore, it is necessary to intensify relevant Fenning TM & Gershenzon J. 2002. Where will the wood
and practical field research into plantation come from? Plantation forests and the role of
biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology 20: 291–296.
techniques of forestry species. It is in this context https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0167-7799(02)01983-2
that the findings of our study, especially the Hebert F, Krause C, Plourde PY, Achim A, Pregent G &
species-wise recommendations, are vital. We Menetrier J. 2016. Effect of tree spacing on tree level
concluded that D. latifolia, T. arjuna and T. bellirica volume growth, morphology, and wood properties
performed better in irrigated conditions, whereas in a 25-year-old Pinus banksiana plantation in the
boreal forest of Quebec. Forests 7: 276–291. https://
G. arborea per for med well under rainfed doi.org/10.3390/f7110276
condition. This suggested that G. arborea was H unter I. 2001. Effect on above ground biomass and
suitable for agroforestr y system. Terminalia nutrient uptake of three tree species (Eucalyptus
bellirica performed best with largest pit size, i.e. camaldulensis, Eucalyptus grandis and Dalbergia sissoo)
60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm, while the other three as affected by irrigation and fertiliser, at 3 years of
age, in southern India. Forest Ecology and Management
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The authors are grateful to The Director,
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Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur https://doi.org/10.1139/x87-179
(Madhya Pradesh) for extending the required M ayavel A, S oosai R aj J, S ingh BG & K rishnakumar N.
field and laboratory support. Authors are also 2014. Cultivation techniques for Gmelina arborea. Pp
thankful to Subramanyam P and Chandra G for 23–27 in Buvaneswaran C et al. (eds) Transfer of Tree
Cultivation Technologies to Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
helping in designing the experiment; Kunjam
of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry. Institute of Forest
KK, Jhariya S and Joshi M for helping in data Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore.
collection; and Gupta D for preparing the site Nagaraja BC, Sunil C & Somashekar RK. 2014. Protection of
map. Financial grant extended by the Madhya riparian habitats to conserve keystone species with
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