Physiology of Growth in Farm

animals
•Growth in a very simple concept means one getting
bigger.
•In a scientific term it can be defined as correlated
increase in the mass of the body at definite interval
of time in a way characteristics of the species.
•Growth curve:
•When the body weight of an animal is plotted against
the age the shape of the growth curve appears sigmoid
which depicts roughly ‘S” shape.
•It is further interesting that this shape is more or less
same in all species of animals.
•The shape of the growth curve is decided as a result of
interaction of two opposing forces,
1. growth accelerating force and
2. growth retarding force.
•In the early part of life of an animal the shape of the
growth curve has an increasing trend due to
predominance of accelerating force but in the latter part
of life the shape has a diminishing tendency which is a
result of predominance of retarding force.
•The point of inflection of the growth curve represents a
particular point when growth rate is at its maximum.
•At this point of inflection the acceleration of growth has
just reached its summit point and retardation is almost
about to start.
•The accelerating force of growth is the summation of cell
multiplication , cell hypertrophy and even inclusion of
materials taken from the environment.
•Like wise growth inhibiting or retarding factors are non
availability of nutrients and lack of space etc.
•After self retarding phase the growth of the animal is
completely inhibited by both external and internal
environment.
•During this period hypothalamic centre secrete hormone
somatostatin which oppose the multiplication and
growth of the cell.
•Like wise many other signals from the body lead to a
condition called senescence and finely inevitable death
follows which is genetically predetermined.
•There are enormous problems in describing and
comparing growth in animals. In animals changes do
occur in respect to size, shape and proportions of
different organ system as age progresses.
•But a sensible comparision of growth between animals
of different genotypes and animals grown under
different environmental conditions to its highest degree
of accuracy is extremely difficult.
Measure of growth
•The most common measure of growth is increase in live
weight.
•The recording of live weight is most widely used
technique in experimental work and day to day record
to determine growth rate in animals.
•This technique has its usual advantages like
•1. It is easy to undertake
•2. It is less costly in day to day measurement.
•But care must be taken in respect of
•1. Precision of weighing machine and
•2. human error.
•Further one has to be very careful to know whether the
apparent change in live weight is a true change or not.
•In ruminants animals the contents of rumen and
reticulum account for 0.1 to 0.15 or even 0.23 of the
total live weight and the content of rest of the tract
accounts further 0.02 to 0.03 of the total live weight.
•This variation is certainly largest single cause of error in
estimating the live weight of ruminant animals.
•The content of GI tract is in tern influenced by
•1. quantity and quality of food materials ingested
•2. time elapsed since the last intake
•3. retention time of the ingesta in the GI tract which is
also influenced by the quality of the food materials.
An adequate measure may help to overcome such
variation.
• Fasting of animal for a fixed time before weighing and to select
standardization of weighing time when live weight variation
due to fill of the GI tract is minimum, largely minimize error in
body weight measurement.
• It has already been pointed out that common measure of
growth is increase in live weight.
• The rate of growth may be expressed as absolute gain in unit
time. This may be denoted by formula
• W2-W1/t2-t1 where W1 and W2 are initial and final body
weight and t1 and t2 are the initial and final time.
•This type of expression of growth rate has a serious
limitations because when time period between t1
and t2 is exceptionally long then the result of study
appear very much misleading.
•Another alternative method is relative growth rate
which is expressed by the formula-
•W2-W1/ W1 where W1 is the initial weight W2 is
the final weight.
•The relative growth rate is very much misleading
when final weight is very high in comparision to
initial body weight.
•Brody (1945) has suggested another alternative in
the form of instantaneous growth and instantaneous
relative growth as per following equation
•W-Ae Kt
•Where W= the natural logarithm of weight of the
animal at time t
e= natural logarithm of W when t= 0 and K is the
constant relative growth rate.
This value when multiplied by 100 gives the
percentage growth rate.
•Many other equations have been suggested
from time to time for close prediction of growth
rate in animals (Adam et al.,1988; Mc Donald et
al.,1977).
Body measurement

•Body measurement which exhibit highest correlation

with body weight is heart girth.
•This measurement has mostly been used in case of cattle
and horses and to a much smaller extent on sheep and
goat and to a very limited extent on pigs.
•In small animal like goat accurate estimation of body
weight from body measurement has been suggested (
Bhattacharya et al.,1984).
•The best equation for body weight suggested are
(i) Y= -24.5382+0.4878X1+0.2325X3 (R²=0.8329)
and
(ii)Y= -23.8391+0.5244X1+0.2665X4 (R²=0.8338)
Where Y= Body weight in Kg and X1, X3, and X4
respectively are heart girth, length and
circumference of neck in cm.
Many new methods are now available for
measuring growth in animals like isotope dilution
technique, X ray , computerizes tomography (CT)
etc.
•Growth and development have
important implications for domestic
animal production because they
significantly influence the value of the
animal being produced.
Because growth and development are
continuous and dynamic processes requiring
integration of numerous physiological
functions, they are influenced by:
• Nutrition,
• Efficiency of metabolism and respiration,
•Hormonal regulation,
• Immune response,
• Physiological status of the animal,
• Diseases and parasites, and
• Maintenance of homeostasis.
Animal growth and development can
be separated into processes
occurring before birth or hatching
(pre-natal) and those occurring after
birth or hatching (post-natal).
•An animal originates from a single cell (ovum or
egg), which is fertilized by the male spermatozoon
(sperm).
•The resulting zygote then develops in an enclosed
environment (either the uterus or an egg) for a
certain period of time known as gestation or
incubation period.
Length of gestation:
• in cattle – approximately 283 days;
• in sheep – approximately 150 days; and
• in swine – about 112 days.

The length of incubation of a chicken egg is 21

days.
•After they are born or hatched, young animals
experience a period of rapid growth and
development until they reach maturity.
•After an animal matures, some processes stop (Ex.
bone elongation), while others slow down (Ex.
muscle deposition).
•The maximum size of an animal is
determined by its genetics, but
nutrition and disease influence
whether the animal reaches its
genetic potential for size.
 Pre-Natal Growth and Development
The target for prenatal growth in animal while in
utero is growth and development which ultimately
leads to semi independence at birth.
Pre-natal growth and development are broken down
into two stages:
• embryogenesis, and
• organogenesis.
Embryogenesis
Embryogenesis extends from the union of female
and male gametes to the emergence of the embryonic
axis and development of organ systems at the neurula
stage.
During embryogenesis, the zygote
develops into the morula, which
becomes the blastula, and then the
gastrula.
Organogenesis
The process of organogenesis extends from the
neurela stage to birth or hatching.
The neurela stage is distinguished by differentiation,
which is when unspecialized embryonic cells change
into specialized cells destined to form specific tissues
or organs.
 Post-Natal Growth
The period of post-natal growth extends from birth or
hatching until death.
The length of this period depends greatly on the
species.
The average life span of a mouse is about 2 years,
while humans and elephants live to be well over 60
years of age.
Sheep and cattle tend to live to be around 15 and 30
years of age, respectively.
Muscle, bone, and fat are the three main types of
tissues that develop as an animal grows.
The rate of deposition depends on the age of the
animal and the type of tissue being deposited.
Muscle fibers are formed from multiple cells called
myoblasts.
While the animal is still in the prenatal stage,
myoblasts fuse together to form a myotube, which
develops into a muscle fiber.
As a result, one muscle fiber has multiple nuclei.
Because no new fibers are formed after birth,
postnatal growth of muscle is characterized by
increases in length and diameter.
Muscle fibers are predominantly protein; fiber size is
determined by the rate of protein synthesis minus
the rate of degradation.
Because no new fibers are formed after birth,
postnatal growth of muscle is characterized by
increases in length and diameter.
Muscle fibers are predominantly protein; fiber size is
determined by the rate of protein synthesis minus
the rate of degradation.
The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) content of muscle
cells also increases as the animal develops.
Bone tissue grows both before and after birth.
A bone grows in length through the ossification or
hardening of the cartilage at each end.
After the cartilage on the ends of a bone has
completely hardened, the bone stops growing.
However, bones have the capability of increasing in
width and can repair themselves, if broken.
Although individual bones reach a mature length
and stop elongating, bone tissue is constantly being
deposited and resorbed.
Fat tissue is comprised of fat cells and connective
tissue.
Fat cells increase or decrease in size depending on
the nutritional status of the animal.
Two types of fat tissue include white fat, which
stores energy, and brown fat, which maintains a
constant body temperature.
Fat is deposited in four different areas throughout
the body or carcass.
Fat that is deposited in the abdominal cavity around
the kidneys and pelvic area is called intra-abdominal
fat; it is usually the first fat deposited.
Fat deposited just under the skin is referred to as
subcutaneous fat, or backfat, and is usually the
largest amount of fat deposited.
Fat between the muscles of animals is called
intermuscular fat, while fat deposited within the
muscle is called intramuscular fat.
The level of intramuscular fat is referred to as the
degree of marbling and affects the quality and taste
of meat.
In the United States, an important factor effecting
the value of a beef carcass is its quality grade, which
is determined by the degree of marbling in the
carcass.
Therefore, manipulation of the this process is very
important in meat production systems.
Intramuscular fat is the last type of fat to be
deposited, so animals with high degrees of marbling
also have large amounts of fat deposited in other
areas of the carcass.
 Deposition of Different Tissues
Muscle, bone, and fat are deposited differently
throughout the animal’s life.
Bone elongation stops after the animal reaches a
mature body size, but bone tissue deposition and
resorption continue until the animal dies.
The majority of muscle tissue develops between
birth and maturity.
Muscle growth then slows down, but it is not
physiologically halted as is bone growth.
Fat deposition occurs mainly after the
bulk of the muscle has been deposited.
It is a common misconception that fat is only
deposited in middle aged or mature animals; a
significant amount of fat is deposited in the young.
It is only because protein deposition declines
markedly with age that fattening is more apparent in
mature animals.
The rate of deposition and the amount of fat
deposited depend on the diet of the animal.
Young animals receiving an overabundance of milk or
nutrients become fat.
During early stages of an animal’s life, growth occurs
very quickly.
After puberty, bone elongation stops so skeletal size
does not increase much after that point, although
live weight continues to increase.
In cattle, puberty occurs at about 10 months of
age, while in sheep and pigs it occurs around 6
and 5 months, respectively.
 Hormonal Control

Deposition of different tissues and partitioning of

energy for various processes involved in growth
and development are regulated by hormones.
Some of the more important hormones involved
in growth and development are insulin, growth
hormone, Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1),
thyroid hormones, glucocorticoids, and the sex
steroids.
Insulin
Insulin is a very important hormone involved in
muscle growth and development.
It stimulates the transport of certain amino acids
into muscle tissue and is active in reducing the
rate of protein degradation.
Insulin is also a key hormone in the regulation of
food intake, nutrient storage, and nutrient
partitioning.
Growth Hormone
Growth hormone stimulates protein anabolism in
many tissues.
This effect reflects increased amino acid uptake,
increased protein synthesis, and decreased
oxidation of proteins.
Growth hormones enhance the utilization of fat by
stimulating triglyceride breakdown and oxidation in
adipocytes.
In addition, growth hormones seem to have a
direct effect on bone growth by stimulating the
differentiation of chondrocytes.
The growth hormone is one of many hormones
that serve to maintain blood glucose within a
normal range.
For example, it is said to have anti-insulin
activity because it suppresses the ability of insulin
to stimulate uptake of glucose in peripheral
tissues, and it enhances glucose synthesis in the
liver.
Somewhat paradoxically, the administration of the
growth hormone stimulates insulin secretion,
leading to hyperinsulinemia.
The major role of growth hormone in stimulating
body growth is to stimulate the liver and other
tissues to secrete IGF-1.
Insulin-like Growth Factor 1
IGF-1 stimulates proliferation of chondrocytes
(cartilage cells), thus resulting in bone growth.
It is also important in protein, fat, and
carbohydrate metabolism.
IGF-1 stimulates the differentiation and
proliferation of myoblasts and the amino acid
uptake and protein synthesis in muscle and other
tissues.
Thyroid Hormones
Animals require thyroid hormones for normal
growth.
Deficiencies of T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (tri-
iodothyronine) cause reduced growth as a result
of decrease muscle synthesis and increased
proteolysis.
Alterations in thyroid status require several days to
take effect and are associated with changes in the
ribonucleic acid (RNA)/protein ratio in skeletal
muscle.
In addition, thyroid hormones have an important
influence on the prenatal development of muscle.
Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids restrict growth and induce muscle
wasting; they have different effects on different
types of muscle.
Some evidence indicates that glucocorticoids also
effect metabolic rate and energy balance.
Sex Steroids
Androgens (male sex hormones) have an obvious
effect on muscle development and growth in
general because male animals grow faster and
develop more muscle than do females.
However, estrogens (female sex hormones) also
have significant roles in maximizing growth and
are commonly used in artificial growth
promotants for both male and female cattle.
Estrogen is thought to act indirectly through its
effects on the secretion of other hormones.
However, it is believed that androgens have a
more direct effect because of androgen receptors
located on muscle cells.
 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is a concept that is closely

integrated with the growth and development of
an animal.
Normal growth patterns are affected if
homeostasis is not maintained at all times.
Homeostasis refers to the animal’s maintenance
of an internal equilibrium.
Many processes and functions, both voluntary and
involuntary, contribute to maintaining this state of
internal balance, which is controlled by the
nervous system (nervous regulation) and the
endocrine system (chemical regulation).
Homeostasis is maintained at all levels, from
individual cells to the whole animal.
For example, cells must maintain suitable salt
and water levels, while tissues and organs
require specific blood glucose levels.
Therefore, maintaining a state of homeostasis
requires a high level of interaction between
hormonal and nervous activities.
Another example of homeostasis is the
maintenance of a constant internal temperature.
Temperature is something that must be kept
within a certain range for an animal to remain
alive and grow and function normally.
If an animal is becoming increasingly hot, it may
move from an open area to a shaded area to
help reduce body heat.
This is a voluntary action performed by the
animal.
At the same time, the animal may involuntarily
start to sweat.
This is a mechanism that many animals use to
dissipate heat, but it is not something controlled
by the animal.
Rather, it occurs automatically in response to
internal stimuli.
 Genetic Control
Most processes involved in growth and
development are occurring at a cellular level.
Because this is such a finite level, it can be
difficult to control or manipulate these processes
outside of a scientific laboratory.
However, managers of livestock systems must
manipulate growth and development to optimize
production.
Consequently, the knowledge of what is
happening at a cellular level must be applied at a
whole animal level so that growth and
development can be managed.
Manipulation of genetics is an important
factor in the management of livestock
operations because the genetic composition of
an animal determines its potential for growth
and development.
All animals have a set genotype that determines
their potential for growth.
However, their phenotype is affected by
environmental factors, including nutrition, disease,
parasites, and injuries.
 The Influence of External Factors

An animal never reaches its genetic potential for

growth, fattening, milk production, egg laying
and other developmental processes, if diet and
environmental conditions are not optimal or at
least favorable.
Nutrition
Nutrition is the variable that managers of livestock
production systems have the most control over in
the short-term.
An animal requires a certain level of nutrition for the
normal development and functioning of its body
systems.
This is commonly referred to as the maintenance
requirements of an animal.
Additional nutrients are then required if optimal
growth of muscle and fat is to occur.
Poor nutrition can have multiple consequences,
such as:
• stunted growth,
• malformed organs,
• disease,
• brittle skeletons,
• increased susceptibility to parasites, and
• poor reproductive performance.

All of these consequences lead to reduced income

for the owner of the animals.
Consequently, livestock operations spend a lot of
time and money trying to provide optimal nutrition
for their animals.
For more intensive
livestock operations,
such as swine and
cattle feeding
operations or
broiler grow-out
farms, feed costs can contribute to
more than 80% of the total costs
involved in producing an animal.
Nutrition affects
all stages of
growth and
development.

The nutritional status of the dam

throughout the gestation and lactation
periods has significant effects on the
offspring’s development.
Poor nutrition in reproducing females leads to low
birth weights and heavy death losses in newborn
progeny.
Species differ in how they adapt to poor nutrition.
For example, sheep and cattle partition as many
nutrients as possible into the fetus and even use
their own reserves to meet nutritional deficiencies.
Iron deficiencies cause problems because the
dam utilizes her own reserves to supply the iron
requirements for the growing fetus.
In comparison, some species abort the fetus if
their nutritional status falls below a certain level.
The effects of poor nutrition after birth on
postnatal growth and ultimate mature size
depend on three factors:
1. the age at which poor nutrition occurs,
2. the length of time during which the animal
was subjected to poor nutrition, and
3. the kind of poor nutrition to which the animal
was subjected (for example, a specific
imbalance of one or more essential amino
acids).
Poor nutrition at any stage in an animal’s
development has long-term effects.
For example, cattle that experience a period of
poor nutrition as young calves never meet their
genetic potential to marble.
However, structural development continues as
normal if the period of poor nutrition is relatively
short in duration.
Poor nutrition even provides a benefit in the form
of compensatory growth.
Compensatory growth is a phenomenon that has
been identified in animals that go through a short
period of malnutrition, but then return to an
adequate or high plane of nutrition.
Animals lose weight or their development is
temporarily slowed but, as the animal’s nutritional
status improves, they start utilizing nutrients more
efficiently.
Thus, the resulting weight gain occurs more
quickly and more efficiently.
Nutrition is used to manipulate the
growth patterns of animals.
For example, in
feedlots, high-
energy diets are
commonly fed in
the finishing phase
to encourage
deposition of fat (marbling).
The nutritional strategies used depend on the
desired end-product, the age at turn-off, and the
available feed sources.
• The plane of nutrition is now known to have a relationship with
the live weight growth.
• The live weight growth in turn has direct impact on milk
production in dairy animal and meat production in meat
producing animals.
• The changes in the plane of nutrition directly affect the
efficacy of conversion of food into meat, its composition and
carcass value of the slaughtered animals.
• The model experiments with factorial design initially conducted
with sheep and subsequently by other workers have given very
useful information.
•In the period was partitioned as period-I and
period-II and the plane of nutrition as;
•High-high
•High-low
•Low-high
•Low-low
•The period-I covered up to 16th weeks in case of
sheep and pig and 8 months in case of cattle.
•The essence of observation in different animal
furnishes the information like.
•The internal body tissues follow a definite sequence of
maturity like nervous tissue, bone, muscle and lastly
fat.
•The sequence of development is not related to live
weight of the animal but mostly related to the
functional priority of the animal.
•High-high nutrition assures uniform growth in animals
but is less efficient in feed conversion than high-low
plane of nutrition particularly in sheep and pig. This is
because in the latter part of growth phase feeds are
mostly converted to body fat.
•The tissues retarded by restricted nutrition exhibit a
great power of recovery when a high level of nutrition
is restored.
•Low-low nutrition adversely affects the growth of the
animal.
Diseases
Any form of disease negatively impacts the growth
and development of an animal.
Sickness usually requires nutrients to be
repartitioned and commonly causes reductions in
intake.
Some diseases also create long-term
consequences that impair the animal’s ability to
harvest, digest, or absorb nutrients, causing long-
term impairment of growth and development.
Parasites
The effect of parasites varies from mild to severe
and can be as drastic as death.
Both internal and external parasites cause:
• a decrease in appetite and, therefore,
decreased intake of food.
• depressed wool production,
• inhibited normal digestive functions,
• permanent internal tissue damage, and
• the animal to become physically sick (for
example, blood poisoning by ticks).
Many treatments are available to
prevent and combat parasitic
infections.

Cattle going through tick treatment bath

to control cattle fever ticks.