The Hellenistic period refers to the time in Greek history following the death of Alexander the

Great in 323 BC until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. This era marked the spread of
Greek culture across southwest Asia, northeast Africa, and parts of South Asia after the
conquests of Alexander. Greek influence blended with local traditions, forming a new cultural
fusion. Key achievements in this period include advances in arts, science, and philosophy, with
figures like Euclid and Archimedes. Koine Greek became a common language, and syncretic
religions emerged. The end of the Hellenistic era is often associated with the Roman conquest
of Egypt in 30 BC, although scholars debate the exact date, with some suggesting other events
such as the Roman conquest of Greece or Constantine's establishment of Constantinople as
significant endpoints.

The idea of a Hellenistic period is a 19th-

century concept, and did not exist in ancient
Greece. Although words related in form or
meaning, e.g. Hellenist (Ancient
Greek: Ἑλληνιστής, Hellēnistēs), have
been attested since ancient times, it has
been attributed to the 19th century German
historian Johann Gustav Droysen, who in
his classic work Geschichte des
Hellenismus (History of Hellenism), coined the term Hellenistic to refer to and define the period
when Greek culture spread in the non-Greek world after Alexander's conquest. [15] Following
Droysen, Hellenistic and related terms, e.g. Hellenism, have been widely used in various
contexts; a notable such use is in Culture and Anarchy by Matthew Arnold, where Hellenism is
used in contrast with Hebraism.

The major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek
culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the conquered
world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The term Hellenistic also implies that
the Greek populations were of majority in the areas in which they settled, but in many cases, the
Greek settlers were actually the minority among the native populations. The Greek population
and the native population did not always mix; the Greeks moved and brought their own culture,
but interaction did not always occur.

Sources
Few complete historical works survive from the century following Alexander the Great's death,
and only fragments remain of the major Hellenistic historians such as Hieronymus of Cardia,
Duris of Samos, and Phylarchus. These historians were referenced by later sources but their
original texts are lost. The earliest significant surviving work on the Hellenistic period is
Histories by Polybius of Megalopolis (c. 200–118 BC), a statesman of the Achaean League. His
forty-volume work covers the years 220 to 167 BC. After Polybius, another key source is
Diodorus Siculus, whose Bibliotheca historica (60–30 BC) draws on earlier accounts but ends
after the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (c. AD 50–120), while focused on
moral character, provides valuable biographies of Hellenistic figures. Appian of Alexandria’s
Roman history and the epitomes of Pompeius Trogus' Historiae Philippicae by Justin also
contain relevant material.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions, widely used for public display throughout the

Greek world, expanded during the Hellenistic era. Found
primarily in mainland Greece, the islands, and western Asia
Minor, they record royal correspondence, legal edicts, treaties,
and public honors, offering insight into many historical events.

Papyrus

Papyrus documents, mostly preserved in Egypt's dry climate,

provide crucial information about the Ptolemaic Kingdom.
Public and private documents, including official correspondence, laws, and archives, have
survived, preserving details about the Hellenistic period otherwise lost, especially in the Seleucid
Empire.

The Diadochi

When Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, he left behind a vast empire divided into semi-
independent territories called satrapies. With no chosen successor, his generals, known as the
Diadochi (meaning "Successors"), immediately disputed
over who should rule. Meleager and the infantry
supported Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus,
while Perdiccas, a leading cavalry commander, favored
waiting for the birth of Alexander's child by Roxana. A
compromise was reached where Philip III (Arrhidaeus)
would rule jointly with Roxana's son, Alexander IV, if it
was a boy. Perdiccas was appointed regent, but soon
consolidated power by killing Meleager and the infantry
leaders.

The first Diadochi war erupted when Perdiccas attempted

to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra, challenging Antigonus I in Asia Minor. Antigonus, along
with other satraps like Ptolemy and Lysimachus, rebelled. Though Eumenes, a loyal satrap, won
battles in Asia, Perdiccas was murdered by his own generals during an Egyptian campaign in 320
BC. New regency under Antipater was established.

Antigonus sent Demetrius to reclaim Greece, capturing Athens in 307 BC and defeating Ptolemy
at the Battle of Salamis. They declared themselves kings. Antigonus was killed in 301 BC, and
Demetrius briefly ruled Macedon before being defeated. His son, Antigonus II Gonatas, became
king in 277 BC, alongside the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires.

After Antipater’s death in 319 BC, a second war broke out. Cassander, Antipater’s son, fought
Polyperchon for control of Macedon. Cassander eventually seized power and executed
Alexander IV and Roxana. The third war began when Antigonus, growing too powerful, faced
opposition from Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, leading to further conflicts across the
empire.

Antigonus sent his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece, capturing Athens in 307 BC and
defeating Ptolemy's fleet at the Battle of Salamis, taking Cyprus. Antigonus and Demetrius then
declared themselves kings, with other successors doing the same. In 301 BC, Antigonus was
killed at the Battle of Ipsus by Lysimachus and Seleucus, who divided his territories. Demetrius
briefly ruled Macedon but was defeated in 288 BC. After various conflicts, Antigonus II
Gonatas, Demetrius' son, became king of Macedon in 277 BC. By this time, the main Hellenistic
powers were Macedon, the Ptolemaic kingdom, and the Seleucid Empire.

Rest of Greece:

During the Hellenistic period, Greece's importance in

the Greek-speaking world declined as new cultural
centers emerged in Alexandria and Antioch, the capitals
of Egypt and Syria. Alexander's conquests expanded the
Greek world, making the frequent city-state conflicts of
earlier centuries seem less significant. Many Greeks,
especially the ambitious, migrated east to new cities like
Alexandria and Antioch, and even as far as modern
Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Greek city-states struggled to compete with powerful Hellenistic

kingdoms and often allied with them for protection.
Athens, for example, was defeated by Macedon but later
freed by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 BC, who restored
democracy. Despite temporary alliances with Egypt,
Athens and Sparta were eventually defeated by Macedon
in the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC).

Sparta remained independent but lost its influence. King Cleomenes III tried to restore its power
with reforms, but Sparta was defeated by Macedon and the Achaean League in 222 BC.

Many city-states formed federations, like the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues, to defend
themselves. Rhodes, however, maintained full independence through its strong navy, neutrality,
and strategic location. It prospered culturally and economically but was eventually annexed by
Rome as a province after being a Roman ally.

Hellenistic near East

The Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt were governed by a Greco-Macedonian elite of
administrators and governors, supported by a standing army of mercenaries and a small number
of Greco-Macedonian settlers. Encouraging immigration from Greece played a key role in
maintaining this system. The Hellenistic monarchs managed their kingdoms like royal estates,
with much of the tax revenue being allocated to the military
and paramilitary forces. These forces helped ensure the
monarchs' continued rule by preventing revolts or uprisings.
The monarchs were also expected to personally lead their
armies in battle, accompanied by a group of privileged
aristocrats, known as "companions" or "friends" (hetairoi,
philoi). These companions not only fought alongside the
king but also formed an advisory council, sharing meals and
drinks with him and offering guidance on state matters. In
addition to their military duties, Hellenistic rulers were
expected to act as charitable patrons to their subjects. This
public philanthropy included funding major construction
projects, giving out gifts, and promoting Greek culture and
religion. Through these acts, the monarchs strengthened their legitimacy and solidified their
power by fostering loyalty among both Greek settlers and the local populations.

Ptolemaic kingdom

Ptolemy, one of Alexander the Great's bodyguards and generals, became the ruler (satrap) of
Egypt after Alexander’s death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, Ptolemy declared himself King Ptolemy I,
earning the title "Soter" (savior) for helping the Rhodians during a siege. He established
Alexandria as his capital, which became a major center of Greek culture and trade. Ptolemy also
built cities and settled veterans, especially in the Faiyum region.

The Egyptians reluctantly accepted the Ptolemies as successors to the

ancient pharaohs, even though the kingdom saw native revolts. Ptolemy
adopted Egyptian traditions like marrying his sister, a custom followed
by his successors. The Ptolemies also created a ruler cult, portraying
themselves as gods, and built temples in their honor. Ptolemy I
introduced the god Serapis, blending Greek and Egyptian religious
ideas.

Ptolemaic Egypt had a strong centralized administration, focusing on

collecting revenue through taxes and duties. Ptolemy II encouraged the
development of Hellenistic literature and supported the famous Library
of Alexandria. The Ptolemies fought several wars with the Seleucid
Empire over territory, weakening their state over time. The last
Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII, played a key role in Roman politics before Egypt fell to Rome in
30 BC.

Rise of Romans
Roman interference in the Greek world began when the Roman Republic sought to control Greek
city-states in southern Italy. Initially, Greek cities resisted and allied with Pyrrhus of Epirus, but
they were eventually absorbed by Rome. After conquering Sicily in the First Punic War, Rome
turned its attention to the Balkans and Philip V of Macedon,
leading to the Second Macedonian War in 200 BC. The Romans
won decisively at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC,
crippling Macedon's power.

By 146 BC, Rome had destroyed Macedon and forced the

Achaean League, the last major Greek alliance, to dissolve. The
Achaeans declared war on Rome but were defeated at Corinth,
which was destroyed. Greece became a Roman protectorate, with
local allies governing the cities.

The last resistance came in 88 BC when King Mithridates of

Pontus rebelled, but his defeat led to further destruction, including
the siege of Athens by Sulla. By 27 BC, Augustus annexed
Greece as the province of Achaea, ending its independence.
Although Roman rule initially caused devastation, it eventually brought stability and allowed
cities like Athens and Corinth to recover. The end of Ptolemaic Egypt and the fall of the Seleucid
Empire marked the end of the Hellenistic era.

Greek Culture in the Hellenistic Period

During the Hellenistic period, Greek culture reached unprecedented levels of influence across
many regions, even those not governed by Greeks. This phenomenon, known as Hellenism or
Philhellenism, spread to areas bordering the Hellenistic kingdoms,
where Greek culture intertwined with local customs. Prior
interactions between Greek colonies and these regions facilitated
this process, leading to a mix of Hellenization and local traditions.

The expansion of Greek culture and language was significantly

driven by the establishment of new cities and colonization policies
by the successor states, essential for maintaining their military
power. Settlements along trade routes, like Ai-Khanoum, became
vital for the exchange of ideas and cultural practices. The version
of Attic Greek spoken in Philip II's and Alexander's courts evolved
into Koine, a common language across these regions. Ancient
Greek coinage further exemplified this cultural diffusion, featuring realistic portraits and
commemorative imagery that celebrated events and deities. Despite the eventual decline of
Greek language use, its influence persisted through the Roman, Parthian, and Kushan empires,
showcasing the enduring legacy of Hellenistic culture.
 Institutions and Centers of Learning

Hellenistic culture excelled particularly in preserving and studying

the past. The states during this era were preoccupied with their
historical glories, leading to the conservation of many classical
works of art and literature, including those by renowned tragedians
like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The Library and
Museum of Alexandria emerged as the epicenter of this scholarly
activity, where royal patronage enabled scholars to collect,
translate, copy, and critique vast amounts of literature.

Alexandria attracted many of the great literary figures of the time, who contributed to poetry and
studies on classical works. While Alexandria was a major hub, Athens remained the leading
center for higher education, particularly in philosophy and rhetoric, supported by its libraries and
schools. Other cities like Pergamum and Rhodes also housed significant libraries and educational
institutions. Antioch developed into a metropolis of Greek learning, which continued into the
Christian era. This proliferation of libraries and scholarly pursuits exemplified the vibrant
intellectual landscape of the Hellenistic period.

Hellenistic Religion

In the Hellenistic period, Greek religion experienced

continuity alongside changes brought by political
upheaval and cultural exchanges. While traditional
worship continued in places like Athens and Sparta,
cities like Alexandria saw a blend of various religious
practices, including Egyptian, Jewish, and local deities.
Greek emigrants carried their religion as far as India and
Afghanistan, leading to syncretic deities like Zeus-
Ammon. Hellenistic kings often adopted patron deities,
reinforcing their divine status. Additionally, ruler cults
emerged, notably in Egypt, where the Ptolemies
presented themselves as god-kings. Despite some decline
in traditional belief among the educated elite, magic,
oracles, and astrology remained popular, influencing
daily life and decision-making.
Hellenistic Literature

The Hellenistic period gave rise to New Comedy, epitomized by

playwright Menander, with a focus on domestic themes, marriage, and
romance. Although Hellenistic tragedy is largely lost, it remained
popular, adhering to classical forms. Poets began seeking royal
patronage, writing works that celebrated their patrons. Notable figures
included Callimachus, who promoted shorter poetic forms and
criticized epic poetry. His cataloging of the Library of Alexandria
significantly impacted literary scholarship. Apollonius of Rhodes,
influenced by Callimachus, sought to revive epic poetry with his work,
"Argonautica." Theocritus popularized pastoral poetry, enriching
Hellenistic literature's diversity, which later influenced Roman authors
like Virgil and Horace.

Hellenistic Philosophy

Hellenistic philosophy emerged during a period when Athens lost its

political freedom, leading thinkers to focus on inner peace and
personal happiness (eudaimonia). Major schools included Stoicism,
founded by Zeno of Citium, which emphasized virtue and living in
harmony with nature. Epicureans and Cynics rejected societal norms,
with the former advocating pleasure as the ultimate good and the
latter rejecting material possessions. Skepticism also gained traction,
with schools questioning the certainty of knowledge. The rise of
Christianity and Islam marked the decline of Hellenistic philosophy,
although its ideas continued to influence later religious and
philosophical traditions.

Hellenistic Sciences

Hellenistic science built on earlier Greek ideas and thrived in

cities like Alexandria, supported by royal patrons. Mathematicians
like Euclid and Archimedes made significant contributions,
developing proofs and methods still used today. Notable
advancements included Eratosthenes measuring the Earth’s
circumference and Hipparchus creating star catalogs. In medicine,
figures like Herophilos improved anatomical knowledge through
dissections. The era also saw technological inventions like the
Antikythera mechanism, an ancient analog computer, and various
machines such as Archimedes' screw and watermills. Although
some scholars previously downplayed Hellenistic achievements,
recent views recognize its crucial role in scientific development.
Hellenistic Warfare

Hellenistic warfare built on earlier military innovations,

especially those of Iphicrates and Philip II of Macedon. The
Macedonian phalanx, a tight formation of pikemen supported by
heavy cavalry, became central to Hellenistic armies. These
armies were larger and included more professional soldiers and
diverse mercenaries from different regions, such as Thracians
and Galatians. New troop types and weapons emerged, including
cavalry, archers, and war elephants. Siege technology advanced
with new machines, such as torsion-spring catapults. Notable
commanders like Demetrius Poliorcetes used massiv e siege
engines effectively in their campaigns, including the lengthy
siege of Rhodes.

Hellenistic Art

Hellenistic art, a term created later, covers a wide

range of styles and subjects across the vast territories
of the Hellenistic world. Unlike the idealized forms of
classical art, Hellenistic art emphasized realism,
emotion, and diversity, depicting everyday life and a
variety of people. Notable sculptures like the Venus de
Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace showcase
this style. Artists experimented with techniques like
chiaroscuro and focused on landscapes and still life.
While some view this period as a decline from
classical greatness, recent scholarship appreciates its
artistic richness and innovation.

Hellenistic Sports

Sports played a significant role in Hellenistic culture,

reflecting civic pride and identity. Athletic competitions were
widely supported, with sponsors gaining more recognition
than athletes themselves. The Ptolemaic kings in Egypt
promoted sports, building facilities and funding local athletes.
Women also participated in sports, particularly in equestrian
events, and some even competed successfully in major
competitions like the Olympics. Public demonstrations,
including exotic animal displays, entertained audiences and
showcased royal wealth. The emphasis on athletic festivals
and public displays continued into the Roman Empire,
highlighting the importance of sports in Hellenistic society.
Legacy of the Hellenistic Period

In the 19th century, scholars often viewed the Hellenistic period as a cultural decline from
classical Greece, reflecting their own times. This perspective has been criticized as unfair. The
fall of the Greek city-states (poleis) and the rise of monarchies may have limited social freedoms
and creativity. Some historians, like William Woodthorpe Tarn and Michael Rostovtzeff,
explored issues of race, culture, and capitalism during this era. Recent scholars like C. Préaux
and Peter Green have examined economic systems and individualism, reflecting a range of views
on the Hellenistic period, highlighting its complexity and varied interpretations.

Influence on Christianity

Alexander the Great's conquests spread Greek culture

across Asia, which later influenced the rise of
Christianity. One of his generals, Seleucus I Nicator,
established Antioch, a significant city for early
Christians, where the term "Christian" was first used for
Jesus' followers. The New Testament was written in
Koine Greek, the language of the Hellenistic world,
facilitating the spread of Christian teachings. The
cultural interactions and exchanges during the
Hellenistic period helped shape the early Christian
community, allowing Greek philosophical and cultural
ideas to merge with new religious beliefs.