Laboratory Report

SESSION I - MAKING GENERAL MEASUREMENTS AT

LABORATORY
SESSION II - MEASUREMENT OF HIGH RESISTANCE AND
LOW RESISTANCE

EEX3331
Electrical measurements and instrumentation
Lab 01

By
D.S.NIRANJAN
722523715

Submitted to
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Technology
The Open University of Sri Lanka

At
Colombo Regional Center

On
31th MAY 2023
 Session 1- Making general measurements at laboratory

Aim-Study of medium resistance measurement using Ohm’s law.

Learning outcomes-
 Perform lab experiments to prove theoretical knowledge.
 Use basic measuring instruments to carry out experiments.
 Record results of an experiment properly.
 Interpret results in appropriate methods to make judgements.

Introduction-
In a laboratory, you can find many instruments used for different purposes. In order to carry out any kind of an
experiment, you need to know the type of measuring quantity, units of measurement, correct measuring instrument
for the corresponding quantity and how to record data. In this lab session, we are going to perform a basic
experiment to learn the above mentioned principles measurements. The experiment we have selected is the
verification of Ohm's Law which is already know to you.
Ohm's law is commonly written as V = IR. That is, for a given current an increase in resistance will result in a
greater voltage drop. Alternately, for a given voltage, an increase in resistance will produce a decrease in current.
As this is a simple algebraic equation, plotting current against voltage for a fixed resistance will yield a straight
line. The slope of this line is the conductance, and conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Therefore for a high
resistance, the plot line will appear closer to the horizontal axis while a lower resistance will produce a more
vertical line.

Equipment-
1. Variable DC Power Supply
2. Digital Multimeter - 2
3. Analog Multimeter-2
4. Resistors (1 ΚΩ, 10 ΚΩ, 100 ΚΩ, 10 ΜΩ, 100 Ω)

DC + - R V

Figure 1.1
Circuit diagram of the Ohm’s Law verification

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Procedure-

1 The circuit was built as shown in figure 1.1 using the variable DC power supply, the first resistor, and the two
analog multimeters. Importantly, the ammeter was connected in series and the voltmeter in parallel.

2 The voltage control knob of the variable DC power supply was fully rotated counter-clockwise to set the output
to zero.

3 The DC supply was connected to the circuit by pressing the output push-button on. The voltage and current read-
ings of the two meters were recorded.

4 The voltage was adjusted to different levels, and the voltage and current readings of the meters were recorded.
Appropriate voltage steps were selected to increase within the range of 0 V to 10 V. The first and second columns
in table 1 were updated.

5 The steps 2 to 4 were repeated with digital multimeters. The readings were recorded and tabulated in the format
given in table 1.

6 The experiments were repeated for all other resistors, and the results were separately tabulated using the format
given in table 1.

7 The resistors were measured using an LCR meter, and the values were recorded. (The help of the instructor was
obtained for this step).

8 For each table, graphs of current against voltage were drawn, and the gradient of each graph was
determined.

9 The resistance in each experiment was calculated using the gradient of the graph.

10 The calculated resistance and the measurement made by the LCR meter for each experiment were
compared, and comments were provided on the differences between the

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Observations-

Data tables with analog multimeter:

 1kΩ resistor

Voltage across the resistor(V) Current through the resistor(mA)

2 2.0

4 4.1

6 6.2

8 8.0

10 10

Data tables with digital multimeter:

 1kΩ resistor

Voltage across the resistor(V) Current through the resistor(mA)

2.01 2.03

4.04 4.08

6.06 6.12

8.02 8.11

10.00 10.12

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Data tables with digital multimeter:

 100kΩ resistor

Voltage across the resistor(V) Current through the resistor(mA)

2.07 0.02

4.06 0.04

6.00 0.06

8.06 0.08

10.01 0.10

Data tables with digital multimeter:

 100Ω resistor

Voltage across the resistor(V) Current through the resistor(mA)

2.02 20.54

4.06 41.38

6.03 61.40

8.10 83.10

10.01 103.40

Data tables with LCR measurement value to resistance value

Resistor Resistance Value LCR measurement value

R1 1kΩ 0.995kΩ

R2 100kΩ 99.67kΩ

R3 100Ω 98.92kΩ

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Graph-
 Graph of table 1

Current against voltage graph

12
Current through the resistor(mA)

10 10

8 8

6 6.2

4 4.1

2 2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Voltage across the resistor(V)

 Graph of table 2

Current against voltage graph

12

10 10.12

8 8.11

Current through 6.12

6
the resistor(mA)

4 4.08

2 2.03

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Voltage across the resistor(V)

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 Graph of table 3

Current against voltage graph

0.12

0.1 0.1

0.08 0.08

Current through
0.06 0.06
the resistor(mA)

0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Voltage across the resistor(V)

 Graph of table 4

Current against voltage graph

120

100 103.4

80 83.1
Current through
the resistor(mA) 60 61.4

40 41.38

20 20.54

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Voltage across the resistor(V

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Calculation-

According to the Ohm’s law,

V=I×R

Where:
V is the voltage applied (in volts),
I is the current flowing through the conductor (in amperes), and
R is the resistance of the conductor.

V=I × R
I =1/R × V

Y=m ×X

 According to the graph 1,

m = (y1-y2)/(x1-x2)
y1=8.02, y2=2.04, x1=8, x2=2
m = (8.02-2.04) / (8-2)
= 5.98/6
= 0.997
m = 1/R
R = 1/m
R= 1/0.997
R= 1.003 kΩ

 According to the graph 2,

m = (y1-y2)/(x1-x2)
y1=10.12,y2=2,x1=10,x2=2
m = (10.12-2)/(10-2)
= 8.12/8
= 1.015
m = 1/R
R = 1/m
R= 1/1.015
R= 0.985 kΩ

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  According to the graph 3,

m = (y1-y2)/(x1-x2)
y1=0.06,y2=0.02,x1=6,x2=2
m = (0.06-0.02)/(6-2)
= 0.04/4
= 0.01

m = 1/R
R = 1/m
R= 1/0.01
R= 100 kΩ

 According to the graph 4,

m = (y1-y2)/(x1-x2)
y1=103.40,y2=20.54,x1=10,x2=2
m = (103.40-20.54)/(10-2)
= 82.86/8
= 10.358

m = 1/R
R = 1/m
R= 1/10.358
R= 0.09654 kΩ
R= 96.54 Ω

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LRC Value-

 Based on the comparison between the LCR readings and the readings calculated for the R1
values,

LCR value-calculated value = (0.995-0.985) kΩ

Difference between the two values = 0.010 kΩ

 Based on the comparison between the LCR readings and the readings calculated for the R2
values,

Calculated value- LCR value = (100.00-99.67) kΩ

Difference between the two values = 0.33 kΩ

 Based on the comparison between the LCR readings and the readings calculated for the R3
values,

LCR value-calculated value = (98.92- 96.54) kΩ

Difference between the two values = 2.38 kΩ

When considering these readings, a difference can be seen between the readings. Their reasons are given below.

 Although the resistance of the multimeter and connecting wires is assumed to be zero, there is some re-
sistance in them.

 Although the total energy in the electrical circuit is considered constant, energy loss occurs through resis-
tors.

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Discussion-

Not all experiments conform to Ohm's law.

 Resistance values and LCR obtained according to experimental data and Ohm's law
There is a significant difference between the values.

 According to Ohm's Law, "When the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure) of a conduc-
tor remain the same, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the poten-
tial difference across its ends." But in practical conditions, when this test is carried out, the physical condi-
tions are not constant. Therefore, their rule is not always true under practical conditions.

 In this test we assume that the internal resistance of the ammeter is zero and the internal resistance of the
voltmeter is an infinite value. But in practice these internal resistance values are not zero or infinite values.

 The wires used in this test are assumed to have zero resistance and actually contain very little resistance.

 So under real conditions Ohm's law is not true for all experiments.

A digital multimeter is best suited for this test.

 That is, digital multimeter readings are more sensitive when compared to analog multimeter readings.

 Analog multimeter can also avoid personal errors while taking readings with digital multimeter.

 A digital multimeter can take a wider range of measurements than an analog multimeter.

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Session 2: Measurement of high resistance and low resistance

Aim - Study of measurement of insulation, low resistance and internal properties of measuring instruments.

Learning outcomes –

 Identify the internal properties of measuring instruments and how it affects measurement.
 Identify the presence of high resistance through insulation and define how it affects the normal operation of
an electrical circuit.
 Identify the presence of low resistance between electrical contact points and define how it dissipate energy
from the circuit.

Introduction –

Internal properties of measuring instruments

From the basics we know that the resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite and the resistance of an ideal ammeter
is zero. But in reality a very high resistance is available in parallel to a real voltmeter and a low resistance is availa-
ble in series to a real ammeter. As we already know that the oscilloscope is also a form of a voltmeter which
measures voltage waveforms. Therefore it has a parallel resistance at the input stage. Apart from that, a capacitance
is also available across the terminals of an oscilloscope. Because of this capacitance at very high frequencies or
where at matched conditions, the readings we obtain might be erroneous. At very high frequencies the effects of
internal capacitors might into effect which cannot be clearly distinguished at low frequencies.

Measurement of Insulation

At the basic level you have defined insulators as non-conducting materials for electric current but in reality all insu-
lators are poor conductors. At higher operating voltages such as power distribution and transmission voltages this
conductivity can come in to account and create losses in power systems. These losses are defined as leakages.
Therefore it is important to measure the insulation in fact the resistance of electrical circuits. Insulation resistance is
always permitted by the regulations. Most common instrument used to measure the insulation is the "Insulation
Tester" which has a built in high voltage DC generator.

Measurement of Contact Resistance

A joint made to an electrical conducting path must have zero resistance. But in reality it has very low resistance
which is always in micro ohm range. If the operating current is very high this resistance can create an IR loss.
Therefore, the contact resistance is always permitted by regulations in order to save the energy.

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 CH1
R1

AC CH2

R2 GND

Figure 2.1.

DC
V
Constant

Current Supply B

Figure 2.2

A-B length is the distance where the resistance to be measured

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Procedure-Internal properties of oscilloscope-

1. A simple potential divider circuit was made using two 100 ohm resistors.
2. A sinusoidal voltage was applied to the divider, and both the input and divided output waveforms
were observed simultaneously on the oscilloscope. Figure 2.1 depicted the setup.
3. The frequency of the input signal was changed in appropriate steps, and the ratio between the in-
put and divided output was recorded.
4. The two resistors were replaced with IMA resistors, and steps 2 and 3 were repeated.
5. The divider ratio was plotted against frequency for both resistor sets on the same graph.

Procedure-Insulation test-

1. The instruction of the Insulation tester was read carefully, and the insulation of materials given by
the instructor was measured.
2. The guard terminal of the Insulation tester was used, and the results were compared with the val-
ues taken without connecting the guard terminal. The help of the instructor was obtained for the
connections.

Procedure - Contact resistance test-

1. The DC power supply was set as a current source with the assistance of the instructor.
2. The wire conductor provided by the instructor was connected to the DC power supply, and the po-
tential drop along the conductor was measured using a voltmeter. The setup was illustrated in Fig-
ure 2.2.
3. The wire conductor was replaced with the items given by the instructor, and step 2 was repeated.
4. The energy loss along the wire conductors during a period of 1 hour was calculated for each case,
considering a constant current flow of 100 A in the circuit.

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Observations-
Data table for two 100Ω resistors at 1 kHz freuency

Channel Peak to Peak voltage ( V )

CH1 6

CH2 3

Data table for two 100Ω resistors at 100 kHz frequency

Channel Peak to Peak voltage ( V )

CH1 6

CH2 3

Data table for two 1 MΩ resistors at 1 kHz frequency

Channel Peak to Peak voltage ( V )

CH1 2

CH2 7

Data table for two 1 MΩ resistors at 100 kHz frequency

Channel Peak to Peak voltage ( V )

CH1 25

CH2 0.2

Data table for resistance value

Experiment Current (A) Voltage (V)

Normal wire 3.15 0.25

Solder wire 3.15 0.30

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Calculation-

According to the Ohm’s law,

V=I×R

Where:
V is the voltage applied (in volts),
I is the current flowing through the conductor (in amperes), and
R is the resistance of the conductor.

Using Ohm’s law normal wire experiment;

V=I×R

R=V/I
R = (0.25 / 3.15) Ω
R = 0.0793 Ω
R = 79.3 mΩ

Using Ohm’s law solder wire experiment;

V=I×R

R=V/I
R = (0.30 / 3.15) Ω
R = 0.0952 Ω
R = 95.2 mΩ

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Discussion-

The internal properties of an oscilloscope can impact measurements in various ways:

 Input Impedance: The input impedance of the oscilloscope's input channels is an important factor for accu-
rate resistance measurements. When measuring high resistance, the input impedance should be as high as
possible to minimize loading effects and ensure that the measured resistance value is not significantly af-
fected by the impedance of the oscilloscope. For low resistance measurements, the oscilloscope's input im-
pedance may not be a critical factor.
 Signal Conditioning: The internal circuitry of the oscilloscope, can affect the accuracy of resistance meas-
urements. Particularly for low resistance measurements where small voltage drops across the resistance
need to be detected.
 Noise and Grounding: Noise can be a significant factor in resistance measurements, especially for low re-
sistance values. The internal noise generated by the oscilloscope and the noise picked up from the environ-
ment can affect the measurement accuracy. Proper grounding techniques and shielding should be employed
to minimize noise interference. Additionally, using appropriate shielding for low resistance measurements
can prevent external electromagnetic interference from affecting the measurement.
 Sensitivity and Gain Control: The sensitivity and gain control of the oscilloscope's vertical amplifiers are
crucial for obtaining accurate measurements. When measuring high resistance, a lower sensitivity setting
can be used to minimize noise and improve measurement resolution.

The reason for using high voltages to measure insulation and high currents to measure contact resistance:

 When measuring insulation, higher voltages are used to create a significant potential difference across the
insulation material. This facilitates the detection of leakage current or breakdown in the insulation, aiding
in the identification of insulation weaknesses or faults.

 For measuring contact resistance, higher currents are employed. This is done to overcome potential surface
contaminants, oxide layers, or other factors that may impede the flow of current through the contact points.
The higher current helps in identifying and quantifying the resistance present in the contacts more effec-
tively.

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