MODULE 1: SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

UNIT 1.1-THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

INTERRACTION OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

SCIENCE

Science is the process by which we study or gain knowledge of our surrounding. It can also be,
defined as knowledge gained through observing, asking questions and carrying out experiments
to find out answers. Science uses procedures such as observation and experiments to gain
knowledge and understanding of the world and universe we live in.

TECHNOLOGY

Technology is the use of our knowledge, skills, and information gained from science to make
items that make our lives easier. It can also simply be defined as, the application of science. For
instance, it uses scientific knowledge to design and make something that we can use to solve a
problem or meet our needs.

The differences between science and technology

Science Technology

Result in new knowledge being created Result in useful things being made

Does not depend on technology Depend on science and itself

Involve observations and experimentation Involve designing new products

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Impact of technology on society

 It has made the society more informed because it is easier and faster to communicate
with people over long distances through the use of radio, telephones, internet and cell
phones.
 It has enabled the society to be able to live and travel to far places as it easier and faster
to travel with the help of cars, trains and aircraft.
 It has helped people to live healthily as medical practitioners are able to diagnose
different ailments or diseases much better.
 Has made it possible for people to do a lot of work easily and quickly in a short space of
time with the use of machines.
Influence of society on technology

 The need of people to communicate with others anywhere and anytime has led to the
development of cell phones and laptops connected to internet.
 The need to travel long distances at a short space of time has led to the development of
cars and aircrafts.
 The need to cure newly discovered diseases has led to the development of equipments
and medicine that diagnose and cure them.
Environmental issues related to technology

 Pollution
 Deforestation
 Global warming
 Depletion of the ozone layer
Health issues related to technology

Positive

 Development of x-rays and new drugs helps in medicine

 The use of environmental friendly technologies like unleaded petrol instead of leaded
petrol reduced pollution and improved the health.

Negative

 Use of X-rays may lead to cancer.

 Waste from industries poison people.

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  Smoke from industries cause respiratory diseases.
 Waste from nuclear power stations lead cancer and sterility.
Homework 1

1. State any four negative impact of technology on the environment.

2. Choose any one of the environmental issues stated above and describe how
technology raises them.
DOING SCIENCE

We learnt earlier on that science is the knowledge gained through observing, asking questions
and carrying out experiments to find out answers. The process of doing science follows certain
steps called the scientific methods of investigation. Below is the summary of the sequence of
events followed in a scientific investigation:

Process skills

These are skills needed by scientists to carryout accurate and fair scientific investigation. Below
are some process skills needed by scientists to carry out accurate and fair investigations:

Observations comparison asking questions analyzing

interpretation inferring hypothesizing controlling variables

Experimenting drawing conclusions communicating results

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Scientific questions and hypothesis

Scientific questions are those questions that are measurable or very clear and specific. These
questions can only be, proved through a scientific investigation. The first step in a scientific
process is to ask questions. These questions are, based on what, scientists have observed and
wants to know more about. Possible answers to these questions are, referred to as a
hypothesis. A hypothesis can also be, defined to as, an intelligent guesses to scientific
questions.

Planning an investigation

This is the process of thinking through how we are going test the hypothesis to see whether it is
correct or incorrect. The following are some things to think through when planning an
experiment:

1. Think of variables. Variables are things that can be changed in the investigation
and that may affect the final result. Decide which ones are to be changed and
which ones are to be, kept constant.
a. Independent variable: variable that you are interested in that will be changed
in the investigation.
b. Dependent variable: variable that you think will be affected by the change in
the independent variable.
2. Decide on the experimental group. This is, the group in which, the independent
variable under investigation has been, changed.
3. Decide on the control group. This group is, almost similar to the one under
investigation but provided with all the variables including the one under
investigation unchanged. All, variables are kept constant. None is changed.
4. Decide what will be, measured and compared in the investigation.
5. Make a list of things needed to carry out the investigation.

Controlling variables

Variables are things that will change the results of an experiment when changed. They can be
grouped into dependent and independent variables. Things such as pressure, time, mass,
volume, light etc are variables. Variables must be, controlled to make the experiment fair or

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accurate. All variables must be, kept the same (constants) all the time except for the one
under, investigation.

Carrying out an investigation

This is the actual process of measuring or experimenting to find out if the hypothesis is correct
or not. It consists of the following:

1. Aim of the investigation.

2. Apparatus or things needed in the experiment.
3. Experimental method or procedure
4. Observations and or results
5. Conclusions

Homework 2

1. You are given a scientific question which read as follows; would milking cows
twice daily result in getting more milk than milking them once a day? Use it to
answer questions that follow.
a. Form a hypothesis from the question.
b. What variables will be, changed?
c. What variables should be, kept constant?

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 WORKING SAFELY IN THE LABORATORY

Working in the laboratory can be dangerous if the right steps are not, taken to avoid accidents
and injuries.

Common hazards in the laboratory

 Open flames from burners which can cause burns if people are not aware of them
 Poisonous and corrosive chemicals that can, cause burns or even death if, not used
appropriately.
 Electricity and appliances, which can cause electric shocks if, not set-up or used
properly.
Safety guidelines

 Do not enter the laboratory unless you are, told to do so.

 Do not eat, drink or bring food into the laboratory.
 Do not run or rush in and out of the laboratory
 Wear protective clothing in the laboratory
 Do not touch or taste anything unless or are told to do so.
Safety techniques when using equipment and materials

 Do not point the mouth of a test-tube at yourself or anyone when burning substances.
 Use clamps or tongs to hold hot objects or objects being heated
 Open flames from burners should be, left to burn with a yellow flame rather than a blue
one when there is nothing on them.
 Do not directly inhale or smell unknown substances rather waft the smell to your nose.
 Use a water bath method when heating a flammable liquid.

Safety symbols

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 UNIT 1.2- MEASUREMENTS

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalars are quantities that have only magnitudes and units to go with them. It can also be
defined a as a quantity that can be fully described by a single number (magnitude)r. They have
fixed scales. Examples of scalar quantities include length, mass, speed, temperature and time.
Vector quantities are those quantities that are fully, described by both magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities do not have fixed scales. Examples of vector quantities include displacement,
velocity, acceleration and force.

Resultant vectors

This is the overall result or effect of vectors acting on an object. To find the resultant vector, the
magnitudes of vectors are, added together if they act in exactly the same direction whereas the
magnitudes are, subtracted when the vectors are acting in exactly different directions.

1. The car in Fig. 3.1 is on a level road.

500 N 2000 N force

frictional forces propelling car forwards

Resultant vector: 2000N – 500N = 1500N Forward

Resultant vector: 2000N + 500N = 2500N Forward

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 MEASURING LENGTH

Length is the shortest distance between two points. Its standard international units (SI-units) are
meters (m). Other units of length used depending on how big or small something is but these
units are, based on the meter, which is the standard unit. They include; millimeters (mm),
centimeters (cm) and kilometers (km). Instruments used to measure length include rulers,
meter rules, tape measures and click wheels.

Converting non-standard units into meters

Note: all the units above are part of the, metric system; milli means 1/1000, centi means 1/100
and kilo means ×1000.

Converting traditional (imperial) units to meters

Traditional units Metric system

1 inch 0.0254m

1 foot 0.3048m

1 yard 0.9144m

1 mile 1600m

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Sources of errors when measuring length

 Zero-end error: if the zero point is not lined up properly with one end of the object.
 Parallax error: if the rule using is thick or you not placing your eyes correctly directly above
the object you are measuring.
 If the rule is not placed straight lined up along the object you measuring
 Not understanding the scale on the rule

MEASURING AREA

Area is the size of the surface of something. The units of area are always in square unit. If we
are using the metric system, the unit of area is the square meter (m²).

Measuring area of regular objects

The area of regular objects is, usually calculated from formulas. We must make sure the units of
each dimension are the same before calculating the area.

Area of squares and rectangles

Areas of squares and rectangles are, calculated from the formula:

Length × With

Areas of circle

Area of triangles

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Measuring area of irregular objects

Irregular objects like leaves, hands and feet cannot be, calculated from formulas like regular
objects. The simplest way to find their area is by placing them on grid of measured squares as
shown below.

The number of half squares, more than half and full squares are counted (those less than half
are ignored) and then added together. The total gives us the area of the leaf.

MEASURING VOLUME

Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by and object. The SI- units of volume is the
cubic meters (m³). Cubic centimeters (cm³) are the most commonly used units of volume
because cubic meters are too large.

1 m³ = 1 000 000
cm³

Measuring the volume of regular rectangular blocks

The volume of rectangular blocks such as cuboids and cubes the following equation is used:

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Measuring volumes of liquids

A measuring cylinder is, used to measure the volume of liquids. Below is, the correct and
incorrect positions to take readings from a measuring cylinder:

Precautions followed when using a measuring cylinder

 Understand the scale

 Place the measuring cylinder on top of a flat surface

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  Your eyes should be level with the surface of the water, take the reading below the
meniscus.

Measuring volumes of irregular sinking objects

When solid objects are, placed in water, they displace it. The volume of water that is, displaced
is usually equal to the volume of the object that displaced it. The concept used to measure the
volume of irregular objects is, based on this concept, hence, called the displacement method.

Using a measuring cylinder alone

 Fill the measuring approximately half way with water

 Read and record the volume of water as starting volume
 Tie a piece of string to the stone(sinker) and lower the stone gently into the measuring
cylinder
 Read and record the volume of water as the final volume
 Subtract the starting volume from the final volume to get volume of the stone

Starting volume 25 ml

final volume 30 ml

volume of stone 5 ml

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Measuring volumes of irregular floating objects

1. Half fill the measuring cylinder with water.

2. Tie a sinker (stone) and gently lower it into the water.
3. Read and record the volume of water as the starting volume.
4. Tie the floater (cork) to the sinker, and gently lower them into water.
5. Read and record the volume of water as the final volume.
6. Subtract the starting volume from the final volume. The value you get is equal to that of
the floating object (cork).
Starting volume 15 ml
Finishing volume 20 ml
Volume of cork 5 ml

Using the displacement can and measuring cylinder

1. Fill the displacement can with water, until it starts dripping off through the spout.
2. Wait until the water stop dripping off the spout.
3. Gently lower, the object into the displacement can while collecting the displaced water
into a measuring cylinder.
4. The water collected into the measuring cylinder equals the volume of the stone.

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Sources of error when measuring volume

 Parallax error
 Measuring cylinder not on a flat surface
 Taking the reading at the top of the meniscus

MEASURING MASS

Mass refers to the amount of matter in an object. The SI-units of mass are kilograms (kg).
Other units include grams (g) and milligrams (mg). Instruments called mass meters, balances
or scales are, used to measure mass. The most commonly used balances are the triple beam
balance and the lever arm balance. The diagrams below shows a triple beam balance and a
lever arm balance:

How to measure the mass of an object using a triple beam balance

 Move all the weights on the beams to their lowest value (zero)
 Place the object on the pan
 Slide the weight on the 500g along the notches until the beam drops down because it is
too heavy. Then move the weight back one notch until the beam rises up again.
 Slide the 100g weight along the notches until the beam drops. Then move the weight
one notch back until the beam rises again.
 Finally move the 10g weight along the notches until the beam drops. Then move the
weight one notch back until the beams balance the zero point.
 Add the 3 readings to get the total mass of the object on the pan.

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 lever arm balance

Sources of errors when measuring mass

 Zero-end error: when the pointers are not set to zero

 Dust on the instrument
 Object not at the center of the pan
 Taking measurements when breeze is disturbing the mass meter
 Placing a mass greater than the maximum mass that the meter can read
 Parallex error: not placing your eyes correctly lined up with the scale
 Not understanding the scale
 Not placing the instrument on a flat surface

MEASURING DENSITY

This refers to the mass per unit volume of an object. Objects that are, heavier but smaller in size
are, usually denser, than those that are light in weight but bigger in size. Dense objects have
more mass or matter per unit volume whereas those that are, less dense have less matter per
unit volume. The SI-units of density are kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). The other
commonly used units are grams per cubic centimeters (g/cm³). The density of substances is,
calculated as follows:

Density = mass ÷ volume

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Measuring densities of liquids

An instrument called a hydrometer can be, used to measure the volume of liquids. When
placed in a liquid it floats upright. It floats more in liquids that are denser and sinks a little in
substances that are less dense. Below are diagrams of hydrometers in liquids of different
densities:

An object sinks in a liquid of smaller density than its own and float in a liquid of high density
than its own. For example, a piece of glass of density 2.5g/cm³ will sink in water whereas that of
wood with a density of 0.7g/cm³ will float in water. The density of water is 1 g/cm³. It should be
noted that densities of pure substances do not change. That is the density of pure water will
always be 1g/cm³ regardless of its volume.

Buoyancy

Buoyancy is the upward force of water which keeps the object floating. Objects which have
less density float on a liquid and those which have high density sink into a liquid. The
magnitude (size) of buoyancy is determined by the volume of water displaced by the
object in water.

 When the object displaces a greater volume of water than its mass it experiences an
upward force (buoyancy) greater than the downward force (gravity/weight), this will make
the object to float.

DESIGN OF A BOAT

Boats are made of iron which is denser than water, logically coats should sink in water but that
is not the case.

This is because:

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  It has a large surface of a hull which displaces a large volume of water than the mass of
its iron body. This makes buoyancy to be greater than the weight of the boat.

 Interior of the boat is filled with air. Air is less dense than water therefore it will make the
body of the boat to be light in weight as it enters the water helping it to float rather than
sink.

The relationship between density and buoyancy

The relationship between density and buoyancy is that liquids with higher densities also have
stronger buoyancy. Likewise a liquid with a lower density also have weaker buoyancy.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Temperature of a body tells us how hot or cold it is. The SI-units of temperature are, Degrees
Celsius (°C). Other units include Kelvin (K) and Fahrenheit (° F). Instruments called,
thermometers are, used to measure temperature. There are two commonly used types of
thermometers. These are clinical thermometer and laboratory thermometer. Below are the
diagrams of the two types of thermometers:

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLINICAL AND LABORATORY THERMOMETER

Clinical thermometer Laboratory thermometer

It has a thin bore It has a big or thick bore

It has a small bulb It has a large bulb

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 It has a short range It has a long range

It has a constriction or kink Does not have a constriction or

kink

More sensitive Less sensitive

Scale ranges from 35°C to Scale ranges from -20°C to

42°C 120°C

Measures temperature to the Measures temperature to the

nearest 0.1°C nearest 1°C

The term 'sensitivity' refers to the ability of the thermometer to measure some changes in
temperature. Hence a clinical thermometer is more sensitive to a laboratory thermometer. It also
means that the markings of each degree is widely spaced.

Sensitivity of Thermometer can be increased by:

 Using a thermometer with a smaller bulb – A smaller bulb contains less mercury and
hence absorbs heat in shorter time.
 A glass bulb with thinner wall – Heat can be transferred to the bulb easily.
 Capillary with narrow bore – produces a greater change in the length of the mercury
column. Therefore a small change in temperature can be detected

A clinical thermometer is, also said to be, a sensitive thermometer. This is because it can
show a change in temperature even when temperature has changed very slightly.

Range
Range of a thermometer refers to scope of temperature it can measure. Logically, a
laboratory thermometer should have a larger range than a clinical thermometer.

A laboratory thermometer is, also referred to as a long-range thermometer. This is because

the difference between the smallest reading and the largest is very big. Range can be increased
by:

 Large bulb
 Bigger bore

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  Long stem

Converting between Celsius scale, the Kelvin scale and the Fahrenheit scale

 From Celsius to Kelvin

K = (°C + 273)

 From Kelvin to Celsius

°C = (K - 273)

 From Celsius to Fahrenheit

°F = (°C× 1.8) + 32

 From Fahrenheit to Celsius

°C = (°F – 32) × 5/9

Homework 10

1. Explain why a clinical thermometer has a kink.

2. Convert the following to Celsius
a. 310K
b. 96 .7 °F
3. convert 100 °C to
a. Fahrenheit
b. Kelvin

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 MEASURING TIME

Time is the period between two sequenced events. This could be the starting point and
finishing point.

Time is the measuring used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events and the
intervals between them. The SI-units of time are seconds(s). Other units include minutes,
hours, days etc. clocks and watches are, used to measure time.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE TIME

i) Clocks

ii) Watches

iii) Shadow stick

iv) Stop watches/clocks

Stop clock

time:5minutes 20 seconds

Stop watch

time: 16.25 seconds

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A simple pendulum

This consist of a piece of string which is fixed at one end and has a small metal ball, called the
bob, on the other end. Below is the diagram of a pendulum and the formula for measuring its
period:

Period = number of oscillation ÷ time taken

1. The diagram below shows one girl pushing the other on a dangler[pendulum]. One swing
is when the girl moves from poin X to point Y and back to point X.

The period of the pendulum only depends on the length of the string. It is unaffected by the
mass of the bob and the angle of displacement.

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UNIT CONVERTION

1 minute = 60 seconds, 1 hour = 60 minutes, 1 day = 24 hours, 1 year = 365¼ days

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING TIME

1. Forgetting to reset the stopwatch to zero before making the next measurement

2. When the needle does not line up with 0 point on a stop clock

3. Reaction time

MODULE 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

UNIT 2.1- LIVING MATTER

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification of living thing refers to grouping living things according to similarities of body
characteristics. The basic principles of classification of living things are to put the organisms
with the same characteristics in the same group. Firstly, organisms are, grouped into a larger
group, and then, the group is repeatedly, divided into a number of sub-groups. The largest
group is the kingdom while the smallest is the ´species´. The branch of science that deals with
classification of living things is, called taxonomy. Below are the taxonomic ranks and the
complete classification of humans and lions

Human
Lion

Kingdoms Animalia
Animalia

Phylum Vertebrae
Vertabrae

Class Mammalian
Mammalian

Order Primates
Carnivora

Family Hominidae
Felidae

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Genus Homo
Panthera

Species sapiens
Leo

Scientific names

These are the names agreed upon by scientist the world. A given organism will have only one
common scientific name. The names usually come from the organism’s genus and species. For
example the scientific name for human beings is Homo sapiens whereas that of a lion will be
Panthera leo.

Classification keys

A classification key is an instrument used to classify and identify an organism. The simplest
form key is known as, a dichotomous key. It is, called dichotomous because, each step in the
series gives two choices for the user to follow. Below is an example of a dichotomous key:

CLASSIFYING ANIMALS

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This kingdom is, grouped into two main phyla. These are invertebrates and vertebrates.
Vertebrates are organisms with backbones whereas invertebrates are those without a
backbone.

Classifying Vertebrates

These are, grouped into five classes, namely, mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians and fish.
Each of these has some characteristics that distinguish it from the other. Below is a key that
classifies vertebrates:

Classifying invertebrates

These are animals without backbones. They can be, further grouped into arthropods, annelids
and molluscs. Arthropods are the largest group. Around 75% of known invertebrates are
arthropods. Arthropods may, further be grouped into crustaceans, myriapods, insects and
arachnids. Below are some sub-groups of invertebrates:

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 CLASSIFYING PLANTS

This is also a kingdom. It is, divided into two main groups, namely flowering and non-
flowering plants. The diagram below shows some sub-groups of flowering and non-flowering
plants:

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 PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELLS

A cell is the basic unit of life in plants and animals. It is the building block of living matter. Some
examples of animal cells include sperm cells, muscle cells, red blood cells and white blood cells
while examples of plant cells include root hair cells, palisade cells and guard cells. See
specialized cells for diagrams.

Structure of a cell

There are two main types of cells. These are animal and plant cells. The basic structures of the
two cells are the same, except for the slight differences. Below are the basic structures of
animal and plant cells:

Function of parts of a cell

Part of a cell Functions

Cell wall Keeps the cell in a rigid shape and protect the cell from damage.

Cell membrane Control what enters or leaves the cell and keep its contents of the cell
together.

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 A cell has a selectively permeable membrane.

Cytoplasm This is where all chemical reactions involved in the cell take place.

Chloroplasts Store chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place

here.

Nucleus Control activities of a cell. It also contains chromosomes which carry all
information that make the cell work properly.

Vacuole Stores dissolved substances such as cell sap, food and waste material.

Mitochondria It generates the energy needed by the cells to carry out other functions.
This is where respiration takes place.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Plant cell Animal cell

Have a cell wall Do not have a cell wall

Have chloroplasts Do not have chloroplasts

Have a large permanent vacuole Have small temporary vacuole

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 CELL SPECIALIZATION

Cell specialization refers to different cells carrying out different functions. A cell that has
developed certain features to help it carry out a specific function is called a specialized cell. The
table below shows some specialized cells

Specialized cell Features How it helps the cell

They do not have a nucleus It helps increase the surface area for
and have a disc like shape transporting oxygen.

They contain haemoglobin Oxygen attaches to haemoglobin to form

oxyhaemoglobin to be transported.

Have a tail It helps it swim to the ovum.

Have a larger cytoplasm It helps it store enough food for the

zygote.

Are thin and very long It helps it carry electrical signals

(massages) as quickly as possible over
long distances.

White blood cells They have a flexible irregular It helps in a sense that they can change
shape their shape to squeeze through to go and
engulf bacteria.

Guard cells They exist in pairs and can It helps it to open and close stomata.
change shape

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 Have thin long extensions. It helps them squeeze between soil
particles. The extensions also help
increase the surface area for water
absorption.

Are packed with many To increase the surface area for sunlight
chloroplasts absorption.

PLANT AND ANIMAL SYSTEMS

Organisms

The term organism is used to refer to any living thing of any nature that is made up of living
cells, tissues, organs and systems. Examples: animal, a plant, bacteria viruses or fungi.
Organisms are grouped into two. That is unicellular and multi-cellular.

Unicellular organisms

These are organisms that are made up of only one cell.

They are sometimes referred to as single-celled organisms.

The cells are of the same type.

The cells may form groups but not work together.

Some examples of single celled organisms include yeast, amoeba, plasmodium and different
bacteria.

Multi-cellular organisms

These are organisms that are made up of more than one cell.

The cells are usually of different types.

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The cells may form groups and work together.

Examples include birds, plants and fish.

A multi-cellular organism is made up when all the cell tissues, organs and systems come
together. The diagram figure below summarizes the relationship between tissues, organs and
systems:

Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function. Some animal tissues include
epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, bone, tendons and nerve tissue whereas plant tissues include
xylem, phloem and collenchymas.

Organs

Organs are groups of different tissues working together to carry out a specific function.
Examples of organs in animals include the heart, lungs and kidneys whereas in plants they
include flowers, stem, leaves and roots.

Systems

Systems are a group of different organs working together to carry out a specific function. The
table below shows some systems in plants and animals:

Plant Systems

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 System Functions

Reproductive system Creating seeds and new plants

(flowers)

Nutrient transport system Move nutrients around the plant

(phloem vessels)

Water transport system Moves water up the plant

(xylem vessel)

Gaseous exchange Take carbon dioxide into leaves and removes

system oxygen

(leaves)

Animal systems

System Function

Skeletal system Keeps the body rigid and strong and allows movement.

(bones, muscles)

Muscular system Cause the body to move and do work.

(muscles)

Respiratory Bring oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide from it.
system

(nose, mouth,
lungs and air
spaces)

Digestive system Breaks food into smaller soluble particles that can then be absorbed into
the blood stream.
(mouth, gullet,
stomach etc)

Reproductive Reproduce young ones

system

(vagina, oviduct,
womb, penis

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,testicles etc)

Circulatory Transport nutrients and oxygen to body tissues and waste material and
system carbon dioxide away from body tissues.

(heart, blood
vessels)

Excretory system Removes mettabollic waste material, excess water and poisons out of the
body.
(lungs, skin,
kidneys)

Nervous system Carries electrical impulses or messages around the body. Also controls
most of the body processes.
(brain, spinal
cord, nerves)

Endocrine system Sends chemical messages to specific organs. These controls process such
as growth.
(glands,
hormones)

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 UNIT 2.2- ENERGY FLOW IN LIVING THINGS

LEAF STRUCTURE

A leaf is an organ for photosynthesis in green plants. In order to photosynthesize, the leaf needs
to be able to absorb sunlight, exchange gases with air and reduce water loss through stomata.

The leaf is adapted to this function because:

 They have a flat shape to increase absorption of sunlight

 Leaves contain lots of chlorophyll at the upper side to trap light energy from the sun.
 Leaves have thick waxy cuticle at the upper side to prevent water loss.
 Leaves have a thin waxy cuticle at the bottom to allow gaseous exchange and water loss
in a controlled way.
 The veins transport water and food to cells.

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cross section view of a leaf

Palisade mesophyll

This is a layer of palisade cells. They are highly packed with chloroplasts to collect as much
sunlight as possible. They are site for photosynthesis.

Cuticle

This is a waxy transparent layer on the upper surface of the leaf. It helps reduce water loss by
transpiration. It is transparent to allow light to pass through it.

Spongy mesophyll

This is a layer which is made up of cells with spaces between them. The spaces allow for the
movement of gases within the leaf.

Stomata

These are holes or opening found at the lower surface of the leaf not facing the sun. They open
and close to allow for the exchange of gases between the leaf and air. That is the movement of
carbon dioxide into the leaf and oxygen out of the leaf.

Guard cells

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These are cells that exist in pairs. They change shape to open and close the stomata. When
they have enough water (are turgid), they curve leaving an opening between them. This allows
for gaseous exchange. When they have less water (are flaccid), they straighten and close the
stomata and stop gaseous exchange.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process through which green plants put together water and carbon
dioxide in the presence of sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll to produce carbohydrates (starch or
glucose) and oxygen. Below is the word equation for the process.

Photosynthesis is defined as a process whereby green plants manufacture their own food with
the help of sunlight.

PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

There are two main products of photosynthesis. These are oxygen and glucose. The glucose is
stored as starch. Glucose and starch are some examples of a group of sugars called
carbohydrates.

Conditions needed for photosynthesis to take place

 Sunlight and chlorophyll

 Water
 Carbon dioxide

We will see later that, leaves from plants with any one of the conditions missing test negative for
starch, thus showing that photosynthesis did not take place. Those from plants with all
conditions necessary for photosynthesis test positive for starch, indicating that photosynthesis
took place. This confirms that starch is actual a product of photosynthesis.

35
Steps followed when testing a leaf for starch

1. Boil the leaf in hot water. This kills the leaf and breaks open the cells
2. Boil the leaf in alcohol in a water bath. Alcohol removes chlorophyll whereas a water
bath prevents alcohol from catching fire.
3. Put the leaf in warm water again. This softens the leaf.
4. Test the leaf for starch using iodine solution.
5. Results

A blue black colour indicate a positive test for starch, that is starch is present whereas no colour
change indicate negative results for starch, that is starch is not present.

36
Is oxygen produced during photosynthesis?

To find this a pondweed is put under a funnel, exposed to all conditions necessary for
photosynthesis and the gas produced collected and tested. Below is the set-up for the
experiment:

Observations

Bubbles of a gas collect into the test-tube and the water level goes down. When a glowing splint
is brought to the gas it relights.

Conclusion

Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.

NB: Oxygen is the only gas that relights a glowing splint.

INVESTIGATING THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

This is done by providing a plant with all the conditions necessary for photosynthesis stated
above except for the one being investigated. The leaves from the variable being investigated
are then tested for starch. Testing a leaf for starch is the same as testing if photosynthesis took
place. A blue-black colour indicates photosynthesis took place whereas no colour change
means photosynthesis did not take place.

Is sunlight necessary for photosynthesis?

Two identical plants are destarched for 24 hours. One is then placed in light for another 24
hours while the other is placed in the dark for the same duration. Leafs from both plants will then
be tested for starch to see if photosynthesis took place. Below is the set-up for the experiment:

37
Observations

When tested for starch, the leave from the plant the dark did not change colour whereas the one
from a plant in sunlight turned blue-black.

Conclusion

Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

A variegated leaf is used. This leaf has some green areas and pale areas. Green areas have
chlorophyll whereas pale areas do not have chlorophyll. The leaf is also tested for starch. Below
is the diagram of a variegated leaf:

Observations

Areas with chlorophyll turned blue-black whereas those without did not show any colour change.
That is positive results for areas with chlorophyll and negative results for areas without
chlorophyll.

Conclusion

Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

38
Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

Two potted plants are each covered with a bell jar. One has sodium hydroxide while the other
has sodium hydrogen carbonate. Sodium hydroxide absorbs or removes carbon dioxide from
the jar whereas sodium hydrogen carbonate produces or releases carbon dioxide into the bell
jar. The set-up is left for some days as shown below and then tested for starch.

Observations

The plant with carbon dioxide turned blue-black whereas the one without carbon dioxide did not
show any colour change.

Conclusions

Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 It produces food needed by plants, animals and people for energy.

 It produces oxygen needed by plants, animals and people for respiration.
 It removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere hence prevent global warming.

39
 RESPIRATION

Respiration: process whereby living cells breakdown food to release energy.

In respiration carbohydrates is combined with oxygen to release energy. The waste products
are water and carbon dioxide. Below is the word equation for respiration:

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

The differences between respiration and breathing

Respiration is a chemical process whereas breathing is a physical process. That is respiration,

involve combining oxygen and glucose to produce water, carbon dioxide and release energy
whereas breathing is simple the taking in of oxygen and taking out of carbon dioxide from the
body. Respiration takes place in the mitochondria whereas breathing occurs in the lungs.

The relationship between respiration and photosynthesis in plants

Photosynthesis provides the plant with oxygen and glucose which are needed for the production
of energy whereas respiration provides the plant with carbon dioxide and water needed for the
production of food.

Effects of disforestation on the environment

 It leads to a decrease in the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere which
leads to global warming.
 It also leads to soil erosion.
 Destroys the habitat for animals

40
  Reduces amount of water in the atmosphere which leads to less rains and draught.

TRANSPORT OF FOOD, WATER AND NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS

Transport of food in plants occurs in tubes called vascular bundles. Vascular bundles are made
up of two types of tubes. These are phloem tubes and xylem tubes. Below is the diagram
showing phloem and xylem tube from a stem of a plant:

Phloem tubes are made of living cells whereas xylem is made of dead cells. Phloem tubes
transport food (end products of photosynthesis) whereas xylem tubes transport water and
mineral salts.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration refers to the process though which plants lose water through leaves. This is very
important as it helps cool the plant and helps in the absorption of water from the soil. The
experimental set-up below is, used to investigate transpiration in plants. The set-up was, left for
one hour.

NB: Cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry but turns from blue to pink when it comes in, contact
with water. This is, used to test for the presence of water.

Observations

41
The plant with leaves covered with Vaseline did not show any change while those not covered
with Vaseline had some droplets of water in it and the blue cobalt chloride paper in it changed
from blue to pink.

Conclusion

Plants lose water through leaves. We reached this conclusion because Vaseline is water
resistant hence prevented the leaves covered with it from losing water and only the plant without
Vaseline lost water through leaves.

Factors that affect the rate of transpiration

Factors that affect the rate of transpiration include, light intensity, temperature, wind and
humidity. The experimental set-up below is, used to investigate how these affect the rate of
transpiration. The rate of transpiration can be, measured using an instrument called potometer.
The set-up is, left in the following conditions: one in light and another in the dark, another in a
hot place while the other is in a cool place, one in wind and while the other is in a calm place
and lastly, one in a humid place while the other is in a dry place. Below is the diagram of the
set-up:

NB: The quicker the rate at which bubbles are produced the quicker the rate of the rate of
transpiration. The slower the rate at which the bubbles are produced the slower the rate of
transpiration.

Observations

Bubbles were observed and were quicker

 Where there is light than in the dark

42
  In a hot place than a cool one
 In windy conditions than calm ones
 In dry condition than in humid one
Conclusions

 Transpiration is faster or higher in light and slow in the dark.

 Transpiration is faster when temperatures are high and slow in low temperatures.
 Transpiration is faster or higher when it is windy and slow when it is calm.
 Transpiration is faster when the humidity is low and slow when it is high

43
 NUTRIENT CYCLES
Carbon and nitrogen are the two most important nutrients in living things. Carbon which
is needed mainly to produce carbohydrates needed for respiration mainly come from
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Nitrogen is needed to produce proteins which
helps in tissue repair also come from nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.

The nitrogen cycle

1. Nitrogen Fixation

For nitrogen gas to become useful, it first needs to be changed into different chemical
forms that can be used by plants and other organisms eg nitrates and ammonia. The
process of converting nitrogen gas into the atmosphere into useful chemical forms of
nitrogen is known as Nitrogen fixation. The fixation of nitrogen happens in three main
ways

i) Atmospheric fixation of nitrogen by lightening

Lightning provides excessive heat energy required to break the nitrogen gas
molecule for it to combine with oxygen to form nitrogen oxide (nitrites). Nitrites
dissolve in water when it rains then falls down to the soil where bacteria and
other chemicals convert them to nitrates.

ii) Biological fixation of nitrogen by rhizobia bacteria

Legumes and the rhizobia bacteria have a relationship called symbiotic. This
is because legumes have root nodules, which becomes a place to live for the
bacteria, in return the bacteria is able to convert atmospheric nitrogen into

44
 nitrates to be used by plants.

iii) Industrial fixation of nitrogen

This is the use of chemicals containing urea and ammonia to manufacture

fertilisers in industries.

2. Protein synthesis

The second step in nitrogen fixation is use of nitrogen by plants and animals. Once
nitrogen has been fixed from the atmosphere, it will be absorbed by plants in a form
of nitrates. The process whereby plants absorb nitrates through their roots is called
Assimilation. Plants use nitrates to build up proteins. Proteins are essential for
growth.

Animals get nitrogen (proteins) by eating plants. They convert the protein in plants to
amino acids which is essential for growth and DNA.

How does nitrogen in plants and animals return to the soil?

 Through defecations and decomposition: animals eat and release faeces

containing nitrogen (protein), when plants and animals die, their bodies also
contains protein, bacteria decomposes dead organic material together with waste
products to form ammonia. This process is called Ammonification.

 Ammonia cannot be absorbed by plants in that form, there is a need for it to be

converted to nitrates. This process is called Nitrification. A nitrifying bacteria
converts ammonia to nitrites, nitrifying bacteria further converts nitrites to
nitrates, at this stage assimilation takes place again.

3. Denitrification

The last part of the nitrogen cycle is denitrification, A denitrifying bacteria converts
excess nitrogen in the soil back into nitrogen gas which is then returned to the
atmosphere.

45
The carbon cycle

The first step in the carbon cycle is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is
absorbed by plants during photosynthesis to manufacture a carbon compound called
carbohydrates. Other organisms get carbon by feeding through plants and other
animals which eats plants. The carbon of living organisms can be returned to the
atmosphere in three main ways:

i) When an organism dies, it decays and carbon dioxide is returned to the

atmosphere.

ii) Organisms release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through the process
of respiration.

iii) The combustion of carbon containing compounds (fossil fuels) release carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere

46
 UNIT 2.3-MAGANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES
CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

A natural resource is anything useful found naturally in the environment. They can be grouped
in renewable and non-renewable.

Renewable resources are those that cannot be used up or get depleted e.g. wildlife, water,
sun, wind, air, soil.

Non-renewable resources are those that can get used up or depleted e.g. coal, minerals etc.

Some natural resources found in Botswana are soil, water, energy, minerals, wildlife and
people. They are very important as they are a source of income and employment to both the
local and national economy hence needs to be conserved.

Conserving something means not wasting it or using it with care.

Soil

This is the basis of our existence. It is where we grow our plants and were the vegetation that
our livestock feed on. It is also needed for building and construction industry hence could be a
source of income or employment. Ways of conserving soil include:

 Avoiding over grazing

 Avoiding deforestation

 Ploughing across the slope.

Water

It is also the basis of life. It is used to water plants and for drinking purposes by both animals
and people. It is also used in industries to cool machines and for fishing purposes. Water can be
conserved by:

 Recycling it.

 Washing as many cloths as possible at the same time.

 Repairing damaged tapes and pipes

47
Energy

This is often used to run machines, light homes, cooking and can also be exported to generate
income. Ways of conserving energy include:

 Switching off unused appliances.

 Using renewable sources of energy.

 Servicing machines

Minerals

They are often sold to bring foreign exchange to the country. People can also be employed in
them so they can also provide their families. Ways of conserving natural resources include:

 Controlled mining.

 High penalty for illegal possession of minerals

 Recycling of minerals

Wild life

These include vegetation and wild animals. They attract tourists hence bring foreign exchange
to the country. It could also be a source of employment to the local community as they can be
employed in game reserves and national parks. Wild life can be conserved by:

 Building game reserves and national parks

 Introduction of hunting licenses and seasons

 Introduction of anti poaching units

48
 Recycling

Recycling is taking things that we have used and do not need anymore and using them to make
new products. Some materials that can be recycled include; plastics, metals, paper and
leftovers from the kitchen. Biodegradable materials from the kitchen can be processed to
make biogas. Papers, plastics and cans can be recycled to make new ones. Bottles and cans
are non-biodegradable materials and can be collected and reused. Sewage (human faeces and
urine) can be treated to make clean water and fertilizers.

Importance of recycling to conservation

Recycling is very important to conservation as it helps reduce the rate at which natural
resources are harvested from nature. It makes resources to last longer. This is because
resources that are already in use will be used more than once instead of harvesting new ones.

The business potential of recycling resources

A lot of what is thrown away after the first and probably, only use, can be reutilized to generate
money. They can also be used instead of buying new raw materials hence serving money that
could have been spent to buy new raw materials.

49
 MODULE 3 MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
UNIT 3.1-THE NATURE OF MATTER

UNDERSTANDING MATTER

Matter refers to anything that has mass and occupies space. Occupying space means having
volume.

Physical properties of matter

 It is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

 It has mass and volume.
 It has mass
 It has density
 It has magnetic properties
 It has boiling and melting points
 It exists in three states namely solids, liquids and gases.
 It expands when heated and contract when cooled.
Atoms

These are smallest particles of matter that take part in a chemical reaction. They can also be
referred to as the building blocks of matter. Below is a diagram showing the structure of an
atom:

The table below shows parts of an atom, where they are found and their charges.

Part of an atom Position Charge

Neutron Nucleus No charge

Proton Nucleus Positive

50
 Electron Shell Negative

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. The sum of protons and neutrons makes the
atomic mass of an atom.

Protons are always equal to electrons orbiting around the shell. This is why an atom is
electrically neutral.

The number of protons is called atomic number or proton number.

STATES OF MATTER

Matter exists in three states. These are solids liquids and gases. The table below shows the
physical properties of solids, liquids and gases.

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Particle Closely packed Loosely packed Far apart

arrangement

Compressibility Cannot be not compressible Highly compressible

compressed
fixed volume No fixed volume
Fixed volume

Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape: Takes up the shape

takes up the shape of a container
of the container

Expansion Expand little Moderately expand Expand a lot

Density High density Moderate density Very low density

Particle movement Just vibrate( low Slide over each Move freely(very
kinetic energy) other(moderate high kinetic energy)
kinetic energy)

51
 CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER

When matter is heated it can change from one form to another. This is because when heated
particles increase in kinetic energy and move away from each other but when cooled they
lose kinetic energy and move closer to each other. The diagram below shows the processes of
changes of states of matter.

Melting: change from solid to liquids due to heating. Heat is required for matter to change state
from solid to liquid. Heat energy is required to break/ weaken the attraction forces between the
particles of a solid, after they are all weakened then the particles will increase in kinetic energy
and move far apart to form a liquid.

Freezing: change from liquid to solid due to cooling. Cooling make particles lose heat energy,
this will make particles to move close to each other as they rearrange their particles from liquid
to solid.

Evaporation: change from liquids to gas due to heating. Heat energy weakens the attraction
forces between the particles of a liquid, this will increase the kinetic energy of particles as they
start to move away from each other as the particles rearrange from liquid to gas.

Condensation: change from gas to liquids due to cooling. Particles lose the heat energy, they
move close to each other as they rearrange from gas to liquid.

Sublimation: change from gas to solids or from solids to gas directly without passing through the
liquid state.

Examples: iodine and carbon dioxide

52
DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the process by which particles of matter move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until they are evenly distributed.

Diffusion will end when all particles are evenly distributed. Diffusion is faster in gases than
liquids and solids. This is because particles in gases have enough space and kinetic energy to
move past each other than in other states of matter.

DIFFUSION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. All the things that we smell during the course of a day good or bad arrive to our noses by
diffusion.

2. When tasting things, molecules diffuse from the food onto the test buds.

3. Gases produced by cars and other objects diffuse into the atmosphere to cause pollution

4. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stomata of leaves and then to the cells of leaves

5. Oxygen also leaves the leaves by diffusion

6. Oxygen dissolved in our blood moves into our cells by diffusion

7. Carbon dioxide moves out of our blood into the air spaces in our lungs by diffusion

8. Embryo receive nutrients and remove waste products by diffusion

9. Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil through the roots by diffusion.

Practical work

53
You will need bromine vapour (brown), 2 gas jars and a slip.

Procedure:

 Put brown bromine vapour in gas jar A and close using a slip.
 Put gas jar B containing clear air (empty) on top of the other gas jar with bromine
vapour, they are separated by the slip.
 Carefully remove the slip.
 Observe
Observations

 Bromine vapour slowly moves from gas jar A to gas jar B, after some time both jars are
evenly covered with brown vapour.
Conclusion

 Diffusion has taken place in gases.

Diffusion in liquids

You will need a beaker, water and potassium permanganate.

Procedure

 Pour water into a beaker.

54
  Take a sucker and suck liquid potassium permanganate.
 Apply few drops of potassium permanganate to water in a beaker.
 Observe
Observations

 The purple colour is slowly colouring the water in the beaker.

 After some few hours the water is evenly purple.
Conclusion

 Diffusion has taken place in liquids.

55
 SCIENCE OF WATER

Water is the most common solvent known and as such is use widely. It is important to be able to
distinguish between water and other colourless liquids. To know and understand water better
we must learn both its physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties of water

 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

 It boils at 100ºC and melts at 0ºC
 Has a density of 1g/cm³
 It sticks together to form surface tension
 It is a solvent
 Temperature does not change very much even if the temperature of the surrounding
does

Chemical constituents of water

Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Below is the diagram representing of a

molecule of water:

The chemical formula for water is H₂O. Its molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom bonded together.

Two hydrogen atoms are positively charged therefore they are attracted to the negative charged
oxygen atom. This is what makes:

 Water said to be sticky because water molecules carry a charge and they are attracted
to each other and difficult to pull apart. This is what forms surface tension that could
make a pin float in water.

56
  Water dissolves many solutes because its molecules carry a charge, they will attract any
solutes carrying a charge (polar molecules).

Chemical test for water

Two tests can be used:

1. Water turns blue cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink.

2. Water turns anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate from white to blue.

The standard test for water is to use cobalt chloride paper.

TEST: Insert cobalt chloride paper in to the liquid that you want to test for water.
POSITIVE TEST: Cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink if there is water present.
NOTE:
The test paper that has turned pink can be heated to evaporate the water molecules. This will
turn the paper back to blue.

Anomalous expansion of water

It is expected that water will contract when heated. However, that is not the case. Water
expands when cooled. This is called the anomalous expansion of water. It happens between
4 ºC and 0ºC. From, 100ºC to 4ºC water like any other substances, contract on cooling. The
diagram below shows how water appears under freezing conditions:

57
Why water expands when it freeze?

When water is cooled, it will contract, but only until it reaches a temperature of 4°C. As it cools
further and the temperature continues to drop, the water begins to expand. This is why bottles
filled with water, sealed and then frozen often break. This means that water in a solid state has
its particles far apart from each other. As a result, solid water (ice) has a lower density than
liquid water.

How does this happen?

Molecules of water at a liquid state are bonded together in a loose semi- ordered way, this
means there is less space (volume) between molecules of water.

Particles of water at a solid state (ice) re-arrange themselves into a rigid, ordered molecular
structure. This leaves a lot of space between molecules of water. You will notice that water in a
liquid state space between the molecules is less but it now increased when water change to a
solid state(ice).

58
This explains why water expands (increase in volume) when it freezes.

Effects of the anomalous expansion of water

 It makes ice to float in water.

 Helps make water at the bottom of sea or ponds not to freeze.
 It make containers full with water to break when the water freezes
 It breaks rocks (lead to weathering of rocks).
 Breaks water pipes

Significance or importance of the anomalous expansion of water to marine animals

Anomalous expansion of water to cooling means that the ice formed will have less density to
the water. This makes ice to float in water and that property has a great significance to marine
animals because:

 Ice is a poor conductor of heat hence will prevent water at the bottom of sea or ponds
from freezing as this would kill all the marine life.
 It prevents ice from sinking to the bottom of the sea which would crush and kill all the
marine life.

59
 UNIT 2.3- ACIDS AND BASES
PRTOPERTIES OF ACIDS BASES AND ALKALIS
Substances maybe classified as acidic, basic or neutral. Neutral substances are substances
that are neither acids nor bases.

Acids

An acidic substance is any substance that dissolves in water to give a pH less than, 7.
Examples of acids include nitric acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. Below are properties
of acids:

 They have a pH less than 7.

 They turn blue litmus paper red.
 They taste sour

Bases

A basic substance is any substance that would react with an acid to neutralize them. Bases are
usually metal oxides or hydroxides except for ammonium. Examples of bases include sodium
hydroxide, ammonium and iron oxide. Bases can be grouped in two; insoluble and soluble
bases. Soluble bases are called alkalis. Below are some properties of alkalis:

 They have a pH greater than 7.

 They turn red litmus paper blue.
 They taste bitter.
 They are slippery.

Acid-alkali indicators

These are substances that changes colour depending on whether they are in an acid or an
alkali. Most of them are made from dyes from plant materials. There are two indicators
commonly used in the laboratory. These are litmus and universal indicators.

Litmus indicators

These exist in two colours. That is blue or red. Blue litmus paper is, used to identify whether a
substance is an acid or not. It turns red when placed in an acid. Red litmus is, used to identify
whether a substance is an alkali or not. It turns blue when placed in an alkali. The disadvantage
of using litmus indicators is that they do not indicate the strength of an acid or alkali.

Universal indicators

These exist in a liquid form or paper form. They give a variety of colours depending on the type
and strength of a substance they are, placed on;

60
  In acids

They turn yellow in weak acids and red in strong acids.

 In neutral conditions

They appear green.

 In basic or alkaline conditions

They turn blue in weak alkalis and purple for stronger acids.

Below is a pH scale the colour ranges and strength of substances:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Red Red Orange Yellow Yellow Green Blue Blue Purple Purple Purple Purple Purple

Strong acids Average Weak acids neutral Weak alkalis Strong alkalis

Classifying household chemicals as acidic alkaline or neutral

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

Vinegar Table salt Milk of magnesia

Sour milk Pure water Bleach

Tartaric acid Sugar Tooth paste

Lemon juice Fertilizers Stomach tablets

Orange Washing detergent

Dangers of concentrated acids and alkalis

A concentrated substance is one that has less water and more of it in a given volume. Acids and
alkalis are corrosive. This means they can damage your skin and clothes when they are,
exposed to them. Acids and alkalis are more corrosive when they are in their concentrated form.

NB: to prevent harm to the body, if an acid or an alkali spilt on your skin or clothes, you should
thoroughly wash the area with plenty of water. This will dilute the substance.

61
Safe storage of hazard chemicals

 Should be stored in original containers to avoid confusion.

 Should be store in high shelves out of reach of children.

 Acids should be kept separate from alkalis to avoid accidental reactions

Actions taken during accidents involving household chemicals

This involves first aid techniques to help an injured person before being, taken to the hospital or
before the arrival of the doctor. The most common accidents involving household chemicals
include chemical burns and poisoning.

Swallowed poison

 Give the patient a glass of milk or water.

 Make the patient vomit to get the poison out of the body. Do not do this if the poison is
corrosive.

 Take the person and the sample of the vomit to the doctor.

Chemical burns

 Quickly wash the burn with cold running water.

 Cover the part with a clean non-fluffy cloth.

 Take the person to the clinic if necessary.

62
 MODULE 4: SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
UNIT 4.1-HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Structure of the Female Reproductive System

Functions of Parts of the Female Reproductive System

Part Function

Ovaries It produces the ova, oestrogen and progesterone.

Oviduct It guides the ova to the uterus. It is also, where fertilisation takes place. It is also,
called fallopian tube.

Uterus It is Where the embryo attaches and develops. It is also, called womb.

Cervix It closes the womb.

Vagina It receives the penis and sperms during sexual intercourse. It also called the birth
canal -the passage through which the baby leaves the womb.

63
Structure of the Male Reproductive System

Functions of Parts of the Male Reproductive System

Part Function

Scrotum Contains or hold testes.

Testes Produce sperms and testosterone.

Epididymis Store sperms

Sperm duct Pass sperms to the urethra.

Prostate gland Produce seminal fluids.

Urethra Passes semen out of the penis

Penis Deposit sperms into the vagina.

The Differences between the Male Sex Cells and the Female Sex Cells

The male sex cells, refers to the sperm cells whereas the female sex cells refers to the ova. The
table below shows the differences between them:

64
 Sperm Cells Ovum Cells (ova)

Have a head and a tail Have no head or a tail

Are very smaller than the ova Bigger than the sperm cells

Can move on their own Cannot move on its own

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND PUBERTY

From birth a child’s mass and height grows and develops. This is, called physical
development. From the ages of around 10years, the child’s body changes and develops
features of an adult and become sexually mature. This is called puberty.

CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN GIRLS AT PUBERTY

On average, girls enter between the ages of 11 and 12. Once a girl enters, her ovaries begin to
produce ova which can be fertilized by the sperm. The characteristics or changes occurring in
girls at puberty:

-They grow taller and their hands

& feet become longer. This is
known as a growth spout.
-the face changes with the jaw and
nose becoming more prominent.
-hair grows under the armpits and
around genital parts.
-hips become wider
-breasts grow bigger
-pimples may develop
-menstruation begins
-they become interested in boys

65
CHANGES IN BOYS

Boys enter puberty at the ages 12 to 14 years on average. Boys also start to produce sperm,
and they can impregnant a girl.

-there is rapid increase in

height and bulk
-the boy become muscular
-hair grow around genital
parts and they also grow
beard
-the genitals grow bigger
-there may be mood swings
and aggression
-boys become interested in
girls
-pimples may develop

Hormones control changes at puberty. Hormones are chemical substances produced by

endocrine glands to control functions of specific organs. Progesterone and oestrogen controls
puberty in girls while testosterone controls puberty in boys. Below are the functions of each of
the hormones:

Hormone Where produced Functions

Keeps pregnancy going and prevents

ovulation.
Progesterone Ovaries

Responsible for the development of

secondary characteristics in girls e.g.
Oestrogen Ovaries
menstruation, wide hips and development
of breasts.

Responsible for the development of

secondary characteristics in boys e.g.
Testosterone Testis
deep voice, wet dreams and beard.

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Menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is made up of up to five main stages. These are menstruation, repair phase
, fertile phase and premenstrual period. The diagram below shows the menstrual cycle:

Menstruation

This is a period when the lining of the uterus breaks and blood flows out of the vagina together
with the unfertilized ovum. It last for around 5days from day 1and only happens, every after,
28days when the ovum is unfertilized. The stage when menstruation stops permanently is called
menopause.

Repair or Post Menstrual Phase

This is between day 6 and 12. It is the period when the lining of the uterus is being repaired and
the ovum is still developing in the ovary. It is also a safe period as fertilization is unlikely.

Fertile Period

This is between day 13 and 16 after menstruation. At this period a woman would most likely get
pregnant when she has unprotected sexual intercourse hence, called fertile period.

Ovulation

This is the period when an ovum is, released from an ovary. It usually happens around the 14th
day after menstruation.

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 Premenstrual Phase

This is between day 17 and 27 after menstruation. At this stage the thickness of the uterus lining
is maintained but the ovum will unlikely be fertilized. This is a safe period. On day 28 cycle
begins again and menstruation happens.

UNIT 4: FAMILY PLANNING

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

Family planning means, making decisions on the size of a family and when, to have children
and the spacing between them. This is to make sure that the needs of a family are, with
available resources. A couple that is not ready to have children have to use methods of
preventing pregnancy. These are, called contraceptives or methods of birth control. Below
are some contraceptives and their advantages and disadvantages:

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Pill  Reliable  Does not protect against STIs

 Easy to use  Possible side effect

IUD or Loop  Can last longer  Must be, inserted by doctor.

 Does not protect against STIs

 Highly effective

Injection  Highly effective  May cause side effects

 Helps relieve women from period  Does not protect against STIs
pains

Condom  Protect against STIs  Must be, put on before each sex act.

 Have no side effects  May reduce sensitivity

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Diaphragm  Can protect cervix against  Does not protect against STIs
infection
 Best when used with spermicidal creams
 Has no side effects

Spermicides  Increase the effectiveness of  May cause allergic to women.

condom and diaphragm.
 Does not protect against STIs
 Easy to use

Sterilization  Very effective  Does not protect against STIs

Vasectomy in men   Cannot be reversed (permanent)

Tuberligation in
women

Outlets that provide family planning advice and services

 Clinics

 Social workers

 Family clinics

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70
 UNIT 4.3- SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

SEXUAL TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexual transmitted infections (STIs) are those infections that are mainly passed from one person to another during sexual
intercourse. Note that some STIs can also be transmitted through other means such as blood transfusion and sharing dirty or
infected needles. The table below shows some STIs, their signs, transmission, and treatment:

INFECTION CAUSE SIGN TRANSMISSION TREATMENT

Syphilis Bacteria  Painless sores called chancres Sexual contact and through Antibiotics
blood
 Body rush

Gonorrhoea Bacteria  Painful urination Sexual contact Antibiotics

 Discharge from penis or vagina

Thrush Fungi  Swollen, painful or itching genitals Sexual contact, water and air Fungal cream

 White patches on the mouth and tongue

Genital herpes Virus  Painful blister-like sores on genitals and Sexual contact and contact No cure
mouth with sores.

 Burning sensation during urination.

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 AIDS

AIDS is an abbreviation of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a sexual transmitted

infection caused by an HIV-virus. It can also be passed from one person to another through

 Sharing sharp objects or needles with infected people.

 Breast-feeding by an infected mother.

 Infected mother to unborn child during pregnancy.

 Blood transfusion

 Sexual contact

The differences between being HIV positive and having AIDS

 An HIV positive person may look very healthy whereas an AIDS patient is critical ill.

 An HIV positive person doesn’t suffer from opportunistic infections whereas an AIDS
patient suffers from them.

Symptoms of advanced HIV and AIDS

 Uncontrollable diarrhea

 Serious loss of weight and appetite

 Loss of hair

Opportunistic infections related to AIDS

 Tuberculosis (TB)

 Herpes

 Diarrhea

 Pneumonia

 Kaposi sarcoma

Programmes in place to treat HIV and AIDS conditions

 Anti retroviral therapy (ARV)

 Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV programme (PMTCT)

72
 MODULE 5: FORCE MOTION AND ENERGY
UNIT 5.1-ENERGY FORMS AND ENERGY CHANGES
ENERGY FORMS
Energy refers to the ability to do work. It is measured in units called joules (J). Energy
exists in different forms. It can be kinetic, chemical, gravitational, electrical, light, heat,
sound and strain energy.

Kinetic energy

This is the energy in moving objects. The faster the objects move the more the kinetic energy it
has.

Chemical potential energy

This is the energy stored in chemicals such as food, cells and fuels like coal, oil, wood and gas.
It is, usually released during chemical reactions like burning and respiration.

Gravitational potential energy.3

This is the energy due to objects being place above the ground. They usually lose gravitational
energy when they fall.

Electrical energy

It is the energy carried by wires connected to cell, generators and the mains electricity.

Light energy

This is the energy produced by burning objects. It enables us to see. It is, often accompanied by
heat energy.

Heat energy (thermal energy)

This energy warms objects. It is, also produced by burning objects. It is, usually accompanied
by light energy.

Strain or elastic energy

Sometimes referred to as mechanical energy, is stored in compressed or stretched elastic

objects when they want to go back to their original shape or size.

73
 SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy sources can be, classified as renewable or non-renewable. Renewable sources of

energy are those that cannot be finished or depleted. Non-renewable sources of energy are
those that get depleted or finished. The table below shows some examples of renewable and
non-renewable sources of energy.

Renewable Non-renewable

The sun (solar) Coal

Hydroelectric (water) Oil

Wind Natural gas

Biomass Nuclear

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are fuels that formed from decayed remains of plants and animals that died
a million of years ago. Oil, coal and natural gas are some examples of fossil fuels.

How fossil fuels were formed

They were formed a millions of years ago when remains of dead plants and animals
were buried and turned into fossil fuels by heat and pressure. Coal was formed from
plant remains. Oil and natural gas were formed from the remains of very small dead
water animals.

The importance of fossil fuels

They are the most commonly used sources of energy. They are used in a wide range of
areas e.g.

 for heating purposes

 For generating electricity and for lighting.
 Energy to operate machines

74
Importance of conserving energy

Fossil fuels, which, are the most commonly used source of energy, are non-renewable,
expensive and cause air pollution and lead to global warming. It is therefore important to
conserve energy to prevent the sources from being, used up, to save money and
prevent global warming. Energy can be, conserved by:

 Switch off unnecessary appliances

 Use alternative sources of energy

 Servicing machines

Alternative sources of energy available in Botswana

Alternative sources of energy refer to those sources of energy that are renewable.
Those available in Botswana include:

 Solar

 Biomass

 Wind

 Nuclear

Methods of harnessing alternative sources of energy

 Solar power

Botswana has abundant sun throughout the year. This makes solar power to be the
best option to generate energy.

Solar panels are used to generate heat energy at home.

Solar cells are used to generate electricity at home.

Solar cooker used to cook food at home.

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  Wind power

Wind can be used to generate electrical energy whereby wind is used to drive the
turbines and the generator transforms kinetic energy from the turbines into electrical
energy.

Wind mills are also used to draw water from a borehole.

 Hydroelectric power

At present no hydroelectric power is generated in Botswana because it’s a landlocked

country. But Botswana is part of the project which involves using hydroelectric energy of
the Congo River. Running water is used to drive the turbines at by which the generator
transforms the kinetic energy into electrical energy.

 Nuclear power

Nuclear power is not available in Botswana. It is generated when atoms undergo fission
(when a nucleus of an unstable atom decays it splits and releases a large amount of
energy). This energy can be used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy is non-
renewable because its source is element uranium but it is one of the alternative energy
sources because one nucleus of this element will produce a large amount of energy to
be used for many years.

 Biomass

Biomass energy is created when biomass (wood and animal dung) is burnt. Biofuel is
produced when bacteria and chemical processes change living organisms into liquid or
gas fuel. Most people use wood as source of energy in Botswana.

76
 ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HOME

These are the things that provide us with different forms of energy in our homes. The
main forms of energy used in our homes include chemical, light and heat. Sources of
these forms of energy have some environmental and financial implications. They are,
outlined below:

Source of energy Financial implication Environmental implication

They usually cost less, which Their use promotes

makes them the most popular deforestation and global
Wood
fuel. warming

It is very expensive not It also cause air pollution and

everyone can afford it. global warming
Coal

Diesel It is also expensive It also releases carbon dioxide

which leads to global warming

Petrol It is expensive as it is, imported It also leads to global warming

from other countries. by releasing carbon dioxide in
Paraffin
the atmosphere

Are expensive to buy and It is renewable and

install but very cheap to environmental friendly.
Solar
maintain

ENERGY CHANGES

Energy is, neither created nor destroyed. It can also neither be, gained nor lost. It can
only be, changed from one form to another. The changing of energy from one form to
another is, called, energy transformation.

77
Applications of energy changes in everyday life

 Photosynthesis

Light energy chemical PE

 Respiration

Chemical PE work energy (kinetic, heat )

 Hydroelectric power station

Gravitational PE kinetic Energy Electrical Energy

 Thermal power station

Chemical PE Heat Energy Kinetic Energy Electrical Energy

Importance of energy changes

All the energy available on earth originally comes, from the sun. Without energy
changes, energy from the sun would be useless to us. Energy changes help plants
makes food for themselves through the process of photosynthesis, people and other
animals benefit also. Through the process of respiration, we are also able to make use
of energy in the food we eat to do work.

Natural phenomena caused by energy changes

 Lightning
 Shooting stars
 Earthquakes
 Water cycle

The green house effect

This is a process whereby, heat from the sun is, reflected by the earth upwards but, trapped,
and prevented from, escaping back into space by a layer of carbon dioxide. This keeps earth

78
warm enough to support life. However, increase in the levels of carbon dioxide has caused
the atmosphere to trap more heat than necessary leading to too much increase in the
temperatures of the earth. This is, called global warming. Global warming leads to melting of
polar ice and increase in sea levels, floods in low-lying areas and failing of farmer’s crops. It
also leads to change in the world’s climates.

USING ENERGY SOURCES SAFELY

Safety precautions when using mains electricity

 Do not touch electrical appliances with wet hands

 Keep electric wires insulated
 Do not overload an electric circuit
1. Never touch overhead cables

Diagnosing electric faults

1. Check if, the appliance is properly, connected to the socket.

2. Check if the switch is on.
3. Check if the appliance is on.
4. Check if, the wires are correctly, fixed in the plug and the fuse has not blown.
5. If the appliance still does not work, seek the help of a specialist.

Safety precautions when using fossil fuels

 Keep them away from fire as they are flammable

 Burn them in a well ventilated area to prevent the production of carbon monoxide which
is very poisonous
 Keep them in their original containers to avoid confusion

79
 UNIT 5.2-SOUND ENERGY
HOW SOUND MOVES

Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects such as guitar, drums and bells. It
moves in the form of a wave through a medium (solids, liquid and gas)

SOUND NOTES

Irregular vibrations cause sound/ musical notes. The sound notes have properties of pitch,
loudness and quality.

a. Pitch: this is how high or low a sound note is. The pitch of a note depends on a
frequency of the sound wave reaching the ear.
A high pitched sound has a high frequency and a short wavelength.

b. Loudness/ VOLUME: A note is louder when more sound energy enters our ears per
second than before. It is caused by the source vibrating with larger amplitude.

80
Reflection of sound

Sound waves are reflected (bounce back) from hard surfaces such as walls and cliffs. The
reflected sound is called echo. Echo is formed when it takes 0.1 second for a reflected sound to
return to the person’s ear. If the time between the original sound and echo is less than 0.01 s,
then the original sound will be heard as one.

Echoes are useful in a sense that they can be used to find the depth of the sea.

Echoes can be a nuisance also so architects have to design rooms carefully to reduce the
disturbance caused by echoes.

Speed of sound

Sound travels at different speed in different medium. It travels fastest in solids followed by
liquids and slowest in gases. The table below shows relative speed of sound through different
medium:

Speed(m/s) =

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 Medium Speed of sound

Steel 6000m/s

Water 1483m/s

Air 330m/s

Can sound travel through a vacuum

Sound needs a medium to travel through. It cannot travel through a vacuum. The set up below
is of an activity to show that sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Observations

When air is, pumped out (a vacuum created) of the bell jar, the bell can be, seen vibrating but
no sound heard. However when air is introduced, sound is heard.

Conclusion

Sound need a medium to travel through it cannot travel through a vacuum.

82
The differences between longitudinal and transverse wave

Longitudinal wave Transverse wave

Particles move in the same direction as Particles move perpendicular to the direction in
the wave e.g. sound wave. which the wave moves e.g. wave in water.

Describing waves

Waves are, usually described in terms of their wavelength, amplitude or frequency.

Wavelength

This refers to the distance between two successive crests, troughs, rarefactions or
compression. It can also be, described as, the shortest distance between two identical points on
a wave. Below are wavelengths of longitudinal and transverse waves:

Amplitude

It refers to the height of the crest or the depth of a trough measured from the rest position. It can
also be described as, the maximum amount of movement(displacement) of a particle of the
medium from its rest position. The diagram below shows amplitudes on a transverse waves:

83
Frequency

This refers to the number of waves produced per second. It is measured in, hertz (Hz). It should
be, noted that, waves with shorter wavelength have higher frequencies whereas those with
longer wavelengths have low frequencies. Sound with high frequency (ultrasound) can be,
used to examine the position of the baby during pregnancy. The diagram below shows waves
with different frequencies:

Frequency =

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 HOW WE HEAR

The ear is an organ for hearing. Its parts maybe grouped as outer, middle and inner
ear. The earflap, ear canal and eardrum make the outer ear. The hammer, stirrup and
anvil make the middle ear while the cochlea and the auditory nerves make the inner ear.
Below is the structure of the ear:

Function of parts of the ear that enable hearing

Ear part Function

Earflap Collect sound from air and direct them into the ear canal.

Ear canal Direct sound to the eardrum

Ear drum It vibrates when sound enters the ear. It also makes the small
bones to vibrate.

Oscicles (Hammer, Amplifies sound

anvil and stirrup)

Semi- circular canals For body balance. It has hair cells which send impulses to the
brain to maintain body balance.

85
Oval window It passes vibrations to the cochlea in the inner ear.

Cochlea Stimulate the nerve endings

Hair cells Transmit the electric signals to the auditory nerves

Auditory nerves Transmit electric signal to the brain for interpretation.

Functions of the Eustachian tube

It helps balance pressure inside the ear and outside of it by allowing air into it and out of
it.

It also protects and drains the middle ear.

EAR DEFECTS AND HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one or
both ears.

Deafness: complete loss of hearing.

There are different degrees of hearing impairment. These are mild, moderate, severe and
profound. The table below shows different degrees of hearing impairment:

Degree of impairment Description

Mild The person may not even be aware of their inability to hear certain
sounds.

Moderate May not hear some sound and would blame others for mumbling.

Severe Would have difficulty in hearing and following speech but can hear
their voices.

Profound Their hearing is extremely limited. They can even fail to hear their
voice.

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Signs of hearing impairment

 Loss of balance

 Hearing loss

 Tinnitus (ringing in the ear)

 Impaired speech

Causes of hearing impairment

 Accidents or injury to the ear

 Noise pollution

 Old age

 Infectious diseases such as measles and ear infections to the baby or mother during
pregnancy

Preventing hearing impairment

 Wearing ear muffs

 Immunize children against infections

 Cure chronic infections such as ear infections as early as possible.

 Do not poke your ears with hard objects

Safe and healthy care for ears

 Ears should be cleaned carefully

 Do not poke your ears with hard objects

 Wear protective clothing when using very loud machinery

 Do not listen to loud music with headphones

87
 MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT 6.2-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
DISEASES
Diseases maybe classified as infectious, communicable, contagious and non-
communicable.
Infectious diseases

An infectious disease is any disease that is, caused by any type of a microorganism. Some
of them are communicable e.g. malaria, syphilis and tuberculosis whereas some are non-
communicable e.g. food poisoning infection of wounds. Microorganisms that cause diseases
are, called pathogens. These are, sometimes referred to as causative agents. They include
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and multi cellular parasites.

Communicable diseases

These diseases are, passed from one organism to another. All these are infectious, that is,
microbes cause them. Those that can be, passed from one person to another are also said to
be contagious e.g. syphilis, malaria and tuberculosis

Non-communicable diseases

These are, diseases that cannot be, passed from one person to another but develop within a
person e.g. food poisoning, infected wound, cancer, deficiency diseases. Some of them are not
infectious, that is they are not caused by microbes e.g. cancer and deficiency diseases.

The differences between infectious and communicable diseases

Some infectious diseases cannot be, passed from one organism to another whereas
communicable diseases will always be, passed from one organism to another.

The differences between communicable and non-communicable diseases

Communicable diseases are, all caused by microorganisms whereas some non-communicable

diseases are not caused by microorganisms. Communicable diseases can be, passed from one
person to another whereas non-communicable diseases cannot.

88
 CLASSIFYING DISEASES ACCORDING TO CAUSATIVE AGENTS

AGENT DISEASE VECTOR SYMPTOM

Cholera Water Diarrhea and dehydration

Gonorrhoea Direct contact Pus from the urethra or vagina and painful
urination
Bacteria
Tuberculosis Air Damage to the lungs and continuous
coughing

Typhoid Food or water High fever and dry cough

Athlete’s foot Water Itchiness and flaky skin between toes

Candida or thrush Direct contact Severe itching and grey discharge from the
vagina
Fungi
Ring worm Direct contact Small scaly area on the skin with a bright red
ring around it and is itchy

Multi- Bilharzias Water Appearance of blood in urine or faeces and

cellular inflammation of the skin

parasite

Amoebic dysentery Food or water Severe diarrhea and blood in stools

Protozoa Malaria Mosquito A very high fever and shivering

Chicken pox Direct contact High fever and itchy rush that develop into
blisters

German measles Air Mild flu like symptoms and red rush
Viruses (rubella)

Measles Air Flu like symptoms and red rush

Polio Food and water Paralysis of some body parts

89
Vectors of common communicable diseases in Botswana

Vectors are normally things that carry diseases from one organism to another. Vector animals
usually transmit microorganisms that cause most common diseases in Botswana. Below are
some diseases, microorganisms that cause them and their vectors:

Disease Pathogen Vector

Malaria Protozoa called plasmodium falciparum Female anopholes

mosquito

Bilharzias Parasite called schistosoma or bilharzias Fresh water snails

fluke

Food poisoning Various microbe found in rotting organic House fly

matter and faeces

Sleeping sickness Protozoa called trypanosome brucei The tsetse fly

PREVENTING INFECTIONS

They way in which communicable can be, prevented or controlled depend on their
transmission methods:

 Purify of water supply to prevent water borne diseases.

 Make sure food is well-cooked and kept in cold dry places to prevent diseases
spread through food.

 Covering mouths and nose when coughing or sneezing or place infected people
in quarantine to prevent airborne diseases.

 For diseases spread through animal vectors, we have to study their life cycles
and break them.

90
Life cycle of house flies

Houseflies are vectors for food poisoning. They spread bacteria when food and water is
exposed to houseflies carrying the pathogens for the diseases. Below is the life cycle of
a housefly:

House fly feeds and breed on rotting material.

Controlling houseflies

 Spraying with insecticides

 Covering food

 Putting waste food into sealed dustbins

 Having dumping sites far from residential areas

Life cycle of mosquito

There are two types of mosquitoes. These are common mosquito and anopheles
mosquito. The female anopheles mosquito is the type that transmits malaria. It carries
the parasite that causes malaria (plasmodium falciparum) and feeds on human blood. It
passes the parasite from an infected person to a healthy one when it sucks the blood
with the plasmodium from an infected person and injects it (plasmodium) into a healthy
person. Male anopheles mosquito cannot spread malaria, as it does not feed on blood.
Below is the life cycle of a mosquito:

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Mosquitos lay their eggs in water

The eggs hatch into larva, develops into pupa under water and the adult mosquito
emerges from water.

They use grass as their habitat

Controlling mosquitoes and malaria

 Spray with insecticides

 Covering stagnant water with oil to prevent the pupa from breathing and the adult
mosquito to be unable to emerge from water.

 Use of mosquito nets and creams that repel mosquitoes

 Cutting grass to get rid of their habitat

Life cycle of a bilharzia fluke

A bilharzias fluke also known as schistosoma is a parasitic worm that causes bilharzias. The
parasite needs two hosts human and fresh water snail. It is, spread to a healthy person when
they swim or come into; contact with contaminated water and the fluke bore into their bodies.
Below is the life cycle of the fluke:

92
Controlling snails and bilharzia

 Killing snails that that live in open water

 Use of toilets

 Avoid swing in contaminated water

 Not urinating nor defecating in water

FOOD POISONING

This is an illness caused by eating contaminated food or drink. Most food poisoning is,
caused by:

 Bacteria

 Viruses

 Poisonous chemicals

93
Symptoms of food poisoning

 Severe stomach cramps

 Diarrhea

 Nausea

Causes of food poisoning

It is caused by eating food that is contaminated. Food can be contaminated by :

 Bacteria and viruses

 Chemicals
 Poisonous plants

Conditions that promote microbial growth

Most bacteria can increase their numbers from one to millions very rapidly given the
right conditions. Bacteria to multiply it needs the following conditions:

 Food (protein, sugar and fat) needed for respiration and growth
 Warmth: the optimal temperature for bacterial growth is 37°c, this also means
temperature ranges of 21- 55°c will also favor bacterial growth.
- Bacteria will be killed by temperatures above 75°c
- Bacteria will not grow in food frozen at -18°c.
- Bacteria will grow slowly at 4°c.
 Moisture: bacteria grow best where it is moist.
 Time: bacteria needs time to grow, the longer the food stays under any
conditions the more risk of bacterial growth in that food.

Preventing food poisoning

 Washing hands before and after preparing food.

 Putting food refrigerators and freezers

 Food should be well cooked to kill microbes

94
  Covering food with clean cloth

 Boiling or reheating food at temperatures above 75°C

 Avoid cross contamination by not mixing high risk food with low risk food

Safe methods of preparing food

This includes practicing methods which tries to avoid the following:

- Protecting food from being contaminated

- Stopping bacteria from growing
- Killing bacteria

The following are methods of protecting food from contamination:

 keep everything clean

 wash your hands before and after handling food
 keep food in clean containers
 keep high risk food like raw meat away from other foods
 cook food thoroughly
 store food in covered dish and refrigerated
 never leave food for more than 2 hours in temperatures above 30°c
 warm the food at temperatures above 75°c

METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Food is, made bad by microorganism. Optimal conditions for their growth include the
presence of food, warmth and moist areas. Ways of making food stay longer without
going bad are, called methods of food preservation. These work in three ways. These
are through:

 Killing microorganisms e.g. Pasteurizing and sterilizing

 Slowing or stopping the growth of microbes e.g. refrigeration and freezing

 Excluding microbes e.g. canning and bottling

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 Method Description Examples of food

Drying This refers to dehydrating food to slow the Meat (biltong),

growth of microbes phane

Canning Cooking food and store it in air tight tins to Fish, beans and
exclude microbes beef

Salting Covering food with salt to absorb moisture and Biltong

slow the growth of microbes

Pickling Adding acid to food to stop the growth of Beetroots

microbes

Freezing This involve putting food under very low Meat

temperature to stop the growth of microbes

Refrigeration This involves putting food under low temperature Milk, meat
to slow the growth of microbes

Pasteurization This involves heating milk and then cools it very Milk
quickly to kill bacteria.

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 UNIT 6.1-PERSONAL HYGIENE

This refers to keeping oneself and the environment clean. This is important as it helps people
healthy and free from diseases. Lack of personal hygiene can result in poor health, increased
risk of disease and bodies that smell.

CARING FOR TEETH

A tooth is made of non-living material (the crown) and the living part-(the root, nerves, and
blood vessels). The soft pulp cavity is, covered with dentine and hard enamel. Teeth are,
held to the jawbone by the cement. The diagram below shows the structure of a tooth:

Shape of teeth and their functions

Different types of teeth have different functions. Each type of a tooth is adapted to its function.
The table below shows some types of teeth and their functions:

Type of tooth Shape Functions

Incisors Bite or cut food so that it can fit into

the mouth.

Sharp and chisel-shaped

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Canines Tear food or hold food

Pointy and cone-shaped

Molars and pre- Grind food into small pieces before it

molars is swallowed
Have flat with some folds

Causes of tooth decay

Tooth decay is, mainly caused by eating too much sugary food and not brushing teeth. This
lead to bacteria found in the mouth to change the sugar into acid. This acid then eats away
(corrode) the tooth enamel and exposes the dentine. The cavity formed grows until it reaches
the pulp and exposes the nerves. Pain is, experienced because the exposed nerves are
sensitive to hot and cold air and liquids-causing tooth ache.

Investigating effect of acid on the tooth

A tooth is, placed in an acid for 24hrs and the removed.

Observations

The tooth had dissolved or damaged.

Conclusion

Acid can damage the enamel of the tooth and cause tooth decay.

98
Gum diseases

Gum diseases are, most commonly caused by plaque. Bacteria that feed on plaque release
acids and chemicals that irritate and damage the gums making them swell. The gums then
move back and away from the teeth and make them fall.

Prevention of tooth decay and gum diseases

 Brush your teeth at least twice a day with mild alkaline, fluoride-containing toothpaste.
Fluoride strengthens the tooth enamel and alkaline neutralizes mouth acids.

 Include vitamins C in your diet. Vitamin C prevents gum disease-like scurvy.

 Visit your dentist regularly

UNIT 6.3- NUTRITION

DIGESTION
Digestion is the chemical breaking down of food from larger insoluble particles to
smaller soluble particles that can be easily absorbed into the blood stream. Digestion is,
done by chemicals called enzymes and takes place in the alimentary canal. It starts in
the mouth and end in the ileum.

The importance of digestion

The main importance of digestion is to help food to be absorbed into the blood stream
and assimilated (used by body cells). Larger insoluble particles of food such as starch,
proteins and fats cannot be, absorbed into the blood stream hence cannot be
assimilated. For assimilation to take place the food particles has to be, digested into
smaller soluble particles. Digestion helps in the digestion of proteins to amino acids for
repair of worn out tissues and growth

 It helps in digestion of starch to glucose to release energy in body cells

 It helps in assimilation of minerals and vitamins for healthy life
 It helps digestion of proteins to amino acids for growth and repair of tissues

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Below is the diagram of the digestive system:

Functions of parts of the digestive system

Part Functions

Teeth Grind the food up into small pieces, which increase the surface area for
digestion by enzymes.

Rolls food and mix with saliva to form bolus

Tongue

Salivary It produces saliva, which contains enzymes(salivary amylase) that start the
glands digestion of starch.

Saliva lubricates the path for the bolus

Oesophagus Passes food to the stomach through the process of peristalsis (contraction and
relaxation of muscles of the alimentary canal to push the bolus)

Stomach Produce hydrochloric acid and enzymes that start the digestion of proteins. It
also churns[mix] food.

Pepsin digest proteins to peptides, it works best under acidic conditions hense

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 production of the acid in the stomach.

The acid also kills bacteria that came with the food.

Duodenum It is where most digestion takes place. Pancreas releases pancreatic juices
which contains most enzymes which carries the final digestion of proteins to
amino acids, starch to glucose and fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

Gall bladder It produces bile, which helps emulsify (break into small particles) fats so to
increase the surface area for lipase to digest fats rapidly.

Pancreas It releases pancreatic juice, which, contain enzymes that digest starch,
proteins and fats.

Ileum It is where digestion is completed and absorption of digested food takes place.
Fatty acids, glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream
through diffusion and transported to the liver

Colon Water is absorbed here.

Rectum Undigested food is stored here.

Anus Where faeces passes out of the body

Enzymes responsible for food digestion and their end products

Food type Digestive enzymes Secreted from End-product

Starch Amylase Mouth and Duodenum Maltose

Maltose Maltase Ileum Glucose

Pepsin Stomach Peptides

Protein Trypsin Duodenum Peptides

Peptides Peptidases Ileum Amino acids

Fats Lipase Duodenum and ileum Fatty acids and glycerol

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Absorption

Absorption of end products of digestion takes place in the ileum. The inside of the ileum is
highly folded to increase the surface area for absorption. These folds are, known as villi
(plural of villus).

Capillaries in the villi absorb glucose, amino acids minerals and vitamins directly into the blood.

Fatty acids are insoluble in water therefore they are not directly absorbed into the blood
capillaries but into the lymph vessel(lateal). It contains a fluid called lymph fluid which dissolve
fatty acids then eventually they will be absorbed in the blood stream.

Demonstration of absorption

The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate absorption of digested food by the walls of the
ileum. Water represents blood; visking tubing represents the ileum; starch undigested food and
glucose end products of digestion.

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Observations

When the water is, tested for starch and glucose after some hours, it turns orange for reducing
sugar (positive results) and does not show any change for starch (negative results).

Conclusions

The only explanation for the observations above is that, glucose passed through the walls of the
visking tubing while starch did not. Hence, we can conclude that glucose can be absorbed
through the walls of the ileum because it is simple soluble particles whereas starch cannot
because it is large insoluble particles.

Food tests

We can identify which nutrients are present in given samples of food in these ways. Nutrients
that we can investigate their food presences from food samples are starch, reducing sugar
(glucose), proteins and fats. The table below shows food tests, reagents, and positive results for
each food sample:

Food test Reagents (s) Positive results

Starch Iodine solution Turns from brown to black or

blue-black

Reducing sugar (glucose) Benedicts solution Blue to brick-red

Proteins (Biuret test) Copper (ii) sulphate and Turns from blue to purple
sodium hydroxide (biuret)

Fats Ethanol and water Turns from clear to milky or

cloudy

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 UNIT 6.4- DRUGS

These are chemicals that affect our body in a particular way. They are substances that change
the way we think, feel or behave. Drugs can be, classified as medicinal or non-medicinal. The
table below summarizes the differences between medicinal and non-medicinal drugs.

Medicinal drugs Non-medicinal

Taken to cure diseases e.g. antibiotic Taken for recreational purposes e.g. alcohol

Have to be taken according to instructions There are no laid instructions for taking them

Homework

1. find out the general uses of the following medicinal plants

a. Monepewnepe

b. Sengapareile

c. Mukwa

d. Moringa

Dangers of misusing medicinal drugs

 Addiction

 Withdrawal symptoms

 Psychological dependence

 Death due to overdosing

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Drugs commonly abused

Drug Class or type Effects Additional information

Tobacco Stimulant  Makes one to feel more awake. Tobaccos also contain tar, carbon monoxide and
(nicotine) smoke particles which cause respiratory diseases e.g.
cancer, emphesyma and bronchitis.

 Slow reaction rate. Lead to blindness if taken in high concentration

Alcohol Sedative  Cirrhosis of the liver.

Dagga or Sedative  Make on feel relaxed Can also produce hallucinogens feelings
marijuana
 Paranoia

 Makes one to see or hear imaginary The imaginations can sometimes be very scary and
things can return even when the person is not even taking the
LSD Hallucinogens
drug.

 Make one more awake and very It is very expensive and addicts would do anything to
energetic. get it.
Cocaine Stimulant

Opiates (heroin Pain killer  Produce a feeling of great joy. These are medicinal drugs that are used by doctors to
and morphine) relieve pain.
 Highly addictive

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Allergies

An allergy is an abnormal reaction to substances that are harmless. Things like medical drugs,
animal fur, pollen, ground nuts are harmless. However sometimes the body maybe very
sensitive to them and have a very severe reaction to it. Sometimes the reaction is so severe that
the person dies. These reactions are called allergic reactions.

Symptoms of allergic reactions

 Itchy ears and eyes

 Sneezing

 Difficulty in breathing

 itchy rash over the body

 Unconsciousness

Mild cases of allergies maybe treated through drugs called antihistamines. Adrenaline and
drugs that open up lungs can be used to help in severe cases of allergies.

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 MODULE 7: THE HUMAN BODY

UNIT 7.1-TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE HUMAN BODY

Blood is a reddish liquid found in the human body. We cannot survive without blood this
because it carries out many important functions in our body. Below are some general functions
of blood:

1. It protects the body against diseases.

2. It regulates or control body temperature.

3. It transports dissolved substances to and away from body cells.

Component of blood

Blood is made up of different cells and other substances. It made up of white blood cells, red
blood cells, plasma and platelets. These help it to carry out its functions. The diagram below
shows components of blood:

BLOOD GROUPS

There are four different types of blood groups. These are A, B, AB and O. your blood group is
inherited from your parents.

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Uses of blood groups in medicine

They are used in determining the compatibility of blood and organs in blood transfusions and
organ transplants respectively. They can as well be used in paternity test and for giving advice
on the diet to be followed by an individual. The table below shows blood groups which can
safely mix those that cannot safely mix.

Key

√ safely mixes

Х will clot if mixed.

From the table note the following:

 People with blood group O can safely donate blood to any blood group. For this reason
they are called universal donors.

 People with blood group AB can safely receive blood from any blood group. For this
reason they are called universal recipients.

Safety measures during blood transfusion

 Check the blood groups of both the donor and recipient for compatibility. If they are not
compatible the receiver’s blood will clot and blood his or her blood vessels and kill them.

 Check for communicable diseases such as syphilis, HIV, and hepatitis B.

 Ensure blood is of the correct temperature.

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 THE HEART

The heart is an organ that pumps or pushes blood around the body. It is made up of four
chambers. These are the right and left atria and the right and left ventricles. The diagram
below shows the structure of the heart:

Homework

1. Explain why the muscles of the left ventricles are thicker than those of the right
ventricles.

Blood vessels

These are tubes through which blood is transported. There are three types of them. These are
arteries, veins and capillaries.

Artery Vein Capillary

Has thick muscle walls Thin muscle walls No muscles, just one cell
thick

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Have no valves Have valves No valves

Transport blood away from Transport blood towards the Joins arteries and veins
the heart heart

Carries blood under high Carries blood under low They are permeable
pressure pressure

Homework

Find out on the following,

1. Why arteries have thick muscle walls than veins?

2. Why capillaries are one cell thick?

Common diseases of the circulatory system

Disease Cause

Anaemia Lack of iron in the diet, serious bleeding or diseases that destroy red blood
cells.

Heart attack Blockage of arteries that supply heart muscles with oxygen and glucose.

Stroke Blockage of arteries that supply the brain with oxygen and glucose

High blood Caused by blockage or constriction and loss of elasticity of arteries due to
pressure cholesterol.

Preventing diseases of the circulatory system

 Regular exercising
 Reducing cholesterol from diet
 Avoid smoking
 Reducing salt from diet

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 BREATHING

Breathing refers to the process of taking in and out of gases in the body. It is the
exchange of gases between the body and air. The site for this gaseous exchange is the
lungs. The movement of air into the body is called inhalation. The movement of air out
of the body is called exhalation. The diagram below shows the breathing system:

It is often thought that the role of lungs is to pump air into and out of the lungs; however the
movement of air into the body and out of it is necessitated by the movement of the diaphragm
and the rib cage. Their movement causes change in pressure inside and outside the lungs
which lead to air moving in and out of the lungs. The set-up below is of an experiment to show
this:

Observations

When the diaphragm is pulled down, the balloons increase in size. When it is moved upwards
they decrease in size.

Conclusion

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Inhalation and exhalation is not controlled by the lungs but by the movement of the diaphragm.

Below is the table illustrating in detail the breathing action:

Breathing out (exhalation) Breathing in (inhalation)

Diaphragm Relax and move up Flatten and move down

Ribs Move down and in Move up and out

Volume of the chest Decreases Increases

The role of lungs in breathing

The lungs act as a center for gaseous exchange. It is at the lungs where oxygen diffuses into
the blood stream whereas carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood stream. This exchange takes
place in the alveoli (air sacs). Below is the diagram of the alveolus:

The levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air

The experimental set-up below is of an experiment to investigate the levels of carbon dioxide in
inhaled and exhaled air. Air was breathed in and out of the set-up through the mouth of the
glass tube at point marked X for 30 seconds.

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Observations

Lime water in the test-tube with exhaled air was milk whereas the one which had inhaled air was
less milky.

Conclusion

Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. That is the air we breathe out
contains more carbon dioxide than the air we breathe in. the table below shows the levels of
gases in inhaled and exhaled air:

Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen 21% 16%

Carbon 0.04% 4%
dioxide

Nitrogen 78% 78%

Effects of physical exercise on the breathing rate and depth of breathing

The rate of breathing and depth of breathing increases when exercising. This is to make sure
enough oxygen is supplied for extra energy and that the extra carbon dioxide produced during
respiration is removed before it poisons tissues. The heart beat also increases to quickly supply
glucose and remove waste products from tissues.

Effects of smoking on lungs

Smoking affects the lungs in many ways:

 It affects the elasticity of the lungs making it difficult for the person to exhale. The
disease is called emphysema.

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 It kills cilia (small hair cells that traps and removes dust and mucous) so the air ways
(trachea, bronchi) becomes dirty. This leads to development of permanent cough and
bronchitis.
 It increases blood cholesterol level increasing the risk of having heart diseases.
 It combines with haemoglobin and prevents oxygen from combining with it. This creates
breathing problems.

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 Unit 7.2- Excretion
The excretory system
Excretion refers to the removal of chemical waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions)
from the blood stream through excretory organs. The substances may poison the blood if not
removed. The system that removes these substances is called the excretory system. Organs
that make the excretory system include the skin, the liver, lungs and kidneys.

Lungs

Lungs are responsible for the removal of carbon dioxide produced during respiration. See notes
on the breathing for a detailed explanation of the lungs and its structure.

The skin

Although the main functions of the skin are to protect the body against germs entering the body
and to cool the body through perspiration (sweating), it also excretes excess water, salts and
urea in the form of sweat from sweat glands. Below is the diagram of the skin:

Kidneys

A human being has two kidneys, though they can still live healthily with one. These filter excess
water, salts and urea in the form of urine from the blood. Below is a diagram of a kidney:

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Excretory organ Excretory waste products

Lungs Carbon dioxide

Kidneys Urea, excess water and salts (urine)

Skin Water, salts and little amount of urea (sweat)

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Common problems of the excretory system and prevention

Description Prevention /treatment

Urinary tract Caused by bacteria called ecoli infecting Inserting a tube into the
infection the bladder or urethra. excretory system for urine to
temporarily flow before
It may cause blockage of the excretory treatment
system.

Kidney stones Crystals of salts and minerals such as Small stones can pass out on
calcium forming in the urinary tract. their own with urine but
sometimes they are removed
Stones can be large enough to block through surgery
the ureter.

Kidney failure One or both kidneys not functioning Kidney dialysis is required: a
properly. Caused by infection, poisoning machine is used to filter the
or drug overdose, sudden drop in blood toxins out of the blood.
pressure, heart failure.
Kidney transplant.
Kidney failure means blood is no longer
filtered and toxins such as urea poison
the cells.

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 MODULE 8: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
UNIT 8.1-ELECTRICAL ENERGY
MAGNETISM

Magnetism is the property of matter which produces a field of attractive or repulsive forces.
Induced magnetism is the process by which magnetism is produced in something that was not
a magnet before. There are three types of magnets; these are soft (temporary) and Hard
(permanent) and electromagnets.

METHODS OF INDUCING MAGNETISM

There are two main ways of inducing magnetism. These are stroking and electrically.

Inducing magnetism electrically

The diagram below shows a set-up used to demonstrate how iron or steel maybe magnetized
(made to behave like magnets) using electricity.

Results

when the switch was closed and electric current started to flow through the circuit the nail
started to attract the iron fillings though it did not do that before current was passed through it.

Conclusion

Electricity redirected the particles of the nail to face one direction (polirisation) and this made the
nail to act like a magnet. Magnetic properties were induced in a nail due to electricity.

Inducing magnetism by stroking

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The diagram below shows a set-up used to demonstrate an activity to show how iron or steel
can be magnetized (made to behave like a magnet) by stroking.

Results

At the beginning the bars did not attract the fillings but after being stroked or rubbed with a
magnet they attract the fillings. This shows that magnetism maybe induced through stroking.

The pole produced at the end of the steel/ iron where the stroke ends is of the opposite kind of
that of the stroking pole.

The pole produced where you start your stroking is of the same kind of that of the stroking pole.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

Iron and steel can both be attracted by magnets. Hence both maybe changed into magnets.
However, magnets formed from iron and steel are different. The table below shows a summary
of these differences.

IRON STEEL
Can be magnetized quickly Are magnetized slowly
Easily lose magnetism Cannot lose magnetism
easily
Forms temporary magnets Forms permanent magnets

USES OF MAGNETS

 Speakers and microphones

 To separate and pick metals in scrape yards
 To locate direction in compasses
 Seals on freezers

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CARE FOR MAGNETS

 Opposite poles should be placed along each other.

 A piece of iron (keepers) is placed across the ends.
 Should not be dropped or handled roughly.
 Should not be placed in flames.

ELECTRIC CHARGE

A charge is a property in some materials that makes them attract or repel other
materials. This property is usually observed in nonconductors of electricity and
produces static electricity. The SI-Units of electric charge are coulombs (C).

Electro static charging

Static electricity is electricity that does not move. Electro static charging is giving an
object a charge through static electricity.

An object gets charged through friction. The friction will make electrons to move from
one object to the other.

Electrons are particles of matter which carries an electric charge, therefore:

 Positive charge is when the object loses electrons by which it leaves the object
with more protons than electrons.
 Negative charge it’s when the object gains more electrons by which the number
of protons become greater than protons.

Types of charges

There are two types of charges. These are negative and positive charge. A positive
charge is created when an object have some electrons removed from it whereas an
object become negatively charged when it gains an excess of electrons. Like charges
repel each other while unlike charges attract each other.

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Repulsion between two objects can be used to test that they are both charged. A gold
leaf electroscope can also be used to test whether an object is charged or not. The
set-up below is used to test for electrostatic charging:

Observations

Before being rubbed with a cloth the polythene or acetate did not have an effect on the
gold leaf, however, after being rubbed with the cloth both the polythene and acetate
made the gold leaf repel from the metal plate.

Conclusion

The observations above shows that rubbing the polythene or acetate with the cloth
made them electrostatic charged. The charge on cellulose acetate is taken as positive
whereas that in polythene is negative.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

 Dry cells
 Storage batteries
 Solar cells
 Dynamo
 Generators
 Power stations

Power stations

There are two common types of power stations- thermal power station and hydro-electric power
station.

Hydro-Electric Power Station

This uses force of moving water to produce electricity. The water comes from a dam or a big
river that are on a high land. The moving water drives turbines and then the generator which in
turn produce electricity. Below is the diagram of hydroelectric power station:

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Energy changes on a hydroelectric power station:

Gravitational potential energy kinetic energy electrical energy

(water in the lake/dam) (water at high speed, drives turbines) (electricity produced by generator)

Thermal power station

A thermal power station uses fossil fuels (coal or oil) to generate electricity. This is heated to
boil water and produce high pressure steam. The steam drives turbines which in turn drive the
generator which then produces electricity. Below is the diagram of a thermal power station:

Energy changes in a thermal power station:

Chemical PE Heat energy kinetic energy electrical energy

Similar changes also take place in a petrol or diesel electrical generator.

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Dynamos or generators

Friction between the wheel of the bicycle and the wheel of the dynamo makes the
magnet to turn fast next to or inside a wire coil, an electric current is generated in the
coil. This is used in a device called a dynamo or a generator. Below is the diagram of a
dynamo:

Observations

When a dynamo is turned fast, the bulb of the dynamo lights though it does not light
when it is not turned.

Conclusion

When a magnet is turned fast next or inside a coil, electric current is generated in the
coil.

Energy changes in a dynamo

Chemical PE kinetic Energy electrical Energy light energy

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 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity has three important effects. These are the

 The heating effect

 The magnetic effect
 The chemical effect.

Each of the effect is discussed below.

Heating effect of electricity

When an electric current passes through a wire, heat energy is produced and lost to the
surrounding. Below is a set up of an experiment to demonstrate this.

Observations

The thread of wire glowed bright red and burnt.

Conclusion

Electricity has a heating effect. This is caused by friction between the electron and the atoms of
a wire.

Some wires have low resistance like copper therefore produces less heat. Some wires have
high resistance like tungsten in a bulb filament therefore produces more heat, that’s why it
glows.

Application of the heating effect of electricity

 Electric heaters
 Electric iron
 Electric kettle
 Lighting a bulb
 Fuse: a safety device which has a wire of low melting point. When there is an overload
of current the wire heats up and melts, this will cut the power.

Chemical effect of electricity

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Electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy during a chemical reaction. The diagram
below shows a set up used to demonstrate this.

Observations

Bubbles of a gas are made at the rods. The carbon rod at the negative is covered with copper.

Conclusion

A chemical reaction took place hence electricity have a chemical effect. The reaction is called
electrolysis.

Applications of the chemical effect of electricity

 Electroplating

 Extraction of some metals e.g. copper and aluminum

 Electric cells

The magnetic effect of electricity

Electric current maybe used to turn iron into a magnet. Such iron is called electromagnet. The
set up below is used to show the magnetic effect of electricity.

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Observation

The iron nails attracted the iron fillings.

Observations

Electricity has magnetic effects.

Applications of the magnetic effect of electricity

 Electric bells
 Loud speaker
 Picking large iron and steel

ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION

This is concerned with the rate at which a given electrical appliance draws energy from
the supply.
Power: this is how much electric energy is consumed in a second. The SI unit for power
is watts (W).
An appliance of power rating 45W means that appliance consumes 45W of energy in
one second.
Below is the formulas for calculating power:

Power (W) = Energy (J) ÷ Time (s) or Power (kW) = Energy (kJ) ÷
Time (h)
Or
Power(W) = Voltage (V) × Current (A)

Calculating the cost of electricity

When we pay for electricity we actually pay for the number of kilo Watts-hour
consumed. This is called the unit of electricity. The unit of electricity is calculated as:

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 Unit of electricity = Power (kW) × Time
(h)

From the formula it could be noted that the amount of electricity used depend on the
power of the appliance and the time it is left running. It also depends on the cost of
electricity per unit. Below is the formula for calculating the cost of electricity:

Cost = Power(kW) × Time (h) × Cost

per unit

Example:

Electric kettle with Power rating of 2200W is used for 30 minutes every day. If BPC
charges P0.60 per unit calculate the cost of using the kettle for 30 days.

Step 1:

 Convert watts to kilowatss and minutes to hours.

= 2.2kw =0.5 hrs

Step 2:

 Calculate units used per day.

Units used= Kw × h

1.2 kw × 0.5 hours = 1.1 kw-h

Step 3:

 calculate the cost of electricity per day

Cost = units (kw-h) × cost per unit

1.1 kw-h × P0.60 = P0.66 per day

Step 3:

 Calculate the cost of electricity in 30 days of use.

P0.66 × 30 days = P19.80

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Ways of reducing the cost of electricity

A lot of money is wasted if we don’t use electricity wisely. We carry all necessary
measures to save on electricity bills. Below are some measures that could be taken to
cut electrical bills:

 Switch off all electrical appliances not in use.

 Use alternative sources of energy for heating water and cooking.
 Fridge doors should always be closed.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is very dangerous if not used with care. Some electrical hazards include,
damp conditions overheating and short circuit. Short circuiting provides current with an
easier alternative path to follow leading to a sudden surge in current. The following are
some ways of making the use of electricity safe:

Use of fuses

These melts if large amount of current runs through it and this cut off the current and
prevent damage to appliances. The current rating of fuses should always be noted and
proper fuses used to replace damaged ones.

Circuit breaker

These are also referred to as trip switches. When there is too much current (in case of a
short circuit), they trip and cut current in a circuit. They can be pushed back once the
cause of overloading is corrected or removed.

Earthing metal cases

In case of a short circuit (wires touching the metal case), the earth wire completes the
circuit and conducts electricity to earth (ground). If it wasn’t there the current would pass
through you and electrocute you.

Double Insulation

Connection to the supply is by two cored (covered with insulated plastic) insulated cables with
no earth wire. The appliance is then totally enclosed in an insulating plastic body such that there
is no direct connection between the external metal parts and the internal risk electric
components. There is no risk of shock in the event there is a fault inside the appliance.
Common double insulated appliances include hair dryers and electric shavers. They are
common identified by the symbol

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Wiring of plugs correctly

Three wires are usually used to wire houses or appliances. These are the Live wire
which is a brown wire which carries current to the house or electrical appliances. There
is also the Neutral wire which is the blue wire that carries electricity back to the source
or the mains. The last wire is the Earth wire which is a green with yellow stripes is a
safety wire that takes current to the earth in case of a short circuit. It protects electric
users from electrocution in case of a short circuit. When wiring a three pin plug, the Live
wire is connected to pin L, Neutral wire to pin N and the Earth wire to pin E. Below is
the diagram of the three pin plug:

Connecting switches and fuses to the live wire

Switches and fuses are normally connected to the live wire this is because they control
current flowing to the appliance. This helps makes sure that when a switch is turned off
or when a fuse blows, the whole circuit is broken. If there were connected to neutral
wire, electricity would always flow to the appliance even when they are broken or off.
This would lead to electrocution or damage of the appliances.

DIAGNOSTIC STEPS FOLLOWED INCASE OF ELECTRIC FAULTS

This is steps that are followed in order to identify and correct any electric faults that may
results in appliances not working. The following are the steps:

 Check if the electric supply is on.

 Check if the trip switch is still up
 If it is on but the appliance still don’t work, switch off power at the mains.
 Check if the plugs are correctly wired and whether the fuse is not blown.
 If it still don’t work consult a specialist

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 Module 9: the solar system
Unit 9.1- Earth systems

The earth spheres

The study of planet earth is known as geo-science or earth science. This covers all
fields of the earth like geology, geography, geophysics and biology.

Careers that are related to the study of geo-science include:

 Geologist
 Biologist
 soil scientist
 Meteorologist.
 climatologist

The earth is made up of four main spheres. These are the:

 atmosphere
 biosphere
 hydrosphere
 Lithosphere

Each sphere has its own characteristics but the spheres are inter-connected and
depend on each other.

Atmosphere

This is the thin layer of a mixture of gases which surround the earth. It is made up of
four layers. These are the ionosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere.
Below is the diagram showing layers of the atmosphere:

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  Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis in plants.
 Oxygen needed for respiration in living things.
 Nitrogen is converted to nitrates by plants during the process of fixation.
 Water vapour is needed for formation of rain.

Biosphere

This is the part of the earth where life is found. It is divided in biomes ( a large area
characterized by a similar climate, flora(plants), fauna(animals) and soil). The most
common biome is grassland savannah.

Hydrosphere

This refers to all the water found on, under or close to the surface of the earth. The
importance of water is:

 Habitat for many animals.

 Earth does not experience large temperature change because water heats up
more slowly and cools down more slowly than land.

Lithosphere

This is the crust of the earth. It is the solid part of planet earth, extending from the
earth’s surface to about 100km below the earth’s surface. It is made up of layers known
as the crust and the upper mantle. Below is the diagram showing the lithosphere and
the inside of the earth:

( leave 6 lines for a diagram)

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The crust
It is the outer most layer of the earth. It is made up mainly of solid rocks and consists of
two layers. These are the continental crust which is made up of silica and aluminum and
the oceanic crust which is made up of silica and magnesium.

The mantle

This is below the crust. It is semi solid due to high pressure and high temperature. It
consists of iron and magnesium.

PROCESSES OF THE SPHERE INTERACTION

Spheres are not isolated. There is an interaction between them. What happens in one
sphere brings about changes in other spheres. Below are some examples of processes
of the sphere interaction:

 Water cycle: water evaporates from the hydrosphere and biosphere to the
atmosphere to form rain. Rain comes from the atmosphere to the hydrosphere
and the biosphere.
 Ozone layer in the atmosphere protects the living things on the biosphere from
harmful rays of the sun; it also traps enough heat to support life on earth.
 Birds from the biosphere fly in the atmosphere.
 Too much rainfall from the atmosphere can cause floods on the biosphere and
less rain causes draught.

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