----- Biology -----

Biology – The study of living things/organisms.

Zoology - The study of animal life.
Botany - The study of plant life.
Ecology - The study of the relationship living things to their
environment.
Embryology - The study of the formation and development of
organisms in their earliest stages of life.
Anatomy - The study of structures of the body.
Genetics - The study of heredity & variation of organisms.
Physiology - The study of the functions of the body.
Cytology - The study of the cell.
Histology - The study of tissues.
Bacteriology - The study of bacteria and/or unicellular plant
life.

The Cell

Requirements of life
1. Living things are made up of cells.
 Unicellular organisms are made of 1 cell
 Multicellular organisms are made of more than 1 cell
2. Living things Reproduce.
 Sexual Reproduction: mixing of genetic material.
 Asexual Reproduction: no mixing of genetic material.
3. Living things are based on a universal genetic code.
 All information is written in a molecule called DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which is found in the nucleus.
4. Living things grow and develop.
 Single egg divides again and again.
5. Living things obtain and use energy
 Energy is used to grow, develop and reproduce.
 Metabolism: total sum of chemical reactions in the body.
 Photosythesis end product is Oxygen and glucose.
6. Living things respond to their environment.
 Stimulus: a signal to which organisms responds.
7. Living things maintain a stable internal environment.
  Homeostasis: where organisms need to keep conditions inside
their bodies as constant as possible.
 Sweat to release heat
 Sensations of hunger and thirst
8. Taken as a group, living things evolve.
 Groups of organisms typically evolve over time.
 Sweat to release heat
 Sensations of hunger and thirst
9. Taken as a group, living things evolve.
 Groups of organisms typically evolve over time.

The Cell Theory Principles:

1. Cell is the basic unit of life.
2. All living organisms are composed of cell
3. New cells are created from pre-existing cells.

History of Cell
 Robert Hooke
 In 1665, he observed box-shaped structures which he compared
to cellulae (small compartments) and named it “cells”.
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
 In late 1600’s, he discovered mobile organelles / he found
moving protist and sperm called “animalcules”.
 Upgraded Janssen’s microscope and produced his lens.
 Matthias Jacob Schleiden
 A botanist, concluded that all plant tissues are composed of cells
and that an embryonic plant arose from a single cell.
 In his writings Contribution in Phytogenesis, he proposed
different structures of a plant are all composed of cells.
 Theodore Schwann
 A zoologist, concluded that all living things are composed of one
or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise
from existing cells.
 Rudolf Virchow
 Introduced “Omnis cellula e cellula” which means “Cells came
from pre-existing cells. (1858) Cell theory was completed.
 Zacharian Janssen
 Invented a primitive microscope. (1590)
 Marcello Malphigi and Nehemiah Grew
 They determined the presence of organelles within its cells
(plant cell).
 Robert Brown
  Discovered the Nucleus.
 Albrecht von Roelliker
 Discovered that the sperm and egg were composed of cells.
 Louis Pasteur
 All living things are made of cells.
 Developing fermentation, a process to kill bacteria.
 Proved that bacteria are able to multiple and that bacterial cells
come from other bacterial cells.

Cell Structure and Functions

Major parts of a cell:
 Plasma Membrane or the Cell Membrane
 Separates the cell’s interior from
its surrounding environment.
 Controls what moves into and out
of the cell.
 Encloses and safeguards its
organelles from possible harm.
 Major Components:
1. Phospholipids – a kind of fat. Two tails called a
phospholipid bilayer. Top: Hydrophilic region of
protein. Bottom: Hydrophobic region of protein.
2. Cholesterol – lipid composed of four fused carbon
rings.
3. Proteins – help move large molecule or aid in cell
recognition.
a) Peripheral Proteins – attached on the surface.
b) Integral Proteins – embedded completely
through the membrane.
 Cytoplasm
 Where organelles float and chemical reactions occur.
 A semi fluid that fills the cell and holds the components of a cell.
 Organelles are suspended in a gel-like solution called cytosol
which is composed of both organic and inorganic compounds.
 70% of cellular content & rich supply of macromolecules and
smaller organic molecules.
 Primarily composed of water, proteins and salts.
 Contains enzymes that break down waste to avoid toxic.
 Cellular expansion and growth.
 Nucleus
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1833.
 Directs all of the cell’s activity.
 The control center of the cell because it contains all the genetic
information.
 Holds the chromosomes which carry tightly wrapped and coined
DNA.
 Chromosomes – The hereditary information of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane is a double layer that encloses the cell’s
nucleus.
 Nucleolus serves as the site of ribosomes synthesis. Contains
RNA, proteins, and some DNA.

Endomembrane System
- A group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works
together to modify, package and transport lipids and proteins.

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Modifies proteins and synthesized lipids.
 Hollow Portion of ER is called lumen or cisternal space.
 ER membrane > phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, is
continuous with nuclear envelope.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Has ribosomes attached
Carries out cell transportation
Makes membrane proteins.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Allows synthesis of fatty acids and phospholipids.
Focuses on lipids/fats.
Does not have ribosomes attached.
The transportation system of the cell.
2. Ribosomes
 A tiny, grainy structure attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 The protein factory of the cell.
 Contains enzymes to carry out protein synthesis (process of
combining amino acids to produce peptide chains to reconstruct
proteins).
 Present in both eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.
3. Vacuoles
 Storage tanks
 Fluid-filled vesicles enclosed by a membrane.
 Present both in animal and plant cells.
 Breaks down large molecules.
4. Lysosomes
 Digestion slots for cellular materials that are no longer useful.
 Capable for self-destruction in order to save the rest of the
organelles from being poisoned.
 Autopagy, cells process of reusing old and damaged cell parts.
 Cells take in food by phagocytosis, a cellular process for
ingesting and eliminating particles larger than 0.5 μm in
diameter.
 Digest food & get rid of wastes.
5. Peroxisome
  Small round organelles enclosed by a single membrane.
 Self-damage and mostly disintegrates proteins, accommodate the
breakdown of fatty acids and detoxify many poisons that enter
the body.
 Shields the cell from serious damage caused reactive oxygen
species molecules (ROS) molecules.
6. Golgi Apparatus
 Stacks of flattened sacs/pancakes
 Shipping side (cis face) & a receiving side (trans face)
 Modify, sort & package molecules from Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
 For storage or Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch
off the ends.
7. Centrosome
 Comprised of two centrioles.
Centrioles – Play a role in cell division and in cell
motility.
 Take part in the assembly of spindle fibers at cell division and
contribute to the successful outcome of mitosis.
 Found in all eukaryotic cells, assist in arranging microtubules
(hallow tubes of protein) to be utilized for cell division.
8. Mitochondria
 The powerhouse of the cell.
 The site where energy (ATP) is obtained from food consumed
and made available for the use of the cell.
Sugar + O2 => ATP
 Outer membrane – a selectively permeable membrane that
surrounds the mitochondria.
 Inner membrane – fords inward (called cristae) to increase
surfaces for cellular metabolism. Contains ribosomes and the
DNA of the mitochondria. Creates two enclosed spaces within
the mitochondria:
1. Intermembrane space between the outer membrane and he
inner membrane.
2. Matrix that is enclosed within the inner membrane.
9. Adenosine Triphosphate
 Major energy currency of the cell that provides the energy for
most of the energy-consuming activities of the cell.
10. Chloroplast Photosynthesis
 The site of photosynthesis. The process converts solar energy
to chemical energy.
 Found in plants and algae.
 Outer membrane – permeable to small molecules and ions
which diffuse easily.
 Intermembrane Space – present between the outer and the
inner membrane of the chloroplast.
 Inner membrane – forms a border to the stroma. Regulates
passage of material in and out of the chloroplast.
 Stroma – an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is protein-rich.
 Thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. Collection of
membranous sacks called thylakoids.
 Sites for the light reactions of the photosynthesis to take place.
The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids.
 Arranged in stacks known as grana.
 Plastids – store chlorophyll for the use of chloroplast.