MODULE 1 — GENDER AND SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SOCIETY

Meaning and Nature of Society

• A grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interest and ay have distinctive

culture’ and ay institutions. (New World Encyclopedia)
• Human beings are essentially social creatures, with the desire and need to be in close contact
with others.

Origin of Society

SOCIETY

• Societe century- French word which emerged on 15th

• Societas Latin word means “friendly association with others”
• Socius- Latin word means “companion, associate, comrade or business partner”.
• An interdependent community

CULTURE

An attribute of a community. In the study of social science, “society” has been used to mean a group of
people that form a semi-closed social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals
belonging to the group.

Types of Society

Gerhard Lenski, a sociologist, differentiates societies into four levels based on their level of technology,
communication, and economy:

• Hunter and gatherers;

• Simple agricultural
• Advanced agricultural, and
• Industrial

Forms of Society

Band

• The simplest form of human society

• Consists of a small kinship group, often no larger than an extended family or small clan
• The older members of the band generally are looked to for guidance and advice
• Religion is generally based on family tradition, individual experience, or counsel from a shaman
Forms of Society

Clan

A group of people united by kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common
ancestor

Even if actual lineage patterns are unknown, clan members nonetheless recognize a founding member or
“apical ancestor.”

Forms of Society

Tribe

A social division within a traditional society consisting of a group of interlinked families and communities
sharing a common culture and dialect.

Forms of Society

Ethnic Groups

• A human population whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a
presumed common genealogy or lineage.
• Usually united by common cultural, behavioral, linguistic, or religious practices In this sense, an
ethnic group is also a cultural community.

Forms of Society

Chiefdom

Any community led by an individual known as “an autonomous political unit comprising a number of
villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief

-Roberto Cameiro

Forms of Society

State

It usually includes the set of institutions that claim the authority to make the rules that govern the
people of the society in that territory, though its status as a state often depends in part on being
recognized by number of other states as having internal and external sovereignty over it.
Criteria for Membership

• Have a shared belief or common goal that binds them together.

• People of many nations united by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values may
be said to be a society.
• Social norms are rules or standards of behavior shared by members of a social group.
• A norm is an expectation of how people will behave, and generally it takes the form of a rule that
is socially rather than formally enforced.

Sex and Gender

Two essential yet underrated parts of human life

For it affects:

• Actions
• Looks
• Job
• Lives
• Laws
• Values and etc.

GENDER

• Refers to the socially constructed notion of and relationships between men and women.
• Also refers to “how people see themselves and on their tendency to act along either their
masculine or feminine line”

SOCIOLOGY OF GENDER

• Distinction between sex and gender.

• It examines how societies Influences our understandings and perception of differences between
masculinity and femininity.
• One of the Biggest within the field of sociology.

SEX

• Primarily refers to physical attributes body characteristics notably sex organ which are distinct in
majority of individuals.
• Is biologically determined-by genes and hormones
• Is relatively fixed/constant through time and across cultures.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
 • Refers to person’s sexual and romantic interests either people of opposite sex or people of the
same sex.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS A DIFFERENT THING THAN GENDER IDENTITY

HOMOSEXUAL

• Attracted to and interested in relationship with people of the same sex.

• Women are referred to as lesbians.
• Men are referred to as gays.

HETEROSEXUAL

• Refers to a person’s sexual feelings and

• Romantic interests to either people of the opposite sex or people of the same sex.

BISEXUAL

• Attracted to both men and women.

ASEXUAL

• Those men and women “who, regardless of physical or emotional condition, actual sexual
history, and marital status or ideological orientation, seem to prefer not to engage in sexual
activity.”

PANSEXUAL

• Sexual, romantic, or emotional attraction towards people of all genders, or regardless of their
sex or gender identity.

OMNISEXUAL

• Those “attracted to people of all genders across the gender spectrum”,

SAPIOSEXUAL

• A person is sexually attracted to highly intelligent people.

DEMISEXUAL

• Sexual orientation in which an individual does not experience primary sexual attraction.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

• Gynosexual
• Objectumisexual Autosexual
• Androgynysexual
• Androsexual
• Graysexual
• Cupiosenual

GENDER IDENTIFY

• Is a person’s internal feelings of being a women, man, both, or neither.

• It’s okay for any of these things to change at different times, or in different situations, depending
on what feels comfortable.

GENDER

• The state of being male or female in typically regarding to social constructs rather than physical
attributes.

CISGENDER

• Refers to someone who identifies with the gender they were assigned at birth.

LESBIAN

• Refers to a woman who is attracted to women. Sometimes also or alternately “same-gender-

loving woman” or “woman loving woman”.

GAY

• Refers to a man who is attracted to men.

TRANSGENDER

• Refers to someone who does not identify with the gender they were assigned at birth.

TRANSSEXUAL

• Individuals who identify as the opposite gender to their biological sex.

INTERSEX
 • A person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit the boxes of “female” or
“male”.

QUEER

• Refers to someone whose gender identity falls on the spectrum between male and female.

QUESTIONING

• Refers to someone whose unsure of, reconsidering, or chooses to hold off identifying their
gender identity.

CROSSDRESSER

• Cross-dressing refers occasionally wearing

• To clothing of the opposite gender, someone who considers this is an integral part of their
identity may identify as a crossdresser.

BIGENDER

• A person whose gender identity is a combination of more than one gender or is sometimes one
gender and sometimes another gender.

BOI

• Someone assigned female at birth, who generally does not identify as, or only partially identifies
as feminine, female, a girl, or a woman.

GENDER IDENTIFY

• DEMIGENDER
• POLYGENDER
• TRIGENDER
• INTERQUEER
• LGBTQIA+

SUMMARY

• Gender refers to the social, psychological and cultural attributes of masculinity and femininity,
many of which are based on biological distinctions.
• Gender includes people’s self image and expectations for behavior among other things.
• Gender describes societal attitudes and behaviors expected of and associated with the two
sexes. Gender identity refers to the degree to which an individual sees herself or himself as
feminine or masculine based on society’s definitions of appropriate gender roles.

Sex

• Biological traits that society associates with being male or female.

Gender
 • Cultural meanings attached to being masculine & feminine, which influence personal identities.
• E.g. Man, Woman, Transgender, Intersex. Gender Queer, among others

Sexuality

• Sexual attraction, practices & identity which may or may not align with sex and gender.
• Eg. Heterosexual, aHomosexual (Gay or Lesbian), Bisexual, Queer, among others.
MODULE 3: BIOMEDICAL PERSPECTIVE IN GENDER AND SEXUALITY
Module 3: Topics

• Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction

• The Process of Reproduction
• Sexual Health and Hygiene
• Risky Behaviors of Adolescents

Definition of Terms
1. Reproduction: Reproduction refers to the biological process by which new
individuals of the same species are produced. It involves the transmission of genetic
information from parent organisms to offspring, ensuring the continuity of a species.
Reproduction can occur through sexual or asexual means, depending on the
organism.

2. Genitals: Genitals are the external sexual organs that are involved in sexual
reproduction. In males, the genitals usually include the penis and testes. In
females, the genitals typically consist of the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and clitoris.
Genitals play a crucial role in sexual intercourse, fertilization, and the production of
offspring.

3. Primary Sex Characteristics: Primary sex characteristics are the sexual organs and
structures present at birth that directly contribute to reproductive functions. In
males, primary sex characteristics include the penis, testes, and seminal vesicles. In
females, primary sex characteristics include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and
fallopian tubes. These characteristics differentiate males from females and are
essential for the production of gametes (sperm and eggs).

4. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Secondary sex characteristics are physical features

that develop during puberty and distinguish males from females. These
characteristics are not directly involved in reproduction but are associated with
sexual maturity and attraction. Examples of secondary sex characteristics in males
include facial hair, deepening voice, and increased muscle mass. In females,
secondary sex characteristics may include breast development, wider hips, and the
growth of pubic hair.
BIOLOGICAL FEMALE

• Anatomy the study of body structure in relation to body parts.

• Physiology is branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of
living matter (such as organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical
phenomena involved.

1. Vulva: The external part of the female genitalia that includes the structures such as the
labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vaginal and urethral openings.
2. Mons veneris: Also known as the pubic mound, it is a fatty area above the pubic bone
that is covered with pubic hair. It protects the pelvic bone and acts as cushioning during
sexual activities.
3. Labia majora: The outer lips of the vulva that are usually covered with pubic hair. They
serve as protective folds around the vaginal and urethral openings.
4. Prepuce: The hood-like fold of skin that covers and protects the clitoris. It is similar to
the foreskin on a penis.
5. Clitoris: A highly sensitive organ located at the top of the vulva. Its main function is to
provide sexual pleasure. The clitoris contains a high concentration of nerve endings and
can become engorged during sexual arousal.
6. Labia minora: The inner lips of the vulva that surround the vaginal opening. They are
often more delicate and can vary in appearance between individuals.
 7. Vestibule: The area between the labia minora that contains the vaginal and urethral
openings. It is a part of the vulva that is commonly involved in sexual intercourse and
urination.
8. Urethral opening: The opening that connects the bladder to the outside of the body. It is
where urine exits the body and is separate from the vaginal opening.
9. Vaginal opening: The opening or entrance to the vagina, which is a muscular canal that
connects the uterus to the external genitalia. It is involved in sexual intercourse and
allows for menstruation and childbirth.
10. Perineum: The area of skin and tissue between the vaginal opening and the anus. It
plays a role in sexual pleasure and is prone to tearing during childbirth.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Produce sex hormones
➢ Estrogen, Progesterone
• Produce egg (Ova)
➢ Support and protect developing embryo
➢ Give birth to new baby

FEMALE SEXUAL ANATOMY (Internal Genitalia)

Major Organs
Cervix:

• The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects it to the vagina. It produces
cervical mucus and acts as a barrier between the vagina and the uterus.

Vagina:

• The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the external genitalia (vulva) to the cervix.
It is where sexual intercourse occurs, and it also serves as the birth canal during
childbirth.
Ovaries (gonads):

• The ovaries are the female reproductive organs responsible for producing and releasing
eggs (ova) as well as producing hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone. They
are located on either side of the uterus within the pelvic cavity.

Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes):

• The uterine tubes, also known as fallopian tubes, are two thin, tube-like structures that
extend from the upper part of the uterus and are lined with cilia. They are the site of
fertilization, where the sperm meets the egg, and then transport the fertilized egg
(zygote) towards the uterus.
Uterus:

• The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, pear-shaped organ where implantation
of a fertilized egg occurs and where a fetus develops during pregnancy. It has a thick
muscular wall and undergoes menstrual cycles in response to hormonal changes. During
childbirth, the uterus contracts to expel the baby.

THE CERVIX

• The lower portion or neck of the uterus.

• The cervix is lined with mucus, known as the cervical mucus.
• Cervical mucus provides lubrication and
• Sperm transport during sexual intercourse.
• During ovulation secretion of cervical mucus increases in response to estrogen
• But when the mucus then becomes thin and slippery, offering a “friendly environment”
to sperm
THE VAGINA

• A muscular, ridged sheath

• Connecting the external genitals to the uterus.
• Functions as a two-way street,
• Accepting the penis and sperm during intercourse
• Serving as the avenue of birth through which the new baby enters the world

OVARIES

• Also known as female gonads

• They produce eggs (also called ova) every female is born with a lifetime
• Supply of eggs
• They also produce hormones: Destrogen & Progesterone

Fallopian tubes [uterine tubes]

• Stretch from the uterus to the ovaries and

• Measure about 8 to 13 cm in length. The ends of the fallopian tubes lying next to the
ovaries feather into ends called fimbria
• Millions of tiny hair-like cilia line the fimbria and interior of the fallopian tubes
Fallopian tubes [uterine tubes]

• Stretch from the uterus to the ovaries and measure about 8 to 13 cm in length.
• The ends of the fallopian tubes lying next to
• The ovaries feather into ends called fimbria Omillions of tiny hair-like cilia line the
fimbria and interior of the fallopian tubes. The cilia beat in waves hundreds of times a
second catching the egg at ovulation and moving it through the tube to the uterine
cavity.

Short Quiz (w/ answer)

1. Release of egg from ovary. (Ovulation)
2. Egg reaches mid-point of fallopian tube where it is fertilized by sperm. (Fertilization)
3. Implantation of fertilized egg into the endometrium of uterus.

Uterus

• The pear-shaped muscular organ in the female reproductive tract.

• The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus
• The fundus is the upper portion of uterus where pregnancy occurs.
 • That connects with the vagina and serves as a sphincter to keep the uterus closed during
pregnancy until it is time to deliver a baby. The uterus expands considerably during
pregnancy.

o The main body consists of a firm outer coat of muscle (myometrium) and an inner
lining of vascular, glandular material (endometrium).
o The endometrium thickens during the menstrual cycle to allow implantation of a
fertilized egg.
o Pregnancy occurs when the fertilized egg implants successfully into the endometrial
lining
Ovary

• The reproductive process.

• The organ grows to from 10 to 20 times its
• Normal size during pregnancy.
Endometrium

• The endometrium is central echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has
an average thickness of 6.7 mm.
• During pregnancy, the blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and
number, forming the placenta.
• Placenta supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo & fetus.

PUBERTY
The menstrual cycle marks the beginning of puberty in females. The first episode occurs
between 11 to 15 years of age referred to as menarche.
PUBERTY

• Menstrual Phase
• Proliferative Phase
• Secretory Phase

PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH MENSTRUATION:

• Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

• Dysmenorrhea Amenorrhea
• Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH MENSTRUATION:

• All of these involve the fluctuation of hormone levels associated with menstruation.
• Menopause(usually around age 45-50 years of age)

Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics Emerge after Puberty

• Widening of hips
• Widening of pelvis
• Enlargement of breast
• Enlargement of ovaries, uterus, vagina, uterus, labia.
• Growth of pubic hair.
MORE FEMALE CHARACTERISTICS:

Generally shorter than men;

Greater proportion of body weight composed of fat that men;
Two X chromosomes reduces expression of many sex-linked conditions; and
Lower mortality rate at every age and longer projected lifespan than men.

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of a number of sex organs that play a role in the process
of human reproduction.
These organs are located on the outside of the body and within the pelvis.
The main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles which produce semen and sperm.
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES:
• Prepuce
• Penis
• Corona
• Frenulum
• Scrotum
• Urethral opening
• perineum
Penis

• It has a long shaft and an enlarged bulbous-shaped tip called the glans penis, which
supports and is protected by the foreskin.
• Penis endures erection it is sexually aroused
• Erection occurs because sinuses within the erectile tissue of the penis become filled with
blood.
Internal Structure of the Penis
Testicles (Balls)

• Sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity at the
root of the penis Contains paired testicles separated by a midline septum.
• Its external positioning keeps the testes 3°C lower than core body temperature

Formation of the Testicles

• Ovoid structures about 5 cm long and 3 cm wide.

• Located within the scrotal sac (scrotum)
• During fetal development they are near the kidneys and slowly move inferiorly in the
abdominal cavity.
• During the 7th month they descend through the inguinal canals.
Wall of the Scrotum

• In the dermis, there is a thin layer of smooth muscle known as the dartos muscle.
• Contractions of this muscle causes wrinkling of the skin.
• The cremaster muscle is a thicker layer of skeletal muscle that lowers and raises the
testes based on temperature.

Inside the Scrotum

• Each testes is enclosed by the tunica vaginalis, a continuation of the peritoneum that
lines the abdominopelvic cavity.
• A fibrous capsule covers each testis called the tunica albuginea.
• The tunica albuginea gives rise to septa (partitions) that divide the testis into lobules
(about 250)
• Each lobule contains 3 or 4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules
• These converge to become rete testis which transport sperm to the epididymis.
SPERMATIC CORD
Contains the structures running from the testicles to the
pelvic cavity.

• Passes through the inguinal canal

Contents:

• Vas Deferens
• Nerves
• Blood Vessels

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN DIAGRAM

Sperm
Sperm have three major regions

• Head: contains DNA and has a

Helmet-like acrosome
Containing hydrolytic

Enzymes that allow the sperm

To penetrate and enter the egg

• Midpiece: contains

Mitochondria spiraled around

The tail filaments

• Tail: a typical flagellum produced by a centriole

SEMEN VS. SPERM

Semen – a bodily fluid that is carrying sperms

Sperm – can be found in the semen

Sperm Summary

• Produced: Seminiferous tubules

• Stored: Epididymis
• Transported through epididymis by rhythmic peristaltic contractions as they mature

Epididymis → Vas Deferens → Ejaculatory duct (ampulla of vas deferens fuses with duct of
seminal vesicle “ejaculatory duct”) → prostate → prostatic urethra (then passes the
Bulbourethral gland) → membranous urethra → penile urethra

Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Emerge after Puberty

• Voice breaks
• Hair starts to grow on chest, face,
• Underarms and in pubic area Body becomes more muscular
• Penis becomes larger
• Testes start to produce sperm
MORE MALE CHARACTERISTICS:

• Generally taller and greater proportion of body weight composed of water;

• Proportionally larger heart and lungs, presumably to handle greater blood fluid volume;
• Exposure to greater levels of testosterone resulting in heavier body and facial hair, but
also increased frequency and degree of baldness; and
• Single X chromosome resulting in sex-linked conditions such as colorblindness and
hemophilia.