‫معبد هندوسي‬

Darul Maebad Hindusi

Collected work (Essays) of Architect Srishti Dokras

Srishti Dokras
Associate editor Dr Uday Dokras
VOLUME I

With a Foreword by Islamic Scholar Muhsin

Dadarkar

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CONTENTS page 2
Forward by Islamic Scholar Muhsin Dadarkar page 3
PART I-Islamic & Christian Architectural nuances page 7
CHAPTER I Journey of Islamic Art page 7
CHAPTER II-Geometric vaulting of the Muqarna page 30
CHAPTER III-ARCHITECTURE of the TEMPLERS page 43
The Templers 44
Building and Architecture 52
Templar Possesions 57
CHAPTER IV Gothic Architecture
Part II Hindu Temple Architecture 137
CHAPTER V-The Hindu Temple - Where Man Becomes God 138
CHAPTER VI-Tracing the evolution of temples in India & Abroad 155
CHAPTER VII-Aesthetics Vs. Meaning: The Importance of Hindu
Architecture 194
CHAPTER VIII-Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of South India 213
CHAPTER VIX-Types of Soil tests for building Temple construction 235
CHAPTER X-THE CHANDRASHALA 250
CHAPTER XISeismic Activity and Ancient Hindu Temple Design & Construction

CHAPTER XII-The Role of Hindu Temple Tanks 277

CHAPTER XIII-Sthala Vrikshams 300
CHAPTER XIV Vernacular architecture of Goa 351
ABOUT THE AUTHOR- S R I S H T I D O K R A S 351

Srishti Dokras
B.Arch. (IDEAS) India
Visiting and Consulting Architect, Dubai,USA & Australia
MS- Pratt Institute. USA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS Phd Stockholm, SWEDEN
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

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 Consulting Astrologer and Vastu Shastra
ExpertLtd

FOREWORD
This is the first of 3 Volumes of collection of essays of Architect Srishti Dokras, whom I
know since her childhood. A brilliant student, Srishti was always interested in Design even
before she took up the cudgels of educating herself. Transgressing boundries of religion
and nationality, she has covered a variety of topics in both Islamic and hindu art and
architecture. Her Book Art and Architecture of the Mosques of Imam Ali is a bestseller in
Australia. Here I pen a few words to qualify this wonderful collection that you may read on
academia.edu and researchgate.net; just as I have.

I have been to both Mosques and temples to appreciate the beauty of these dwellings and
the beauty in the architecture of both as well as churches and CASTLES IS MADE BY
THE PEOPLE WHO STAY AND VISIT THEM. Should an artwork be mediocre, less the
people who will appreciate it.

Architecture began when the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search for larger and
better, which inherited the aesthetic sense. It is develop and accommodate the cultural, social and
economic imprints of different times. Architecture began when the artistic faculties of man
awakened in the search for larger and better, which inherited the aesthetic sense. It is develop
and accommodate the cultural, social and economic imprints of different times. The Islamic
architecture is the assimilation of many architectural styles such as Roman, Byzantine, Persian,
Mesopotamian architecture and Indian architecture and vice versa.

The Indian architecture has evolved from the centuries, which can be divided into three
distinct phases: 1. Ancient Architecture; 2. Medieval Architecture; 3. Modern Architecture. The
style of architecture not only influence by the religion and culture, but also from the
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic mixture.

In architecture, universal design means creating spaces that meet the needs of all people, young
and old, able and disabled. From the arrangement of the rooms to the choice of colors, many
details go into the creation of accessible spaces. Today, Universal design is the design of
buildings, products or environments to make them accessible to all people, regardless of
age, disability or other factors.The term "universal design" was coined by the architect Ronald
Mace to describe the concept of designing all products and the built environment to be aesthetic
and usable to the greatest extent possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status in
life. However, it was the work of Selwyn Goldsmith, author of Designing for the
Disabled (1963), who really pioneered the concept of free access for people with disabilities. His

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most significant achievement was the creation of the dropped curb – now a standard feature of
the built environment.
Universal design to me emerge emerged from slightly earlier barrier-free concepts, the broader
accessibility movement, and adaptive and assistive technology regardless of religion that also
seeks to blend aesthetics into these core considerations. As life expectancy rises and modern
medicine increases the survival rate of those with significant injuries, illnesses, and birth defects,
there is a growing interest in universal design. There are many industries in which universal
design is having strong market penetration but there are many others in which it has not yet been
adopted to any great extent. Universal design is also being applied to the design of technology,
instruction, services, and other products and environments.
Islamic buildings and Hindu Temples are often decorated with geometric patterns which
typically make use of several mathematical tessellations, formed of ceramic tiles (girih, zellige)
that may themselves be plain or decorated with stripes. Symmetries such as stars with six, eight,
or multiples of eight points are used in Islamic patterns. Some of these are based on the 'Khatem
Sulemani' or Solomon's seal motif, which is an eight-pointed star made of two squares, one
rotated 45 degrees from the other on the same centre. Islamic patterns exploit many of the 17
possible wallpaper groups; as early as 1944, Edith Müller showed that the Alhambra made use of
11 wallpaper groups in its decorations, while in 1986 Branko Grünbaum claimed to have found
13 wallpaper groups in the Alhambra, asserting controversially that the remaining four groups
are not found anywhere in Islamic ornamens.
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and
for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the development of
Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of
the Ghurid dynasty in 1193. Succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi Sultanate, a series of Central
Asian dynasties that consolidated much of North India, and later the Mughal Empire by the 15th
century. Both of these dynasties introduced Persianate architecture and art styles from Western
Eurasia into the Indian subcontinent.
The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much
the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both
were very often topped by large domes, and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features
were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of
building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the
figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture.
Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to
their own designs. Unlike most of the Islamic world, where brick tended to predominate, India
had highly skilled builders well used to producing stone masonry of extremely high quality.
Alongside the architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such
as Agra, Lahore and Allahabad, a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like
the Bengal, Gujarat, Deccan, Jaunpur and Kashmir Sultanates. By the Mughal period, generally
agreed to represent the peak of the style, aspects of Islamic style began to influence architecture
made for Hindus, with even temples using scalloped arches, and later domes. This was especially
the case in palace architecture. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs
such as in Lucknow, Hyderabad and Mysore continued to commission and patronize the
construction of Mughal-style architecture in the princely states.

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Indo-Islamic architecture has left a large impact on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi
architecture, as in the case of its influence on the Indo-Saracenic Revivalism of the late British
Raj. Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture.

The Mughal Empire, an Islamic empire that lasted in India from 1526 to 1857 left a mark on
Indian architecture that was a mix of Islamic, Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Central Asian and native
Indian architecture. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings
and courtyards. Akbar, who ruled in the 16th century, made major contributions to Mughal
architecture. He systematically designed forts and towns in similar symmetrical styles that
blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of a fort Akbar designed at Agra exhibits
the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants, and birds.

Mathematics and architecture are related, since, as with other

arts, architects use mathematics for several reasons. In ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, India, and
the Islamic world, buildings including pyramids, temples, mosques, palaces
and mausoleums were laid out with specific proportions for religious reasons. In Islamic
architecture, geometric shapes and geometric tiling patterns are used to decorate buildings, both
inside and outside. Some Hindu temples have a fractal-like structure where parts resemble the
whole, conveying a message about the infinite in Hindu cosmology. In Chinese architecture,
the tulou of Fujian province are circular, communal defensive structures. In the twenty-first
century, mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public buildings.
Apart from the mathematics needed when engineering buildings, architects use geometry: to
define the spatial form of a building; from the Pythagoreans of the sixth century BC onwards, to
create forms considered harmonious, and thus to lay out buildings and their surroundings
according to mathematical, aesthetic and sometimes religious principles; to decorate buildings
with mathematical objects such as tessellations; and to meet environmental goals, such as to
minimise wind speeds around the bases of tall buildings.
Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning, employs
symmetrical drawings called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to arrive at the
dimensions of a building and its components. The designs are intended to integrate architecture
with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilizing
geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments. However, early builders may
have come upon mathematical proportions by accident. The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes
that simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes, such as
ellipses and right angles.
The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have
universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of
scale at different viewing distances. For example, in the tall gopuram gatehouses
of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and
others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the
same character, with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8. The cluster of smaller towers
(shikhara, lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the holy Mount
Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu cosmology.

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The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers grouped
among smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers, that:
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time housing
the sacred deep within. Just as these fractals, the essays bring out the beauty of the intellectual
edifice within. Read them and enjoy-come closed to the divine.

Muhsin Dadarkar
M.A. (Arabic and Islamic Studies)

Bait-al-Hikmah
The Rise and Fall of the House of Wisdom

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 PART I
Islamic & Christian Architectural nuances

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 CHAPTER I

The Journey of
Islamic Art
Islam

Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by
culturally Islamic populations. It is however, not the art of a specific religion, time,
place, or of a single medium . Instead it spans some 1400 years, covers many lands
and populations, and includes a range of artistic fields including architecture,
calligraphy , painting, glass, ceramics , and textiles, among others.

Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural
because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry ,
and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur’an. Calligraphy and
architectural elements are given important religious significance in Islamic art.
Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and
Byzantine styles ; Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought
by various nomadic incursions, and Chinese influences appear on Islamic painting,
pottery , and textiles.

Islamic Art

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the seventh century onward
by both Muslims and non-Muslims who lived within the territory that was
inhabited by, or ruled by, culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult
art to define because it spans some 1400 years, covering many lands and
populations. This art is also not of a specific religion, time, place, or single
medium. Instead Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including architecture,
calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others.

Islamic art is not restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the
rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements

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and elements that are forbidden by some Islamic theologians. Islamic religious art
differs greatly from Christian religious art traditions.

Because figural representations are generally considered to be forbidden in Islam,

the word takes on religious meaning in art as seen in the tradition of calligraphic
inscriptions. Calligraphy and the decoration of manuscript Qu’rans is an important
aspect of Islamic art as the word takes on religious and artistic significance.

Islamic architecture, such as mosques and palatial gardens of paradise, are also
embedded with religious significance. While examples of Islamic figurative
painting do exist, and may cover religious scenes, these examples are typically
from secular contexts, such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry.

Other religious art, such as glass mosque lamps, Girih tiles, woodwork, and carpets
usually demonstrate the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art,
although they exhibit more prominent religious inscriptions.

a
A calligraphic panel by Mustafa Râkim (late 18th–early 19th century) : Islamic art has focused on the depiction of
patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the
human form is idolatry. The panel reads: “God, there is no god but He, the Lord of His prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) and the Lord of all that has been created.”

Islamic art was influenced by Greek, Roman, early Christian, and Byzantine art
styles, as well as the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia. Central Asian styles were
brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a
formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles.

Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a book

considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allah) and the

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teachings of Muhammad , who is considered to be the last prophet of God. An
adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%),[7] or Shia (10–20%).

Its essential religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which
are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and the following of Islamic
law, which touches on every aspect of life and society. The five pillars are:

1. Shahadah (belief or confession of faith)

2. Salat (worship in the form of prayer)
3. Sawm Ramadan (fasting during the month of Ramadan)
4. Zakat (alms or charitable giving)
5. Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime)

Themes of Islamic Art

There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of stylized ,
geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque . The
arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and
infinite nature of God. Some scholars believe that mistakes in repetitions may be
intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can
produce perfection.

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Arabesque inlays at the Mughal Agra Fort, India: Geometrical designs in repetition, know as
Arabesque, are used in Islamic art to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible, and infinite nature of
God.

Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns
and Arabic calligraphy, rather than human or animal figures, because it is believed
by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a
sin against God that is forbidden in the Qur’an.

However, depictions of the human form and animals can be found in all eras of
Islamic secular art. Depictions of the human form in art intended for the purpose of
worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia
law.

Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles and the principal example
is the mosque.

A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after

Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition
of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.

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The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community
meeting space . The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s
home in Medina, which was the first mosque.

Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles.
The principal Islamic architectural example is the mosque. A specifically
recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that
incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations
of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.

Early Mosques

The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community
meeting space. The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s
home in Medina, which was the first mosque.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is one of the best preserved and most
significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it contains all of the
architectural features that distinguish early mosques: a minaret , a large courtyard
surrounded by porticos , and a hypostyle prayer hall.

Ottoman Mosques

Ottoman mosques and other architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and
Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk
architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic
Mamluk traditions.

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Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, also known as the Mosque of Uqba, in
Kairouan, Tunisia: This is considered to be the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world.

Sultan Mehmed II would later fuse European traditions in his rebuilding programs
at Istanbul in the 19th century. Byzantine styles as seen in the Hagia Sophia served
as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques, such as the mosque
constructed by Sinan.

Building reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered
the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless
yet incredibly massive domes , and achieved perfect harmony between inner and
outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow.

They incorporated vaults , domes, square dome plans, slender corner minarets, and
columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently
aesthetic and technical balance, as may be observed in the Blue Mosque in
Istanbul, Turkey.

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The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey: The Blue Mosque represents the culmination of Ottoman
construction with its numerous domes, slender minarets and overall harmony.

Architecture flourished in the Safavid Dynasty , attaining a high point with the
building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens,
palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque.
Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most
prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the the Imperial Mosque,
which was constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the
capital there in 1598.

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Imperial Mosque, Isfahan, Iran: Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the
most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture.

Islamic Glass Making

luxury arts: Highly decorative goods made of precious materials for the wealthy
classes.glassmaking: The craft or industry of producing glass.

Glassmaking was the most important Islamic luxury art of the early Middle Ages.

 Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on
effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising
into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a
design in relief .
 Lustre painting uses techniques similar to lustreware in pottery and dates
back to the 8th century in Egypt; it became widespread in the 12th century.

Islamic Glass

For most of the Middle Ages , Islamic luxury glass was the most sophisticated in
Eurasia , exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the
traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass. Since
figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style
was not abrupt—except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and,
for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt.

For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centers of
production (of which Egypt, Syria, and Persia were the most important), except by
scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various
documentary references, glassmaking and glass-trading seems to have been a
specialty of the Jewish minority.

Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on
effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into
the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in
relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally
considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an
example of this, though they are puzzlingly late in date.

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These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of
carved rock crystal (clear quartz)—themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels
—and there is some evidence that at this period glass and hard-stone cutting were
regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century, the glass industry in Persia and
Mesopotamia declined, and the main production of luxury glass shifted to Egypt
and Syria. Throughout this period, local centers made simpler wares, such as
Hebron glass in Palestine.

The Luck of Edenhall : This is a 13th-century Syrian beaker, in England since the Middle Ages. For most of
the Middle Ages, Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China.
Mosque lamp : Produced in Egypt, c. 1360.

Lustre painting

Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th
century in Egypt, and involves the application of metallic pigments during the
glass-making process. Another technique used by artisans was decoration with
threads of glass of a different color, worked into the main surface, and sometimes
manipulated by combing and other effects.

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Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, as were shapes
and motifs borrowed from other media , such as pottery and metalwork . Some of
the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man.

As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it
often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major
center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the
Syrian glass industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to
Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque
lamps.

Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man.
As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it
often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major
center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the
Syrian industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By
about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.

Islamic Calligraphy

Calligraphic design was omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, and is seen
in all types of art including architecture and the decorative arts.

In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry , it is no

surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in
Islamic art.
The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script .Besides Quranic verses,
other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or
donation.

In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry, it is no

surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in
Islamic art. The most important religious text in Islam is the Quran, which is
believed to be the word of God. There are many examples of calligraphy and
calligraphic inscriptions pertaining to verses from the Quran in Islamic arts.

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9th century Quran: This early Quran demonstrates the Kufic script, noted for its angular form and as the
earliest form of Arabic calligraphy .

The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script, which is noted for its
angular form. Arabic is read from right to left and only the consonants are written.
The black ink in the image above from a 9th century Quran marks the consonants
for the reader. The red dots that are visible on the page note the vowels.

However, calligraphic design is not limited to the book in Islamic art. Calligraphy
is found in several different types of art, such as architecture. The interior of the
Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem, circa 691), for example, features calligraphic
inscriptions of verses from the Quran as well as from additional sources. As in
Europe in the Middle Ages , religious exhortations such as Quranic verses may be
included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles, and metalwork .

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Interior view of the Dome of the Rock : The interior of The Dome of the Rock features many calligraphic
inscriptions, from both the Quran and other sources; it demonstrates the importance of calligraphy in Islamic
art and its use in several different media.

Calligraphic inscriptions were not exclusive to the Quran, but also included verses
of poetry or recorded ownership or donation. Calligraphers were highly regarded in
Islam, which reinforces the importance of the word and its religious and artistic
significance.

Islamic Book Painting

Manuscript painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia,
Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire.

 The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and
encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts .
 Islamic manuscript painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century
when it was influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined
with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces.
 Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript
illumination achieves new heights, in particular in the Shahnameh of Shah
Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than
250 paintings.
 The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest coffee-
table books and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life.
 Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of
festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of
Sultan Murad III.
 Mongols: An umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes
united under the rule of Genghis Khan in the 13th century.
 illuminated manuscripts: A book in which the text is supplemented by the
addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and
miniature illustrations.
 miniature: An illustration in an ancient or medieval illuminated manuscript.
 muraqqa: An album in book form containing Islamic miniature paintings and
specimens of Islamic calligraphy, normally from several different sources,
and perhaps other matter.
 Maqamat: The plural for Maqāma, an Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose
with intervals of poetry that often ruminates on spiritual topics.

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Islamic Book Painting

Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia,
Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire . The art form blossomed across the different
regions and was inspired by a range of cultural reference points.

The evolution of book painting first began in the 13th century, when the Mongols,
under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the
death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and dynasties
formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern
Iran and southern Russia.

The Ilkhanids

The Ilkhanids were a rich civilization that developed under the little khans in Iran.
Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary yet retained
traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of buildings.
Persian, Islamic, and East Asian traditions melded together during this period and a
process of Iranization took place, in which construction according to previously
established types, such as the Iranian-plan mosques , was resumed.

The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged
by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts, such as the Jami’
al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Islamic book painting witnessed its first
golden age in the 13th century, mostly within Syria and Iraq.

Miniatures

The tradition of the Persian miniature (a small painting on paper) developed during
this period, and it strongly influenced the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the
Mughal miniature in India. Because illuminated manuscripts were an art of the
court, and not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were
much more relaxed and the human form is represented with frequency within this
medium.

Influence from the Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic
and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) was combined with Mongol facial
types seen in 12th-century book frontispieces. Chinese influences in Islamic book
painting include the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book. Motifs

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such as peonies, clouds, dragons, and phoenixes were adapted from China as well,
and incorporated into manuscript illumination.

Persian Miniature

The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian

poetry, such as the Shahnameh. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to
1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights. The most
noteworthy example of this is the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy
of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings.

21
The Court of Gayumars, from the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp: Illuminated manuscripts of the
Shahnameh were often commissioned by royal patrons.

Maqamat and Albums

The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat that were copied and illustrated by
Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, were some of the earliest coffee-table books. They

22
were among the first texts in Islamic art to hold a mirror to daily life, portraying
humorous stories and showing little adherence to prior pictorial traditions.

In the 17th century a new type of painting developed based around the album
(muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together
single sheets of paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists; they were
sometimes excised from earlier books and other times created as independent
works.

The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new form of book art. The form
depicts one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting,
and often use the grisaille techniques previously used for background border
paintings .

Mughal and Ottoman Manuscripts

The Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent
history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and purely military
chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century,
and later in Persia, where they became very popular.

Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style , while
the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized . Album miniatures typically
featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals, or (in India especially) animals, or
idealized youthful beauties of either sex.

Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals,

one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad
III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid
influence, perhaps inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman–
Safavid wars of the 16th century.

Islamic Ceramics

Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics that reached heights unmatched
by other cultures.The first Islamic opaque glazes date to around the 8th century,
and another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics in
9th century Iraq.

23
  Lusterwares with iridescent colors were either invented or considerably
developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward.
 The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were
admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and
Timurid invasions.
 The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in the 8th century, with more refined
production happening later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas
reconquered by Christian kingdoms.
 Hispano–Moresque style: A style of Islamic pottery created in Al-Andaluz,
or Muslim Spain, which continued to be produced under Christian rule in
styles that blended Islamic and European elements.
 lusterware: A type of pottery or porcelain having an iridescent metallic
glaze.
 glaze: The vitreous coating of pottery or porcelain, or a transparent or semi-
transparent layer of paint.
 ceramics: Inorganic, nonmetallic solids created by the action of heat and their
subsequent cooling. Most common ceramics are crystalline and the earliest
uses of ceramics were in pottery.

Islamic Ceramics

Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for
buildings, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures . Early pottery had
usually been unglazed, but a tin-opacified glazing technique was developed by
Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware
in Basra, dating to around the 8th century.

Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics,

originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery
production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for
innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075),
Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600), and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).

Lusterware

24
Lusterware is a type of pottery or porcelain that has an iridescent metallic glaze.
Luster first began as a painting technique in glassmaking , which was then
translated to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century.

10th century dish: Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles
for walls, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures. This dish is from East Persia or
Central Asia.

The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired
and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid
invasions. Until the Early Modern period, Western ceramics had little influence,
but Islamic pottery was highly sought after in Europe, and was often copied.

An example of this is the albarello, a type of earthenware jar originally designed to

hold apothecary ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of
pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano–Moresque
examples were exported to Italy, inspiring the earliest Italian examples, from 15th
century Florence.

Hispano–Moresque Style

The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, in the 8th

century, under Egyptian influence. More refined production happened much later,
presumably by Muslim potters who worked in the areas reconquered by the
Christian kingdoms.

The Hispano–Moresque style mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs
and was exported to neighboring European countries. The style introduced two
ceramic techniques to Europe:

1. Glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze.

2. Painting in metallic lusters.

25
Ottoman Iznik pottery produced most of the finest ceramics of the 16th century—
tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs that were influenced by
Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware, since porcelain
was not made in Islamic countries until modern times.

The medieval Islamic world also painted pottery with animal and human imagery .
Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia
and Egypt.

Islamic Textiles

The most important textile produced in the Medieval and Early Modern Islamic
Empires was the carpet.

 The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam , and had long been
important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due
to the Silk Road .
 When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained
control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most
important craft of the era.
 textile arts: The production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or
synthetic fibers to create objects.

Islam and the Textile Arts

The textile arts refer to the production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or
synthetic fibers to create objects. These objects can be for everyday use, or they

26
can be decorative and luxury items. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates
Islam, and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of
which flourished due to the Silk Road.

When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control
over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft
of the era. The most important textile produced in Medieval and Early Modern
Islamic Empires was the carpet.

The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production

The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the Ottoman Empire. The
Ottoman state was founded by Turkish tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and
became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople.

Stretching across Asia, Europe, and Africa, the Empire was vast and long lived,
lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Within the
Ottoman Empire, carpets were immensely valued as decorative furnishings and for
their practical value . They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door
hangings, where they provided additional insulation.

These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a combination of silk and
cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk carpets,
which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most valued of the
Ottoman carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically
used to furnish royal palaces.

Manial Palace of Prince Mohammed Ali. Syrian Hal(LEFT)

27
Persian Carpets

The Iranian Safavid Empire (1501–1786) is distinguished from the Mughal and
Ottoman dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic
denomination in Persia. Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions,
particularly to the textile arts.

In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft
to a well-executed industry that used specialized design and manufacturing
techniques on quality fibers such as silk. The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were
commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be
the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of
graphical perspective.

Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became one of the most
popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe
and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document
the presence of Islamic textiles in European homes during that time.

Henry VIII’s Amazing Collection It will come as no surprise to most people that Henry VIII was no
slouch when it came to acquiring expensive things, and carpet was no exception. When most of his
contemporary Tudors were slumming it with rushes (or occasionally rush matting), he was making an
investment in pile carpet. In those days the word carpet encompassed tapestries, tablecloths,
upholstery and so forth - anything used to brighten up the banqueting hall. Upon his death, Henry had
amassed over 400 turkish carpets - at least 60 of them seized from the disgraced Cardinal Wolsey, who
purchased them at a cost of 600 ducats - a huge sum at the time.

You can see this in his numerous portraits - he is often shown standing on luxurious floorcoverings in the
Ottomon style, also known as ‘Holbein’ after Hans Holbein the painter, who made a point of including
them in his art - not very noteworthy to the modern observer, but to the Tudor eye this was a clear
indication of class and status, showing off Henry’s wealth for all to see.

28
The Ardabil Carpet, Persia, 1540: The Ardabil Carpet is the finest example of 16th century Persian
carpet production.RIGHT Javanese court batik: The development and refinement of Indonesian
batik cloth was closely linked to Islam.

Indonesian Batik

Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded
for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments.

The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The
Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and
intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents,
puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace.

Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal
Muslim courts, such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and
patronized batik production. Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other
purposes besides wearing, such as wrapping the Quran.

29
 CHAPTER II
Geometric vaulting of the Muqarna

The Dar al-Islam or the Muqarna was the preeminent power structure of the Muslim world from
about the eighth century until the thirteenth century. The great influence of the muqarnas in the
built environment of cities from the Atlantic to China is testament to the political might that the
Islamic juggernaut exerted over the medieval world. Indeed, the muqarnas was developed as the
Islamic power structure developed.

In Islamic architecture, the geometric vaulting structure, muqarnas, is often applied for
deconstructing zones of transition in architectural decoration. The three-dimensional composition
is built by assembling a variation of small prismatic elements, comparable to portions of vaults
and composed according to precise rules, in overlapping levels. Both visually dazzling and
widespread in the Islamic world, it leaves enormous problems to the art historians not only in its
origin but also in interpretations of this purely decorative system of arranging cells. Equally early
“muqarnas-like” elements have been found in both northeastern Iran and central North Africa
and most authorities cannot locate one exact place for its origin. Art critics like Tabbaa question
the specialists in Iranian architecture who postulate a continuous line of development that begins
in the tenth century. Although the chronology and geographical orIgins of the muqarnas are
uncertain, it has been widely applied in Islamic architecture and decoration starting from the
twelfth century. It can be found on vaults, domes, pendentives, cornices, corbels, capitals,
especially in mosques.1

After the prophet Mohammed's death in 632, the Islamic power structure expanded rapidly.
Indeed, in 732, only 100 years after Mohammed's death, the Arabs had extended from the desert
to central France, where they suffered a decisive defeat at Poitiers. An Islamic culture, evident in
art, literature, and architecture, developed as an Islamic empire became reality.The muqarnas is a
form that embodies the ideals of Islamic civilization: its physical form, characterized by fluidity
and replication, is based as much on Islamic theological principles as it is on the more mundane
principles of structural engineering.

Indeed, in the Islamic world, the role of the architect-engineer was closely associated with the
mathematician. In the West, on the other hand, the role of the architect came into existence
through a process whereby designer-builders slowly distinguished themselves from the ranks of
builders and craftsmen. The Islamic architect Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Hasib, for instance, was
referred to as al-hasib, which means "the mathematician." Issues of geometric complexity were
the province of the Islamic architect.

These fundamental components of Islamic decoration are not without philosophical and
theological significance, however. Indeed, Muslim philosophical concepts are embodied in their
architectural forms. The relations between these forms are determined by what we may refer to
as a spiritual mathematics. Islamic spirituality is linked with the variety of qualitative
mathematics developed by Pythagoras (580?-500? b.c.). For Pythagoras, numbers were the

30
ultimate elements of the universe. In other words, numbers were divine: for a Pythagorean, an
understanding of relations between numbers can only result in an understanding of the nature of
the universe.

Muqarnas is significant in Islamic architecture because its elaborate form is a symbolic

representation of universal creation by God. Muqarnas architecture is featured in domes, half-
dome entrances, iwans and apses. The two main types of muqarnas are the North African/Middle
Eastern style, composed of a series of downward triangular projections, and the Iranian style,
composed of connecting tiers of segments and one of the earliest exemplary examples is of the

The Zumurrud Khatun Mosque and Mausoleum (Arabic: ‫زمرد‬ ‫جامع‬

‫خاتون‬, romanized: Masjid al-Haza'ir). It is also known as the Mosque al Khaffafin, is a
historic mosque and shrine located in Baghdad, Iraq. It dates back to the Abbasid era. It is
located in Sheikh Maarouf Cemetery in the Karkh side of Baghdad. The site was built by Sitt
Zubayda also known as Zumurrud Khatun in 1202, who was mother of the 34th Abbasid
Caliph Al-Nasir, and wife of the 33rd Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustadi. She collected the waqf money
from madrasas and built her mausoleum before her death, which is located in Karkh.

This famous mausoleum was constructed by the late Abbasid caliph al-Nasir li-Din Allah for his
mother, Zumurrud Khatun, at the end of the twelfth/sixth century AH. In European sources, it
was misidentified as the tomb of Sitta Zubayda, the wife of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid.
Located in an expansive cemetery, this brick tomb exhibits a nine-layered, cone-shaped
muqarnas cover capped by a small cupola that rises to great height from an octagonal base,
similar to the Imam Dur in Samarra. Hazarbaf decoration covers the exterior of the base while
each façade is partitioned into four sunken square panels, two on the bottom and two on the top,
themselves featuring decorative brickwork.

Today, the tomb is entered from a square-planned, domed structure that was built to replace an
earlier one. From this area, a staircase rises up to the base of the muqarnas dome while a tight
corridor just over one meter large leads to the octagonal burial chamber. The light inside the
vault emanates from small holes cut in the muqarnas dome producing a glowing effect.

The mausoleum has been restored periodically throughout its lifespan.2

The building is covered by the distinct nine layered muqarnas dome capped by a small
cupola. The minaret of the mosque is considered built during the time of Seljuq dynasty in 12th
century, and it is considered the oldest surviving minaret in Baghdad. The building has robust
construction made of bricks and plaster. There is also an attached library, and an
adjoined Shafi'i madrasa. Due to the mosque being dominated by Hanafi maddhab, the extension
to the north for Shafi'i maddhab was added, which is called Shafi'i Mosque.
The mosque is one of two historic mausoleums in Karkh. The other is the Sheikh Maruf Mosque.

31
Zumurrud Khatun Mosque and Mausoleum

32
Muqarnas are also known in Iranian architecture as Ahoopāy (Persian: ‫ )آهوپای‬and in Iberian
architecture as Mocárabe, is a form of ornamented vaulting in Islamic architecture. It is the
archetypal form of Islamic architecture, integral to the vernacular of Islamic buildings. The
muqarnas structure originated from the squinch. Sometimes called "honeycomb vaulting"or
"stalactite vaulting", the purpose of muqarnas is to create a smooth, decorative zone of transition
in an otherwise bare, structural space. This structure gives the ability to distinguish between the
main parts of a building, and serve as a transition from the walls of a room into a domed ceiling.

The etymology of the word muqarnas is somewhat vague. It is thought to have originated from
the Greek word korōnis meaning "ornamental molding". There is also speculation of the origin to
stem from the Arabic word qarnasi meaning "intricate work". Its origin can be traced back to
the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central North Africa, as well as the Mesopotamian
region.
The exact origins of muqarnas are unknown, but it is assumed to have originated in either of
these regions and dispersed through trade and pilgrimage. Evidence from 10th-century
architectural fragments found near Nishapur in Iran, and tripartite squinches located in the Arab-
Ata Mausoleum in the village of Tim, near Samarkand in Uzbekistan, are some examples of
early developmental forms of muqarnas.

Islamic architecture in the shrine of Fatemeh Masoumeh.RIGHT One of the iwan ceilings of
Fatima Masumeh Shrine in atabki sahn, Qom, Iran

33
 Khatum Mosque ceiling

Qubba Imam al-Dawr in Iraq, completed in 1090, was the first concrete example of a muqarnas
dome. The shrine was reported destroyed by ISIS in October 2014.
Given the advanced technical mastery of constructing muqarnas, it is believed that the technique,
and therefore architectural elements, were imported into Egypt from elsewhere in the empire.
Scholars speculate the outside influence originated from Syria; however, there are few Syrian
monuments still standing that can support this claim.

In Egypt, the Aswan Mausolea is a crucial example for the advancement in the development of
the stalactite pendentive. In the mid-eleventh century, prosperous pilgrimage routes along the
Red Sea and flourishing trade routes began in Cairo and dispersed throughout the Islamic
empire. This allowed for a great exchange of ideas as well as a lucrative economy, capable of
funding various architectural projects.

34
Portal of the Niğde Alaaddin Mosque, Turkey

Structure:
Muqarnas is typically applied to the undersides of domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches,
arches and vaults and is often seen in the mihrab of a mosque. They can be entirely ornamental,
or serve as load-bearing structures. The earliest forms of muqarnas domes, found in the
Mesopotamian region, were primarily structural. Muqarnas grew increasingly common and
decorative in the beginning of the 12th century. Muqarnas can either be carved into the structural
blocks of corbelled vaulting or hung from a structural roof as a purely decorative surface. The
most distinctive form of the muqarnas is the honeycomb structure, often intricate and impossibly
fractal-like in its complexity. The individual cells are called alveoles. Muqarnas can range from
seemingly simplistic to incredibly complex blends of architecture, mathematics, and art. Two
rare examples of artful sciography using pareidolia are found over the entrances of Divriği Great
Mosque and Hospital, Divriği, Turkey, and of the Niğde Alaaddin Mosque in Niğde, Turkey.

Muqarnas are made of brick, stone, stucco, or wood, and clad with tiles or plaster. The form and
medium vary depending on the region they are found. Muqarnas structure in the east are built
using a standard set of components and guidelines, creating a more uniformed style. Muqarnas
found in the west are more intricately creative because they tend to not have a standard set of
regulations regarding composition, components, and construction. In Syria, Egypt, and Turkey,
muqarnas are constructed out of stone. In North Africa, they are typically constructed from
plaster and wood, and in Iran and Iraq, the muqarnas dome is built with bricks covered in plaster
or ceramic clay.

35
Almoravid Qubba in Marrakesh, Morocco

The largest example of muqarnas domes can be found in Iraq and the Jazira region of eastern
Syria, with a diverse variety of applications in domes, vaults, mihrabs, and niches. These domes
are dated around the mid-twelfth century, the time of the Mongol invasion – a period of great
architectural activity.

Prominent examples of their development can be found in the minaret of Badr al-Jamali's
mashhad in Cairo, dated by inscription to 1085, a cornice in Cairo's north wall (1085), the Jameh
Mosque of Isfahan (1088), the Almoravid Qubba (1107–43) in Marrakech, the Great Mosque of
Tlemcen in Algeria (1136), the Mosque of the Qarawiyyin in Morocco (rebuilt between 1135
and 1140), the Bimaristan of Nur al-Din in Damascus (1154), the Alhambra in Granada, Spain,
the Abbasid palaces in Baghdad, Iraq, and the mausoleum of Sultan Qaitbay, Cairo, Egypt. Large
rectangular roofs in wood with muqarnas-style decoration adorn the 12th-century Cappella
Palatina in Palermo, Sicily, and other important buildings in Norman Sicily. Muqarnas ornament
is also found in Armenian architecture.

Muqarnas ornament is significant in Islamic architecture because it represents an ornamental

form that conveys the vastness and complexity of Islamic ideology. The distinct units of the
dome represent the complex creation of the universe, and in turn the Creator, himself. The
elaborate nature of the stacked domes also serve as a representation of heaven. Influenced by the
theology of the Greek Atomist Theory, it was believed that every atom composing a muqarnas
dome was connected with God. The astonishing ability for the extremely complex and seemingly
unsupported muqarnas dome was proof of the mysterious existence of the universe.

36
The muqarnas domes were often constructed above portals of entry for the purpose of
establishing a threshold between two worlds. The celestial connotation of the muqarnas structure
represents a passage from "the functions of living, or of awaiting eternal life that is expressed by
geometric forms." When featured in the interior of domes, the viewer would look upward
(towards heaven) and contemplate its beauty. Conversely, the downward hanging structures of
the muqarnas represented God's presence over the physical world.

Costituents: The muqarnas, a Muslim variety of stalactite vault, is a primary characteristic of

Islamic architecture. Developed during the mid-tenth century in both northeastern Iran and
central North Africa, two ends of the sprawling expanse that constituted the Dar al-Islam, the
muqarnas, with its honeycomb texture, became a common feature in palaces and temples.
Indeed, it became a prominent feature in nearly all Islamic structures from the eleventh century
on, persisting as a key element of the Islamic architectural vernacular until modern times.
A stalactite is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs from the ceiling of a cave and is produced
by precipitation of minerals from water dripping through the cave ceiling. Most stalactites have
pointed tips. stalactite squinch are originally part of a muqarnas, and an important muqarnas
elements would have been stacked, in descending size, in the upper corner of a room in order to
make the transition to a dome. These are a feature that became quite popular in Islamic
architecture in subsequent centurie

In her doctoral thesis at the Middle East Tech University,Ms. ELENA IMANI argues that the basic
module is the most important sector of a Muqarnas pattern. Every Muqarnas pattern consists of
the rotation and reflection of a basic module. A basic module is the only sector of a Muqarnas
pattern which should be repeated to create other sectors of this pattern. A whole Muqarnas
pattern is created from the repetition of a sector which is called basic module of that pattern.
( See detailed geometric discussions on the Muqurnas at
https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12621155/index.pdf)

37
Details of Muqarnas corbel balcony, Qutb Minar

Consider the definition of the muqarnas given by the fifteenth century Timurid mathematician al-Kashi
(1380?-1429):

The muqarnas is a ceiling like a staircase with facets and a flat roof. Every facet intersects the adjacent
one at either a right angle, or half a right angle, or their sum, or another combination of these two. The
two facets can be thought of as standing on a plane parallel to the horizon. Above them is built either a
flat surface, not parallel to the horizon, or two surfaces, either flat or curved, that constitute their roof.
Both facets together with their roof are called one cell. Adjacent cells, which have their bases on one and
the same surface parallel to the horizon, are called one tier.

Al-Kashi uses geometric terms, indicating that the muqarnas is the space in which a particular
mathematical problem is enacted. In this problem, the possible number of permutations is
determined by variations on the 90° angle. As al-Kashi indicates, the angle at which two facets
intersect can be any conceivable angle, as long as it corresponds to "a right angle, or half a right
angle, or their sum, or another combination of these two." The type of combination permissible
is not limited: only the elements that may be used in such a combination are predetermined.
These components are variations of the right angle. The rules that guide the design of the
muqarnas remind us of the architectural function of the device. The muqarnas is, in essence, little
more than a squinch, or an interior corner support. Corners are made of 90° angles. Corners often
need additional support because that is where stress is concentrated. The muqarnas reminds us,

38
over and over again, that it supports weight directly. Indeed, the more ornate it is, the more
weight it can hold. Each additional tier creates a greater surface area of the structure, adding
increased support. In terms of Western architecture, this seems paradoxical. For the Westerner,
form and function are divorced: frequently one is sacrificed at the expense of the other. Elements
such as the muqarnas, however, reveal that in Islamic architecture practical applications and
aesthetic considerations frequently overlap.

There are four main attributes of the muqarnas that distinguish its appearance. I.First, it is three-
dimensional, thereby providing volume in built structures.
II. Second, the degree of this volume is variable. As a result, this variability allowed architects to
implement the muqarnas as a purely architectonic intended to provide support to a structure, or
as an ornamental device.
III. A third characteristic, the muqarnas knows no logical or mathematical boundaries. None of
its elements are a finite unit of composition; as a result, there are no logical or mathematical
boundaries limiting the scale of the composition of a muqarnas. In that sense, perhaps it is useful
to liken the tiered honeycomb patterns of the muqarnas to a figure such as the fractal. The fractal,
the shape of which is determined by a simple algebraic equation, also knows no limitation and
can conceivably stretch to infinity. Likewise, the complexity of the muqarnas is limited only by
the skill of the architect and the builder.
IV. The fourth characteristic of the muqarnas is that, because of its variable volume, a three-
dimensional unit can easily be transformed into a two-dimensional figure.

Impact: It is as much a component of the vernacular of Islamic architecture as the Ionic column
is of Greco-Roman architecture. Likewise, the muqarnas became a standard architectural feature
at a moment when the Islamic architectural style exerted its greatest influence. As a result,
medieval buildings from Cordoba, Spain, to Damascus, Syria, exhibit the intricate lattice work of
the muqarnas.

Islamic art and architecture are characterized by their reliance on decoration and
repetition. The role of decoration in Islamic art helps to characterize it. This extends to
architecture as well. The extent to which a form has an architectural and decorative function
helps to determine its overall value in an Islamic context to a degree unknown to Western
aesthetics. For Western art and architecture, form and function are separate categories, and a
building must not necessarily be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. For Islamic art and
architecture, however, these two components are synonymous.

The style of decoration used by Islamic artists and architects resulted in buildings and objects
overlaid with decorative elements. The buildings themselves were often structural cores that
were covered, coated, and enveloped with different materials. The bricks of a muqarnas, for
instance, may have been covered with wood or tiles that added additional depth and complexity
to an already-complex core.

There is a connect between mathematics and theology in Islam which has produced great
mathematicians such as The outstanding Persian mathematician Muhammad Al-
Khwarizmi was an early Director of the House of Wisdom in the 9th Century, and one of the
greatest of early Muslim mathematicians. Perhaps Al-Khwarizmi’s most important contribution
to mathematics was his strong advocacy of the Hindu numerical system (1 – 9 and 0), which he

39
recognized as having the power and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic (and, later,
Western) mathematics, and which was soon adopted by the entire Islamic world, and later by
Europe as well.

This connection is not specific to Islamic art and architecture, however. The mathematical focus
of these disciplines reflects the mathematical nature of the Muslim religion. Indeed, the
Koran, the Muslim holy text, is noted for its numerological significance. The Koran features a
bewildering mathematical structure; Muslim scholars seek to decode the numerical significance
in its letters and words. In this sense, intellectual mastery of mathematic subtlety leads to
spiritual illumination. Architectural forms reveal the structure of the divine because, in the
Pythagorean sense, architecture is one of the most godly of all arts. Like music, architecture is an
art based on numbers, and the possibilities offered by numerical proportion come closest to
emulating the divine proportions of God's physical creation. While words often speak plainly, for
mystics, numbers reveal divine proportion.

Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn al Ḥasan al-Karajī (Persian: ‫بکر محمد بن الحسن الکرجی‬ ‫ ;ابو‬c. 953 –
c. 1029) was a 10th-century Persian mathematician and engineer who flourished at Baghdad.

Sources:

1. Seeing Through the Infinity: Muqarnas in the Islamic World,

https://arth27501sp2017.courses.bucknell.edu/muqarnas-visual-analysis/

40
2.Khalil, Jabir and Strika, Vincenzo. The Islamic Architecture of Baghdad; the Results of a Joint
Italian -Iraqi Survey, 18-22. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1987. And also see below

Michell, George. ed. Architecture of the Islamic World; Its History and Social Meaning, 247.
London: Thanes & Hudson, 1978.

Ettinghausen, Richard and Grabar, Oleg. The Art and Architecture of Islam 650-1250, 296-297.
New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987.

The Khatun Mosque

41
42
43
 CHAPTER III
ARCHITECTURE of the TEMPLERS
(Main article from Page 10 after title)

Brief History
Sometime between 1110 and 1120, in the aftermath of the First Crusade, a small group of
knights vowed to devote their lives to the protection of pilgrims in the Holy Land. They were
called the 'Order of the Poor Knights of Christ.' The King of Jerusalem, Baldwin II, granted them
the use of a captured mosque built on Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the site of the ancient Temple
of Solomon. From this they became known as the Knights Templar. Under the patronage of St.
Bernard of Clairvaux the Order received papal sanction and legitimacy. The Knights Templar
were granted permission by the pope to wear a distinctive white robe with a red cross.

CHIVALRIC ORDERS: AN OVERVIEW

In the modern world of today, there exists an anomaly of the ancient historic
past: Chivalric Orders, better known as Orders of Knighthood. Although not
prevalent in the explorer's “New World” of North and South America, they do
exist there, as well as remaining to thrive in today's Europe, somewhat as a
“throwback” from the Medieval period.

There are two basic types of Chivalric Orders: Ecclesiastical, extending

initially in origin from the early, ancient Christian Church of Rome (today’s
Roman Catholic Church) during the Crusades period, and Secular, the format
of which grew out of the Ecclesiastical, but which are generally extended by
monarchies and royalty.

44
Some present-day “Orders” are not true Chivalric Orders at all but are
strictly fraternal organizations formed by design along the same lines.
Examples of these are the Masonic Orders (the Masonic Lodge and its
appendant Orders, called “Rites” [Scottish and York]), and the Roman
Catholic Church's Knights of Columbus. Even further “spinoff” organizations
have come from these; some examples are the Odd Fellows Lodge, the Elks
Lodge, the Moose Lodge, and the Knights of Pythias all evolved from or came
into being from the Masonic Orders.

In Europe, Secular Chivalric Orders are maintained predominantly as

recognition awards for either outstanding military or civilian service to a
Crown’s government, generally extended by the ruling monarch of that
country. The United Kingdom is a classic example of this, with its Orders of
the Garter, the Bath, the Thistle, and others.

Democratic, non-monarchial governments extend similar awards for both

military and civilian services that emulate Knighthoods. Perhaps the best-
known example of these is the United States' Congressional Medal of Honor
for military valor in wartime action.
The more-readily recognized Ecclesiastical Chivalric Orders today are still
predominantly those of the Roman Catholic Church. The two most prominent
examples are the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, and the Equestrian Order
of the Holy Sepulchre. A multitude of other legitimate Orders are extended
by the remaining “Sacramental” Churches that split away from the Church of
Rome in the post-Crusade period: the Anglican Communion (Church of
England) and the various Eastern Orthodox Christian Churches.

Obviously, some of these Chivalric Orders are centuries old; some date from
much more recent times. A few of these remaining were once Ecclesiastical
but have since been “released” by the Churches and have been maintained
as Secular Orders. In the United States and in some European countries,
these Orders are generally not just recognition awards. Although Chivalric,
they function as “Fraternal” organizations, and generally have charitable and
/ or philanthropic aims as part or most of their function and reason for
existence.
One item worthy of note: It is believed in many historic circles, and with a
great deal of “proof,” that the Masonic Orders evolved in Scotland and
England out of a combination of circumstances: the Roman Church's historic
suppression and persecution of the ancient Order of Knights Templar, and it's
intertwining growth with the Lodges and Guilds of traveling stonemasons
credited with the building of Europe’s Ancient cathedrals and churches.
These related (Masonic and other) matters shall be addressed at further
points herein.

THE ORIGIN OF THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLE

45
The origin of the religious and military Order of Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ
and the Temple of Solomon (often referred to as “The Order of the Temple,”
Knights Templar,” or simply “the Temple”) goes back to the year 1118 A.D.
Some historians quote it's beginning as 1119 A.D.; others extend this even
further back to 1114 A.D. Regardless, probably this makes the Temple the
oldest Chivalric Order in the world formed initially strictly for military
purposes. We say “probably,” for there is a controversy about the prior
antiquity of the Order of the Temple versus the Knights Hospitaller of St. John
of Jerusalem, also later (and today) known as the (Roman Catholic Church’s)
Sovereign Military Order of Malta (also called the Knights of Malta), or
various other Ecclesiastical and Secular branches of the originally-titled
Order of St. John of Jerusalem. These are two of the three largest Orders of
Chivalry that were formed to fight in the Crusades of the Middle East and are
often referred to simply as “The Temple” and “The Hospital.” (The third
largest was the Order of Teutonic Knights of St. Mary the Blessed Virgin,
referred to most often as “the Teutonic Knights.” We shall not deal with them
in this treatise.)
It seems probable that the Hospital antedates the Temple by a few years,
insofar as the Hospitallers were organized in the year 1112 A.D. However,
the Hospitallers at first were an Order of hospitalling charity, and only later
did they develop into a military (fighting) Order during the time of their
second Grand Master, Raymond Du Puy (1120-1160). The Templars were
organized from the outset as a military Order. For this reason, the Temple is
generally said to be the prototype of all Orders of Knighthood.

In 1118 A.D., nine French knights, concerned for the welfare of pilgrims to
the Holy Land, bound themselves together in the creation of a knightly
Order, calling themselves in the French, “Pauperes commilitones Christi
templique Salomonis,” or the Poor Fellow-Soldiers (or “Knights”) of Christ of
the Temple of Solomon. The original objective of the Order was to combine
the two functions of monk and knight, protecting Christian pilgrims in the
Holy Land from robbers and brigands on the roadways and thoroughfares
while on pilgrimage. In contrast to the ordinary religious houses, this
community had an individual character, for the knights not only took the
usual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, but added a fourth vow of a
decidedly military nature. They were known as “Milites Christi,” or Soldiers of
Christ, and took the Blessed Virgin Mary as their patroness. The names of
these nine knights are generally given by historians as: Hughes de Payens,
Godefroi de St. Aldemar, Godefroi Rossal, Gundemar, Godefroi Bisol, Payen
de Montdidier, Archibald de St. Aman, Andrew de Montbard, and the Count of
Provence.

SYMBOLS OF THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLE

The Christian Cross in some varied design forms, used as the insignia of the
Order, is certainly well known. Pope Honorius II chose for the Templars a

46
white mantle to be worn over their white surcoat; a white skullcap was also
added. Pope Eugenius III added the red Latin Cross (first design) to the
mantle in 1146.

The armorial insignia of the Order was a shield argent (white, or sometimes
silver), upon which was placed a Cross Pateé gules (red), the blades
somewhat reduced in width and the extremities reaching to the edge of the
shield. The Cross was drawn by dividing an octagon by four diagonal lines.

Several differently-designed Crosses were worn, both on the mantle and

surcoat, and fashioned from different metals and worn around the neck. The
knights appear to have worn, at a later historical point, what we would now
term a Maltese Cross gules (red) about the neck; this is the shape of the
Templar insignia worn by King Richard I of England, known as Richard Coeur
de Lyon, or “Richard the Lion-Hearted.” Pope Eugenius III gave the Templars
exclusive right to wear the blazon of this eight-pointed cross in red, being
stated as the “cross of martyrdom.”
The Order generally used three different flags at various times in their
history. The best-known of these was called The Beauseant (Beaucean,
Beaucennus), a banner of nine alternating vertical black and white stripes
(five white, four black), supposedly designed after their original piebald
horse. Another version often seen is horizontal black and white, half-and-half,
sometimes shown black on top, sometimes the reverse. The Latin “Ta
Beaucennus! Ta Beaucennus!” became their war cry, from which the
Beauseant’s name is derived. The motto of the Order is “Non Nobis, Domine,
Non Nobis, Sed Nomini Tuo Da Gloriam”; “Not unto us, O Lord, Not unto us,
but unto Thy Name be the Glory; (some translations state at the end “be
given Glory.”) This motto sometimes appeared on the Beauseant itself,
sometimes in black lettering on the white top, with white lettering on the
black bottom, splitting the motto; sometime in all red letters across the
banner.

In 1148, the red cross banner was first unfurled in battle, it is believed, at
Damascus. It was a full white standard having a blood-red cross in the
center. There exist some variations of this: all are a solid white background,
some with a Latin Cross in red in the center of the white field, some with the
cross having equidistant arms which extended to the edges of the white
field, essentially quartering the flag; later a modified Cross of Lorraine
(France) where the white background had a single red vertical upright in the
middle of the flag, crossed by two equidistant vertical red bars, with all red
extensions extending to the edges of the flag. The white flag with red cross
is often referred to in some Templar quarters as “The Grand Standard,” and
sometimes as “The Beauseant.”

About twenty different versions of the Templar Seal have come down to us.
Many of these were regional in nature; some from certain Priories,

47
Commanderies and Preceptories. The best-known seal, which passed into
most widespread use, depicts two knights mounted on a single horse,
depicting the nature of the Order being poverty, humility and brotherly love.
The history of The Order of the Temple is the concurrent history of the Latin
Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Crusades themselves; the two are
inseparable. We list at the end of this treatise a varied bibliography of
Crusade / Templar historical works, all well worth reading. What concerns us
most herein is the later suppression of the Order by the Church they
protected, and the Order's history after suppression.

KING PHILIP IV (PHILIPPE LE BEL) AND POPE CLEMENT V

At the end of the Crusades, the troubles between King Philip IV of France and
the Templars began when the Order sided with Pope Boniface VIII, for the
King had issued new coin below the proper standard, which caused a revolt,
and lowered the revenues of the Temple as well.
Philip was also deep in debt to the Temple by borrowing from them to
support his wars. With the civil unrest caused by the monetary devaluation
and other factors, Philip ended up taking refuge in the Paris Temple itself in
1306 to escape the civil commotion. It is believed that this stay gave him the
first insight into the real wealth of the Temple. The fabulous treasure which
his hosts showed him gave the always-bankrupt monarch the idea to plunder
the knights on the pretext they were dominated by heresies.

Philip decided to destroy the military power of the Church which impeded his
attempts to unify his kingdom. In his struggle with the Temple, he was aided
by the suspicion the Church leaders had for Templars because of their
independence and wealth, and the absolute secrecy which surrounded all
their activities. There is evidence that, at one stage of his career, Philip
conceived of himself in the role of a universal monarch along Caesaro-Papal
lines: a priest-king; a royal pontiff in dual control over Christendom.

When, as a step in this direction, Philip contemplated acting as Rex Bellator

in the next Crusade, he calmly proclaimed that:
1) The kings of France should be the hereditary Grand Masters of the
combined Military Orders; 2) The incomes of all prelates, including
archbishops, should be limited to a fixed minimum, the surplus going to the
Rex Bellator for the conquest of the Holy Land.
3) Propertied monks should be sent out into the world only for preaching and
hearing confessions while mendicant friars were to live immured, and their
revenues beyond the same fixed annual rent likewise accrete to Rex Bellator.
4) The hereditary royal Grand Master should command four cardinal votes at
Papal elections.
All these formed only a small part of Philip’s demands. It is known that he
made a genuine effort toward winning the Grand Mastership of the Temple.
His two great enemies, Popes Boniface VIII and Benedict XI having died
(under believed-mysterious circumstances) Philip moved to control the

48
Papacy and use it to destroy the Temple. He decided to have a Frenchman
placed in the Papacy and to have him reside in France. Bertrand de Got,
Archbishop of Bordeaux, was his winning candidate.
A story that has made the rounds was that Philip offered de Got the Papal
tiara on six conditions, and the intolerably tempted archbishop swore on the
Sacrament to comply. He was told five of the conditions, but the sixth was
not to be revealed until after his coronation. The sixth condition was the
abolition of the Temple.

All the world knows by now, a competent observer wrote, that the Pope is
naught, and the King of France can accomplish anything he wishes by
getting the Holy See to do it for him. If it is true that de Got bought the tiara,
he paid for it exorbitantly. Clement V (de Got’s Papal name) remained right
where the French king wanted him: in France. He created ten new Cardinals,
nine of them Frenchmen, with the tenth English. The Italians were
outnumbered. Bull followed bull, conferring benefits on the French king. In
future, Clement not infrequently would submit the first draft of a bull for
Philip's approval and dutifully adopt his suggestions.
Philip had made his bid for direct control of the Temple and had failed. He
had done no less than seek admission to the Order with a view to becoming
its Grand Master in due time. He had more than toyed with the idea of
abdicating in favor of his eldest son. Admittedly this was soon after the death
of his queen. He was not pleased at having been headed off with polite
excuses and decided to try other means.

Though by all accounts the faculty of humor was not highly developed in
Philip, he must have seen the sardonic joke of going straight to the top, and,
to denude the Pope of military power, getting at the military Orders through
their spiritual lord. He decided to destroy the Temple, but he needed
immediate funds as well as a chance to test his new scheme. Thus, Philip
decided to kill two birds with one stone.

On July 22, 1306, all Jews were imprisoned, and their property taken into
custody. A few days later these people were exiled. Philip commanded
immediate repayment of all debts owing to Jews to be made to the Crown.
Now he had the money he needed, and his method of secret seizure had
worked without a hitch.

During the night of October 12, 1307, the King's Seneschals rode out with
orders to arrest every Templar in France. Obviously, many were arrested, but
many escaped as well. Two former Templars who had been ousted from the
Order, Squin de Florian and Noffo Deghi, were persuaded to confess all the
King wished them to say about corruption and heresy within the Order. After
protracted trials, the Order was suppressed by the King's puppet Pope... but
the Order was never formally disbanded! Jacques de Molay, then Grand
Master of the Order and residing in the Paris Preceptory, along with Geoffrey

49
de Charnay, Preceptor of Normandy, were tricked into a meeting within the
King's domain and ended up imprisoned. After several years of torment, they
were finally dragged from prison and taken to a small island in the middle of
the Seine River (now called City Island) in front of Notre Dame Cathedral.
There they were martyred on March 11, 1314, suffering the terrible death of
burning at the stake.
With his dying breath, it is fabled that the Grand Master summoned the
puppet Pope Clement V and King Philip to meet him before the Judgement
Seat of God within a year. Clement V died on April 20, 1314, and King Philip
died on November 29, 1314. Three grown sons survived the King, but by
1328 the house of Philip le Bel was extinct.

Pope Clement’s act led to what is historically referred to as the Babylonian

Captivity at Avignon. This materially helped to estrange the German states of
the Empire and the Island of Britain, so that the Protestant Reformation
might be said to have been a portion of the Templar’s curse. The Templars
were victims of a monstrous injustice, glorified lynch law and judicial murder.

THE TEMPLE, OTHER ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS, AND THE

FREEMASONS
It is currently believed in many historic circles, that the Masonic Orders
evolved in Scotland and England out of a combination of circumstances: the
Roman Church’s historic suppression and persecution of the Knights
Templar, and its escapees intertwining growth with the Lodges of traveling
stonemasons credited with the building of Europe’s ancient cathedrals and
churches.
According to most main-line historians, the Order of Knights Templar as a
formal institution ceased to exist with the death by burning at the stake of
its' last "historical" Grand Master, Jacques DeMolay, in Paris in 1314. It's
recorded history from its' founding in 1118 (or according to some, 1114), as
such, is well-documented. What is in dispute is what happened to the Order
after 1314.

It is held by both folklore and some historians that of the estimated 6,000+
Templars.

Within a hundred years the Order owned land all over Europe and had amassed
considerable wealth. Much of the energy of the Templars was devoted to the transfer of men
and money from Europe to the east. When they began to transfer funds for non Templars, they
laid the roots for eventually becoming the bankers of Europe, but the Order had amassed great
wealth and with it power; but it also incurred great jealousy. In the early part of the 14th century,
in circumstances still disputed today, the Templars were suppressed.

They were known as the keepers of the Holy Grail, a sometimes mysterious band of religious
warriors whose exploits across Europe and the Middle East have inspired modern-day conspiracy
theories and movie plots.But, like all great travelers, the Knights Templar of medieval times

50
eventually needed somewhere to lay down some roots, wash their socks, polish their armor and
maybe build a few castles or cathedrals.

Famous examples of these 13th-century Gothic and Romanesque structures can be found all over
the UK, France, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

The Knights Templar were a powerful military religious order of medieval Europe that reputedly
guarded the Holy Grail. Lesser known are the spectacular chapels and fortifications they
constructed in western Poland, where the Knights Templar and other crusaders colonized land
and set about weaving their own mythology into the idyllic rural landscape.

A trip into the West Pomeranian region and the villages of Chwarszczany, Myślibórz and Rurka
- close to the border with Germany - is an adventure into an overlooked destination where
historical secrets are still being uncovered. And, according to at least one local legend, it's here
that the Holy Grail, the cup that Jesus Christ drank from at the Last Supper and that later held his
blood, could still be hidden.

The road to Chwarszczany, a village lost among fields and forests, is little used by anyone but
those who live there. The village itself is a collection of faded houses with fewer than 100
residents who keep chickens and grow tomatoes in the summer. The Templars were organized as
a monastic order similar to Bernard's Cistercian Order, which was considered the first effective
international organization in Europe. The organizational structure had a strong chain of authority.
Each country with a major Templar presence (France, Poitou, Anjou,
Jerusalem, England, Aragon (Spain), Portugal, Italy, Tripoli, Antioch, Hungary, and Croatia)
had a Master of the Order for the Templars in that region.

All of them were subject to the Grand Master, appointed for life, who oversaw both the order's
military efforts in the East and their financial holdings in the West. The Grand Master exercised
his authority via the visitors-general of the order, who were knights specially appointed by the
Grand Master and convent of Jerusalem to visit the different provinces, correct malpractices,
introduce new regulations, and resolve important disputes. The visitors-general had the power to
remove knights from office and to suspend the Master of the province concerned.

No precise numbers exist, but it is estimated that at the order's peak there were between 15,000
and 20,000 Templars, of whom about a tenth were actual knights. After the Franks in the First
Crusade captured Jerusalem from Muslim conquerors in 1099,
many Christians made pilgrimages to various sacred sites in the Holy Land. Although the city of
Jerusalem was relatively secure under Christians control, the rest of Outremer was
not. Bandits and marauding highwaymen preyed upon these Christian pilgrims, who were
routinely slaughtered, sometimes by the hundreds, as they attempted to make the journey from
the coastline at Jaffa through to the interior of the Holy Land.

51
Flag used by the Templars in battle.

In 1119, the French knight Hugues de Payens approached King Baldwin II of

Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem, and proposed creating a monastic order for the
protection of these pilgrims. King Baldwin and Patriarch Warmund agreed to the request,
probably at the Council of Nablus in January 1120, and the king granted the Templars a
headquarters in a wing of the royal palace on the Temple Mount in the captured Al-Aqsa
Mosque. The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what was believed to be the
ruins of the Temple of Solomon.[6][16] The Crusaders therefore referred to the Al-Aqsa Mosque as
Solomon's Temple, and from this location the new order took the name of Poor Knights of
Christ and the Temple of Solomon, or "Templar" knights. The order, with about nine knights
including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and André de Montbard, had few financial resources and relied
on donations to survive. Their emblem was of two knights riding on a single horse, emphasizing
the order's poverty.

52
The impoverished status of the Templars did not last long. They had a powerful advocate in
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, a leading Church figure, the French abbot primarily responsible for
the founding of the Cistercian Order of monks and a nephew of André de Montbard, one of the
founding knights. Bernard put his weight behind them and wrote persuasively on their behalf in
the letter 'In Praise of the New Knighthood', and in 1129, at the Council of Troyes, he led a
group of leading churchmen to officially approve and endorse the order on behalf of the church.
With this formal blessing, the Templars became a favoured charity throughout Christendom,
receiving money, land, businesses, and noble-born sons from families who were eager to help
with the fight in the Holy Land. Another major benefit came in 1139, when Pope Innocent
II's papal bull Omne Datum Optimum exempted the order from obedience to local laws. This
ruling meant that the Templars could pass freely through all borders, were not required to pay
any taxes, and were exempt from all authority except that of the pope.

With its clear mission and ample resources, the order grew rapidly.Templars were often the
advance shock troops in key battles of the Crusades, as the heavily armoured knights on
their warhorses would set out to charge at the enemy, ahead of the main army bodies, in an

53
attempt to break opposition lines. One of their most famous victories was in 1177 during
the Battle of Montgisard, where some 500 Templar knights helped several thousand infantry to
defeat Saladin's army of more than 26000 soldiers.

"A Templar Knight is truly a fearless knight, and secure on every side, for his soul
is protected by the armour of faith, just as his body is protected by the armour of
steel. He is thus doubly armed, and need fear neither demons nor men."
―Bernard de Clairvaux, c. 1135,
De Laude Novae Militae – In Praise of the New Knighthood

Although the primary mission of the order was militaristic, relatively few members were
combatants. The others acted in support positions to assist the knights and to manage the
financial infrastructure. The Templar Order, though its members were sworn to individual
poverty, was given control of wealth beyond direct donations. A nobleman who was interested in
participating in the Crusades might place all his assets under Templar management while he was
away. Accumulating wealth in this manner throughout Christendom and the Outremer, the order
in 1150 began generating letters of credit for pilgrims journeying to the Holy Land: pilgrims
deposited their valuables with a local Templar preceptory before embarking, received a
document indicating the value of their deposit, then used that document upon arrival in the Holy
Land to retrieve their funds in an amount of treasure of equal value. This innovative arrangement
was an early form of banking and may have been the first formal system to support the use
of cheques; it improved the safety of pilgrims by making them less attractive targets for thieves,
and also contributed to the Templar coffers.

Based on this mix of donations and business dealing, the Templars established financial
networks across the whole of Christendom. They acquired large tracts of land, both in Europe
and the Middle East; they bought and managed farms and vineyards; they built massive stone
cathedrals and castles; they were involved in manufacturing, import and export; they had their
own fleet of ships; and at one point they even owned the entire island of Cyprus. The Order of
the Knights Templar arguably qualifies as the world's first multinational corporatio

With their military mission and extensive financial resources, the Knights Templar funded a
large number of building projects around Europe and the Holy Land, many structures remain
standing today.
The Templers
Building and Architecture
In addition to their ability as soldiers and bankers, the Templars also left a more tangible effect
on the world.Granted extended privileges by the Popes, the Templars became skilled builders
and built hundreds of structures, including churches, castles, farms, stables and even entire towns
and villages.

Templar building practices and designs differed little from that of the Cistercians, who sought
functionality over ostentation. The majority of their early constructions were stone-built and

54
 comparable to the architecture of the Normans. Most Templar castles were quadrangular in
shape, flanked by stone towers and protected by deep moats surrounded by double walls.

Temple Church in London

Templar churches were usually circular. A good example is the church in Cambridge, modelled
on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Most were small and undecorated and rectangular, in
keeping with the ethos of Bernard of Clairvaux. In later churches, knights were buried with
effigies.

It is also possible that the Templars were involved in the financing of the gothic cathedrals built
in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries.The Templars were ambitious builders who modeled
much of their architecture after Byzantine examples. The following list shows elements of
Templar architecture and explains their uses:

 battlements: A castle wall’s defenses, consisting of the walk wall along the top ridge, protected
by the parapet.
 concentric: This style of castle, favored by the Knights Templar, features a series of outer walls
surrounding the castle. Attackers breaching one wall would find themselves suddenly trapped in
a narrow alley confronting yet another inner wall.
 donjon: A French word for the keep; not a dungeon as we know it today.
 garderobe: The one thing everybody needed, the community toilet. It was a hollowed-out area
in the castle wall, with a chute down to the moat or sewer pit.

55
 gatehouse: The entry to the castle, usually secured by a drawbridge and a portcullis, and often
defended by towers or turrets on either side of the entrance. The gatehouse is the easiest entry,
the weakest link to all the castle’s defenses, and therefore usually the most heavily fortified.
 Great Hall: The primary social center of the castle. The Great Hall served as a ceremonial
reception room and dining hall.
 keep: A strong, central tower, either square or round; the place of last resort to hole up in when
all other defenses have failed. Round towers were easier to defend with fewer blind spots, but
square towers provided more conveniently shaped interior rooms.
 moat: A ditch surrounding the castle. It was filled with water if water was handy. There was no
need for crocodiles to keep waders and enemies out, because the moat was usually full of the
castle’s sewer. P.U.
 murder holes: Openings in the ceiling of the front gate, used for dropping large rocks, firing
arrows, or pouring boiling liquid on the enemies’ heads.
 parapet: A crenellated wall of high and low vertical indentations, so archers could fire from the
wall and then hide, simply by moving to one side or the other.
 portcullis: The gate, usually made of iron, that could be slid down behind the drawbridge
entryway.
 postern gate: A secret back gate to the castle, usually well camouflaged. Used for sneaking
troops out to surround the enemy or to let spies and scouts come and go.
 towers: Large, defensive structures placed at corners or strategic positions along the castle’s
walls. Towers could be square, round, or D-shaped. Round exterior walls meant greater visibility
all around and were harder for attackers’ ladders to rest against.
 turret: A small, round tower. In some castles, turrets protruded from the walls of the keep so
archers could shoot down on enemies.
 ward: The castle’s interior courtyard; sometimes called the bailey.

Why did the Templars mark this mysterious spot on the map?
The hermitage of San Bartolomé, a 12th-century chapel in the Rio dos Lobos Canyon, was built
by the Templars in a very specific spot. By connecting the main Templar strongholds in the
Iberian Peninsula, you can draw a cross on the map with the San Bartolomé hermitage right in
the centre, at the very heart of an area with an ancient mystical history. But could the symbolism
inside the chapel also link the location to the mythical Ark of the Covenant?

The 12th-Century hermitage of San Bartolomé in north-central Spain is a masterpiece of

Templar symbolism, a chapel built in an area that has drawn spiritual seekers since the Bronze
Age.
Situated equidistantly from the Iberian Peninsula’s easternmost and westernmost points in a
remote corner of the Rio del Lobos Canyon, the site has long held significance to local
inhabitants and was carefully chosen by the Knights Templars for its spiritual properties. In a
nearby limestone cave, Ancient Romans celebrated Mundus Patet (the “festival of the dead”)
and prayed to the Cult of the Mother Goddess. Legend has it that in the 1st Century AD, this
was also where Bartholomew the Apostle (San Bartolomé) dropped his sword from atop a
nearby mountain, declaring wherever the weapon fell to be his home.

The architectural elements of the Knights’ hermitage purposefully reflect this rich religious
past. Carved motifs pay homage to Roman deities such as the god Janus, guardian of the gates

56
and transitions. At the heart of the chapel, beneath a statue of the Virgin Mary, a carved Flower
of Life symbol is perfectly illuminated on the winter solstice through a rosette-shaped window
to the east.
Constructed in a fusion of Romanesque and early Gothic styles, San Bartolomé lies 4km from
the Castle of Ucero. This citadel was built on a fortress in the same period as the hermitage of
San Bartolomé, leading experts to think the surrounding area was likely a hotbed of Templar
activity. Remarkably, some historians even believe that the chapel’s interior columns may hint
to the assumed location of the fabled Ark of the Covenant in Ethiopia. Lying at the foot of
dramatic limestone cliffs and caves, the hermitage of San Bartolomé is rich in cryptic Templar
symbolism.

The Church of San Bartolomé (Spanish: Iglesia de San Bartolomé) is the oldest church
of Logroño, Spain. Its construction dates back to the 12th century, so partly
preserves Romanesque style in the head and in the initial part of the tower, and continues during
the 13th century, with the Gothic style development, building the magnificent arched cover,
which contains some Romanesque sculptures that tell the life of the saint and
other Bible passages. The Church of San Bartholomé is located in the Landmark No. 9 in
the Way of St. James. It is located 612 km from Santiago de Compostela. It was declared Bien
de Interés Cultural in 1866.
The scenes of the cover consist in 19 vignettes. If we start at the far right, in the first scene we
see San Bartolomé saving the king Polemón's lunatic daughter, three tables, a man (1), a woman
(2) and the Saint (3), the fourth is empty but could have been Polemón. In the second we see the
saint in a painting (5) and a group of maidens in another (6), who are evangelizing in court. In
the third, the Saint is expelling the demon from the pagan idols, and converting the rest, angering
some priests. This part consists in the following tables, the priests (7), the idol Berith on a
column and praying under (8) and the Saint with a box in hand expelling the devil (9). In the
following two tables (10,11) we see how the Saint is led by a soldier to the king Astyages. On
the far left might have been some scene, which may have been destroyed to build the Monesterio
Palace. The twelfth box is empty. In tables 13-16 Bartholomew defeats the idol Baldach, who
Astyages loves and making command him flogging for his anger, but orders pulling him to
pieces because it seems insufficient punishment. We can see the him tied of the four limbs being
skinned on a table holding by three female figures: lust, vanity and laziness. Tables 18 and 19
show San Bartolomé preaching with his own skin over his shoulder.

The tympanum of Cristo Redentor of the cover is moved down because in the 16th century
stonemason Pedro de Acha reformed the chorus and makes a small window in order to illuminate
the place. From this reform is also created the Renaissance arch behind this choir.
The basilica has three naves separated by octagonal pillars covered with a groin vault,
highlighting the Romanesque crossing and apse, because there is not any altarpiece but it had a
major altarpiece in its day, 18th-century style, painted in white and gold with great resemblance
with the Holy Martyrs of Calahorra.

Structure
During the fifteen day which Logroño resisted the siege of the French army in 1521, the tower
was hit by enemy artillery suffering damage, because it is near the defensive walls of the city,
and guarded the door Herbentia, near the old town hall . Years later it was rebuilt in brick,

57
with Mudejar style influences from Aragón. During the First Carlist War it was located in the
tower the optical telegraph.

Mudejar tower///’Tympanum of the porch

During the confiscation, in the 19th century, was used as a warehouse for wood and coal.
Furthermore, disappeared all the works of art that could have except a carved stone Gothic
coffins. He had other uses as military hospital, park or workshop. During mid-19th century was
thought to demolish stone building in order to build a theater in the place that was the episcopal
palace (currently in this place is located the food market).

Next to the church and even attached to it were built several buildings, some of which have been
restored or demolished so now part of the apse is seen from the outside. Among those is the
Palace of the Marquises of Monesterio, dating from 1751 and it was owned by the Marquis of
Monesterio and Lapilla. Over the years it housed institutions like the Catholic Circle of Workers,
schools and the cinema of the Father Marin and after years without any use, has been renovated
and reused as official building.

58
Romanesque apse

59
Templar Castles

When he was not on Crusade, or on some other mission for the Order, a Templar knight
generally lived in a place called a commandery or preceptory. This was a complex of buildings
that formed a small Templar city, often built around a military stronghold that had either been
built by the knights or been given over to them to guard. The usage of both of these terms
interchangeably emphasizes two of the purposes of the Templar stronghold. As a commandery, it
was the military outpost for the Latin States (the nations founded in the Holy Land by the
Crusading powers), as well as an armory and a defensive stronghold. The word preceptory
implies one of its other duties, which was as a school, a place to train new recruits for the Order.

At the height of their power, the huge tracts of land held by the Templars in major European
cities like London or Paris was nothing short of astonishing. They were self-contained
communities within already established cities, with their own local government, municipal
infrastructure, law-enforcement, treasury, building and maintenance crews, and food supply. -

Outremer
France
Low Countries

The Templars were granted property in western Europe following their foundation
around 1119. Templar brethren were active (perhaps itinerant at first) in Flanders
possibly from 1125. Many of the earliest Templars came from a limited area of the
kingdom of France and were connected to one another by birth or other ties. Among
the earliest was Godfrey of Saint-Omer. In 1127 Hugh of Payns, master of the
Templars, was sent by Baldwin II of Jerusalem to the West to mount a new crusade.
He can be found in witness lists to grants of land and rights to the Templars in
Anjou, Flanders, and Champagne. It is clear that Hugh’s presence in Flanders
stimulated the crusading spirit there. The Temple had some early
houses in Flanders: Ypres (1131), La Haie les Lilles (1134/1136), and Slijpe (1137),
but the greatest expansion of the order in Flanders took place around 1200 with the
acquisition of properties in Caestre (1183–1201), Cobrieux (1192), Ghent (1200),
and Bruges (1202). In Flanders and Tournai the Templars were stronger than in the
other territories of the Low Countries. It is difficult to establish an organizational
structure for the Templars in the Low Countries. During the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries four bailiwicks were created for Flanders, Hainaut, Brabant, and
Haspengouw (grouping houses in Liège, Namur, Loon, and Luxembourg). - The
Crusades; An Encyclopaedia

Italy
Holy Roman Empire
In Germany and Lorraine, which was part of Germany at this time, the Templars
were quickly exonerated of all wrongdoing. Many ex-members of the now
suppressed Order of the Temple joined either the Teutonic Order or the Order of St.
John (Hospitallers ). The rest faded quietly into other lives.

60
Bohemia and Moravia
During the 1230s and later, the Templars obtained houses in Prague itself and in the
nearby village of Uhríneves. In Moravia they were given the castle of Cejkovice and
the large estate of Jamolice, where they built the castle of Tempelstejn. Between
1297 and 1308, the Templars colonized newly acquired territories around the River
Becva and near Vsetín on the border with Hungary, where they built the castle of
Freundsberg. - The Crusades; An Encyclopedia
The Iberian Peninsula - Spain
The Iberian Peninsula - Portugal
Britain - England: The Peasants' Rebellion
Britain - Scotland: Bannockburn and The Scots Guard

Cyprus
After the fall of Acre to the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt in 1291, the Templars set up
a new headquarters at Limassol on the island of Cyprus, with hopes of inaugurating a
new crusade.

Principal Templar Strongholds in Outremer

Elsewhere the Military Orders had become substantial Iandholders and the territory
under their control was the best defended in the Crusader States.
'The highly detailed Rule of the Military Order of the Templars does not distinguish
between a proper castle and an unfortified ‘house’ where brethren lived and
administered the Order’s estates. Both were under a commander in charge of all
supplies and of the sergeants who guarded their gates. In fact the Rule of the
Templars makes few references to castle or their role in warfare. By the second half
of the 12th century most Templar castles were concentrated in the northern part of the
Principality of Antioch and in the south of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, In the north
these templar castles formed a frontier march based upon Gaston (Baghras), Roche
Guillaume, Roche de Roissel and Darbsak. In the south, some were close to Ascalon,
which was held by the Fatimids until 1153. However, most templar castles in
the Kingdom of Jerusalem guarded pilgrim routes. They ensured that pilgrims had
food, tents, animal transport and protection.' From Crusader Castles in the Holy
Land 1097 - 1192

List of Principal Templar Strongholds in Syria and Palestine

Fortified Towns
1. Port Bonnel
2. Ascalon
3. Tortosa or Tartus
4. Tripoli
5. Beirut
6. Sidon
7. Tyre

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Siege of tyre 1189: After the defeat of the army of Jerusalem by Saladin at Hattin
(3–4 July 1187), Tyre became the most important base of military operations for
the Franks of Outremer and crusaders from the West. - The Crusades; An
Encyclopaedia. Meanwhile the defenders of Tyre recovered their confidence and
sat tight behind thewalls of a city built on a rocky peninsula that could only be
approached across a narrow, sandy isthmus. They were also supported by
numerous ships. Saladin was determined to renew the siege of Tyre and returned
to the area with a small force on 12 November, the rest of his army coming up to
assault the city 13 days later. It was a hard fight, the attackers being supported by
as many siege engines as could be trained on the enemy. The isthmus was narrow
and Christian ships filled with archers, crossbowmen and stone-throwing engines
were moored on each side to shoot at the Muslims' flanks. The attacks failed and
the siege dragged on with occasional attacks by the Muslims and frequent sorties
by the defenders, among whom a Spanish knight, dressed in green and with a
pair of stag's horns in his helmet, earned praise even from Saladin himself.

It was now clear that only by winning command of the sea could Tyre be taken,
so a squadron of ten galleys and an unknown number of support vessels came up
from Acre under the command of Abd al Salam al Maghribi, an experienced
North African sailor. This was highly risky in the squalls of winter - the
mediterranean sailing season normally running from early April to late October -
but the Muslim fleet did force the Christian galleys into harbour. Meanwhile
winter arrived, the besiegers' camp becoming a sea of mud and slushy snow as
sickness broke out. Then came disaster at sea. A Muslim squadron of five
galleys, having kept watch through the night of 29/30 December, lowered their
guard with the coming of dawn, but as they slept they were surprised by a fleet of
17 Christian galleys with ten smaller boats which darted out of Tyre and captured
them. The five remaining Muslim galleys and other ships were then ordered to
retire to Beirut because they were now too few to be effective. As they left they
were pursued by galleys from Tyre which soon overhauled the exhausted Muslim
crews. Most were beached, their crews escaping ashore and the vessels being
destroyed on Saladin's orders, though one large sailing ship, described as being
'like a small mountain' and manned by experienced sailors, was able to escape.
Following this setback the troops made a final successful attack on the defences
of Tyre after which Saladin summoned a conference of his amirs.

Some wanted to fight on but most said that the army was exhausted and their
men wanted to go home. So next day, New Year's Day 1188, Saladin dismissed
his army except for his own personal regiments whom he led back to Acre. -
From Osprey Campaign #019 - Hattin 1187 Saladin's greatest victory. The
events of 1187 shook Western Europe, the loss of Jerusalem being seen as
casting shame on all Christians. On 20 October Pope Urban III died, of grief it
was said. Nine days later his successor, Pope Gregory VIII, sent out letters
urging Christendom to save what was left of the Crusader Kingdom, letters
which eventually led to the Third Crusade. On 19 December Pope Gregory also

62
 died. Meanwhile the survival of Tyre was a military disaster for Saladin,
providing a perfect base from which the Third Crusade would start reconquering
a rump Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1191. Yet this revived Crusader Kingdom was
never what it had been. Hattin had demolished its feudal structure and
undermined the basis of royal power. Western European interference in its
government also increased rapidly. On the Muslim side the liberation of
Jerusalem had an enormous impact on Saladin's prestige. Barely noticed amid the
excitement, a merchant caravan had set out from Damascus on 23 September,
even before Jerusalem fell, heading for Cairo by the coastal route. It was the first
for more than 87 years to travel this route without paying tolls. - From Osprey
Campaign #019 - Hattin 1187 Saladin's greatest victory.

1. Acre
2. Haifa
3. Caesarea
4. Nablus
5. Jaffa
6. Jerusalem
7. Ascalon
8. Gaza

The castle, with stone walls and towers, was built by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem
in the winter of 1149–1150 as one of several fortifications encircling the Fatimid
enclave of Ascalon. There were insufficient men or resources to fortify the entire
site, and the chronicler William of Tyre records that the castle occupied only part of
it. It was granted with its surrounding lands to the Templars and soon afterward
withstood a Muslim attack. - The Crusades; An Encyclopaedia

When Saladin laid siege to Darum in December 1170, King Amalric withdrew
Gaza’s Templar garrison to assist in its defence. Saladin therefore fell on Gaza,
destroying the faubourg and slaughtering its inhabitants, who had been denied access
to the castle by the temporary castellan, Miles of Plancy. In November 1177, the
Templars again prepared to defend Gaza when Saladin raided Ascalon. In September
1187, they finally surrendered Gaza in return for the release of their master, Gerard
of Ridefort. –

Saladin ordered Gaza’s destruction in September 1191.Although it was refortified

and returned to the Templars by King Richard I of England in 1192, Gaza’s
fortifications were again demolished under the terms of the Treaty of Jaffa later that
year. Thereafter Gaza developed as an Ayyubid town, with the emir ‘Alam al-Din
Qaysar as its first governor. A failed attempt to retake it was made by Count Henry
of Bar and other nobles during the Crusade of 1239–1241;and a further attempt in
1244 ended in disaster at La Forbie.

1. Castles
2. La Roche de Roussel (Hajar Shuglan)

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 3. La Roche Guillaume
4. Amoude

'The Templars built a castle at Amoude, were largely responsible for a castle
at Trapesac, and made minor alterations to the existing Islamic castle at Haruniya:
all of which were at various times within the Armenian kingdom.' ---- Crusader
castles in the Holy Land 1192-1302

1. Haruniya
2. Darbsak or Trapesac
3. Gaston (Baghras)
4. La Collee
5. Castel-Blanc (Safita or Burj Safitha)
6. al-Arimah or Arima (al-Araymah
7. Beaufort or Belfort (Sharif Arnum)
8. Chastellet
9. Safed / Saphet
10. Saffran
11. Le Destroit (Qal’at Dustray)
12. Castle Pilgrim (Atlit)
13. Caco (al-Qaqun)
14. La Feve
15. Le Petit Gerin
16. Castel Arnand
17. Quarantene

The Templars occupied a castle, with a priory, on the summit of Mount Quarantene
- where Jesus was said to have fasted for forty-days and where he was also supposed
to have been tempted by Satan.

1. Casal des Plains

2. Toron of the Knights
3. Ahamant (Amman)
4. Maldoim
5. Citerne Rouge
6. Vadum Jacob
7. Ru'ad

'The inland fortresses were now too costly by the feudal barons of Outremer and
were therefore sustained by the military orders: the Teutonic Knights held Montfort,
the Hospitallers Belvoir and the Templars Castel Blanc and Saphet. Saphet had been
rebuilt in the 1240s at enormous expense and was now the largest castle in
the Kingdom of Jerusalem, dominating Gallilee and the route between Damascus
and Acre. It had a peacetime garrison of 1,700 men to which a further 500 were
added in time of war. Of these, 50 were Templar knights and 30 Templar sergeants,

64
50 Turcopoles and 300 crossbowmen. The cost of its construction was put at
1,000,000 Saracen besants and 400 slaves were employed to assist the skilled
masons. Twelve thousand mule loads of barley and grain were required to provision
the castle every year, some of it now imported from the Templar preceptories in
Europe.

At the Cisterna Rubea, midway between Jerusalem and Jericho, the Templars built a
castle, a road station and a chapel. There was a Templar tower closer to Jericho at
Bait Jubr at-Tahtani; a castle and priory on the summit of Mount Quarantene where
Jesus fasted for forty-days and was also tempted by Satan; and a castle by the River
Jordan at the spot where Jesus was baptised by John the Baptist. The first major
fortress assigned to the Templars was not in the Kingdom of Jerusalem but on the
northernmost frontier of the Latin possessions in the Amanus mountains. ..The road
through these mountains from wither Aleppo or Antioch to the ports of Alexandretta
amd Port Bonnel (Arsuz) is by the Belen Pass, otherwise known as the Syrian Gates.
In the 1130s the Templars were given the responsibility for securing the
mountainous frontier region between the Kingdom of Silicia and the Principality of
Antioch - the Amanus march. To guard the Belen Pass through the Amanus range
they occupied the stronghold of Barghas, which they called Gaston, a castle towering
on an impenetrable summit, rising on an impregnable rock, it's foundations touching
the sky.' Gaston was on the eastern side of the range and looked down over the plain
of Aleppo to Antioch. Further north, to guard the Hajar Shuglan Pass, they occupied
the castles of Darbsaq and la Roche de Roussel.

'No castle in Outremer held out for more than six weeks after the Mamelukes had
begun a serious siege. The castles of the Frankish East represent some of the most
developed and sophisticated military architecture of medieval Christendom, but in
the absence of reinforcements and the absence of hope, they could not ensure the
survival of Outremer.'

65
 Château Pèlerin, Israel
Also known as Atlit Castle and Castle Pilgrim is located on the northern coast of Israel about 13
kilometers (8.1 mi) south of Haifa. The Knights Templar began building it in 1218 during the
Fifth Crusade. One of the major Crusader fortresses, it could support up to 4,000 troops in siege
conditions. It was lost to the Mamluks and evacuated between 3 and 14 of August 1291, the last
crusader outpost in the Holy Land. It remained intact for several hundred years, until being
damaged in the Galilee earthquake of 1837. In modern times, the castle remainings are part of a
training zone for Israeli Naval Commandos. ALSO PIC BELOW

66
More curious hermitages. Hermitage of San Bartolomé

67
The Hermitage of San Bartolomé in Soria is one of the most curious in Spain, either because of
its possible Templar origin or because of the surrounding landscape. The location of this
hermitage is a marvel to the visitor, as it is located inside the Cañón del Río Lobos Natural Park.
Its construction dates from the early years of the 13th century, with a style that reflects
the transition from Romanesque to Gothic. Some experts in the field suggest that it has a
Templar origin; since in the vicinity of the hermitage is the Templar castle of Ucero. This castle
defended the entrance to the canyon of the River Lobos. Although there is no consensus on the
matter, it is believed to be related to the Order of the Knights Templar.

For many it is even a magical place; considered to be the centre of the world for the Knights
Templar order. Thus, the distance from the hermitage to Cap de Creus in Girona and Cap de
Toruiñán or Finisterre in A Coruña is equidistant. To this we must add that by drawing a vertical
line from north to south, crossed at this point, the peninsula is divided into two halves. The
drawing shown is a Templar cross.

68
 Many of the most curious hermitages in Spain are great
unknown. Some are remembered for their beauty; forgetting some of the singular elements in
their architecture or the traditions around which they are surrounded. Without a doubt, visiting
the most curious Hermitage is an adventure suitable for those who enjoy the stories and legends,
the impressive landscapes and the architectural rarities. Will your vision of any of these most
curious hermitages change?
Knights Templar’s Important Castles And Churches
The Knights Templar beside being a huge army and respectable force in medieval times had
many castles throughout Europe and the Holy Land.

1. Holy Land-Middle East Knights Templar Holdings Outremer (Holy Land) the Levant
Jerusalem- Of course the Templar Quarters under Solomon’s Temple Jerusalem, the knights first
temporary headquarters was on the Temple Mount, the original site of King Solomon’s Temple.
This is where they took of residence in the former Temple Stables and legend says they began
their excavations under the Temple almost immediately.

Acre- AKKO ( ‫ ) عكا‬in Arabic- was the final stronghold of the Templars in the Levant/Outremer.
Their famous fortress was where they made their last stand against the Saracens before they
finally retreated to their fortress on Cyprus to regroup. The Last Remains of the Templar Towers
and Castle at Acre, Israel Atlit (also known as Pilgrims Castle)

- Chateau Pelerin- lost in 1291 to the Mamluks just after the fall of ACRE. This was the Knights
Templar’s strongest fortress and it could host 4,000 knights in siege conditions. It has a secure

69
water source and deep excavations and a vast tunnel system. The castle remains still stand today
near the Port City of Haifa, Israel.

Atlit Castle- also called Pilgrims Castle- Haifa Israel Chastel Blanc- was a fortified keep that
had a chapel, garrison and office quarters for the knights in the hills of Chastel Blanc. From the
Keep, the knights could see the Templar coastal fortresses of Tartus, the Mediterranean Sea,
mounts of Lebanon, the Krak des chevalier fortress inland and Akkar to the south. The keep had
a large warning bell tower that could sound the alarm to other Templar warning posts of any
invasion or approaching hostiles due to its commanding views in all directions.

Ruad Island - This sole island fortress in Syria gave the Knights a bridgehead and staging area
to raid into Syria and especially Tortosa now called Tartus on the shore. This was the last piece
of land held by the Templars in the Holy Land. The knights’ Arwad Castle on Ruad Island off of
Tartus Syria Coast maintained a garrison of 120, knights, 400 bowmen and several hundred
infantry men on the island up until 1302. The Muslims laid siege to the island a negotiated a
surrender where safe passage was guaranteed for the surrender, but the Muslim’s dishonorably
broke that negotiated cease fire by executing all the infantry and bowmen and sending the
remaining Knights Templar to Cairo to be imprisoned.

2. Europe and Turkey Old Rhodes Harbor Castle. The Templars took part in the raid and
conquest of Constantinople. Many believe to remove key artifacts and safe guard them from the
eventual Muslim onslaught - more likely for their own use and knowledge. The Templars
controlled two major castles in the Southern tip of Turkey on the approach to Antioch and
Aleppo. These were Bagras Castle and Trapessac Castles. Known as the Grand Master Knights
Templar Courtyard Rhodes Gatehouse to the Knights Castle Gates to Syria. After the loss of land
by the Knights Templar in the Levant (Holy Land), also known as Outremer, the Knights first
moved their major forces to Cyprus, but later along with other orders moved a huge contingent
of knights to Rhodes in an attempt to keep their staging forces near the Holy Land. Eventually
the Knight of St. John (Hospitallers) moved their HQ to Malta and kept a major presence on
Rhodes as well.

Cyprus, Kolossi Castle. Kolossi Castle, another heavily fortified Keep with castle curtain walls
around it is just 9 miles from the Limasol Cyprus. This served as the operational headquarters for
the Knights Templar in the region of the Holy Land after they were pushed out of the by the
Muslims. Jacques de Molay kept his residence here much of the time as he envisioned building
support to reinvade the holy land and retake the Holy City and Christian heritage.

70
3. Hungary-Croatia
Vrana Croatia- along the Dalmatian coast, the Knights Templar and the Benedictine Monks had
established a fortified castle high above the village and the Benedictine Monks Chapel in the
town to project power into the region. The Knights Hospitallers were given this property after the
betrayal of the Knights Templar by the Catholic Church in 1312.

4. Italy
Castello della Magione, also Magione di San Giovanni al Ponte or Spedale di San Giovanni in
Gerusalemme alla Magione is a medieval castle in Poggibonsi province of Siena, central Italy. It
is an, example of amedieval “Mansio”(residence) that belonged to the Knights Templar.The
castle includes the ancient church and the“spedale” (hotel) for the pilgrims in transit to Rome on
the Via Francigena. The complex is near the ancient crossing of the Via Francigena over the
Staggia River, near the Bonizio bridge, now destroyed.

5. Switzerland
Sion, in the Valais Canton, There are twin peaks overlooking the town, meaning new Jerusalem
or holy place in the Alps. The Twin Mountains house the cathedral of Sion and the Castle
Tourbillion. These date back to the beginning times of Swiss Confederation formation around
1291 the time when the Templars were known to be looking to establish a European mainland
stronghold outside of the Holy Land as they were being pushed out of the Levant by the Muslims
and the Christians had lost their stomach to fight on any longer. Here in Sion, the Valais Canton
of Switzerland there are two massive castles on two twin peaks. Tourbillion and Valere Castles
each tower high above the old city. Rumors have always floated that this is where the Templars
originally set up shop after their flight from France.

6. Poland
Chwarzczany , The Templars were given the area now known as Chwarzczany and built a
fortified chapel there near the border of Poland and Eastern Germany. The knights maintained a
small garrison to control the agricultural region and the ten villages associated with this
commandery.

7. Denmark
Bornholm Castle and churches is Located 40 kilometers southeast of the southern tip of Sweden
but territorially part of Denmark. The island of Bornholm is one of the oldest visible rocks in the
world. Formed through volcanic activity more than 1.7 billion years ago. The small granite
island has an area of approximately 600 square kilometers (230 square miles). Its rolling hills are
covered with a patchwork of farms, pastures and beautiful forests, the coasts are graced by sandy
beaches and rocky cliffs and its traditional villages are home to some of the friendliest people in
Europe.

8. France
Paris Temple- The main strong hold of Templar power and diplomacy in Europe up until the
betrayal and capture of their knights by King Phillip IV on October 13, 1307. Remnants of the
temple still lie along the Seine River today. You can see the Templar plaque documenting the
burning of the last public grand master Jacques de Molay on the bridge over the Seine that is
placed on the Ills de La Cite in view of Notre Dame Cathedral.

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Chateau de Chinon Castle- is a castle located on the bank of the Vienne River in Chinon,
France. It was founded by Theobald I, Count of Blois. It was here that King Phillip IV
imprisoned most of the Templar Knights, including Jacques de Molay until they were tried and
sentenced and many executed. This is also where the pope’s emissaries conducted their
depositions of the Templars which is recorded in the Chinon Parchment.

La Rochelle-The Knights Templar had a strong presence in La Rochelle since before the time of
Eleanor of Aquitaine, who exempted them from duties and gave them mills in her 1139 Charter.
La Rochelle was for the Templars their largest base on the Atlantic Ocean, and where they
stationed their main fleet. From La Rochelle, they were able to act as intermediaries in trade
between England and the Mediterranean

8. Spain

Segovia is a city in Spain, the capital of Segovia Province in the autonomous community of
Castile and León. The Segovia Cathedral and Templar Castle are major landmarks as well as
the Castle of Alacazar perched high above the village. Ponferrada is also noted for its Castillo de
los Templarios in 1178. Ferdinand II of León donated the city to the Templar order for protecting
the pilgrims on the Way of St. James who passed through El Bierzo in their road to Santiago de
Compostela. The castle hosted the Knights Templar’s Grand Master of Castille. However, the
Templars were only able to enjoy the use of their fortress for about twenty years before the order
was disbanded and its properties confiscated in 1311.

Peniscola, often called the “Gibraltar of Valencia,” is a fortified seaport, with a lighthouse, built
on a rocky headland about 220 feet (67 m) high, and joined to the mainland by only a narrow
strip of land (Peníscola is a local evolution of Latin peninsula). The present castle was built by
the Knights Templar between 1294 and 1307. In the fourteenth century it was garrisoned by the
Knights of Montesa, and in 1420 it reverted to the Crown of Aragon.

10. Portugal

The town of Tomar was born inside the walls of the Convento de Cristo, constructed under the
orders of Gualdim de Pais, the fourth grand master of the Knights Templar in the late 12th
century. Tomar is one of Portugal’s historical jewels and more significantly was the last Templar
town to be commissioned for construction. Tomar was especially important in the 15th century
when it was a centre of Portuguese overseas expansion under Henry the Navigator, the Grand
Master of the Order of Christ, successor organization to the Templars in Portugal.

The Castle of Almourol is a medieval castle located on a small islet in the middle of the Tagus
River in the civil parish of Praia do Ribatejo, 4 kilometres from the municipal seat of Vila Nova

72
da Barquinha in the Portuguese Centre Region. The castle was part of the defensive line
controlled by the Knights Templar, and a stronghold used during the Portuguese Reconquista.

11. Sweden
Skara- Home of Arn Magnusson a legendary Knights Templar who returned from the crusades
to assist in the formation of the country of Sweden. Today’s cathedral is a mighty Gothic edifice
built with sandstone from the mountains of Västergötland. One remnant of the eleventh century
is the unique crypt that served as the last resting place for the first bishops. The Skara cathedral
stood on the city’s highest point. Its spires towering over the city marked the city center and
served as landmark for visitors. It was built in the year of our Lord 1150.

12. Norway-
Bergenhus in Norway, The Knights Templar may have had many connections with their
northern allies. It is apparent that many Templars were involved in this region. Some of their
works could include Bergenhus in Norway.

13. England
London Temple Church-The Temple Church is a late-12th-century church in London located
between Fleet Street and the River Thames, built for and by the Knights Templar as their English
headquarters. In modern times, two Inns of Court (Inner Temple and Middle Temple) both use
the church. It is famous for its effigy tombs and for being a round church. It was heavily
damaged during the Second World War but has been largely restored. The area around the
Temple Church is known as the Temple and nearby is Temple Bar and Temple tube station.

Garway Temple in Herefordshire-The earliest record of a monastery on the site is in the seventh
century, but it is with the arrival of the Knights Templar in 1180 that the history of the church at
Garway becomes clearer. The Knights Templar built a stone hut in honor of the Holy Sepulchre
in Jerusalem Garway Church.

Glastonbury Abbey-Somerset County-The Kolbrin Bible is truly special it is a copy of the

Kolbrin from the version from India, where Christ is believed to have traveled and preached
during his 18 years not mentioned in the bible. It was originally called the Bronze Book which
survived the burning of the Glastonbury Abbey in 1184 AD. That is critical, because the
Glastonbury Abbey is located squarely on the ground that was gifted to Joseph of Arimathea and
the Virgin Mary by Christian King Avaragus after the crucifixion of Christ. The family of
Avaragus launched all our western versions of Christianity, from Catholicism to Protestant
churches. The Templars gave special credence to the importance of this Abbey.
14. Scotland

Temple at Midlothian was a small area in the region of Edinburgh. The Templars had land
holdings here established by Hugh de Payens himself around 1127 AD. In 1127, Hugues de
Payens, the first Grand Master met with David I in Scotland, and was granted the lands of
Balantrodach.

73
In 1129, the Council of Troyes formally recognized the Order. Balantrodach became their
principal Templar seat and Preceptory in Scotland until the suppression of the order between
1307 and 1312.

COMPREHENSIVE LIST

In the Kingdom of Jerusalem, now in Israel and Southern Lebanon:

 Al-Aqsa Mosque on Temple Mount, Jerusalem, 1119–1187
 Tour du Détroit [fr], built around 1110 by Hugues de Payens
 Castle of Merle [fr] (Khirbet el-Burj) near Tantura, 12th century to 1291 with interruption in
the late 1180s
 Gaza Fortress [fr], 1149–1187
 Chastel Hernault [fr], 1150–1179
 La Fève, now Merhavia, 1160s to 1187
 Amman Fortress [fr], 1166–1187
 Castle of Maldoim or Adumim (Rouge Cisterne, Arabic Qal'at ad-Damm) near Khan al-
Ahmar, built ca. 1170
 Burgata inland from Netanya, until 1189
 Tel Yokneam (Caymont or Cain Mons) southeast of Haifa, ca. 1262–1265
 Yalo (Castrum Arnaldi) southeast of Ramla, 1179–1187
 A fortress in nearby Latrun, 12th century
 Safed, 1168–1188 and 1240–1266
 Chastellet du Gué de Jacob [fr] near Safed, 1178–1179
 Tour de la Quarantaine [fr], east of Jerusalem
 Tell es-Safi (Blanchegarde)
 Properties in Acre, Israel, including the still-extant Templar Tunnel
 Château Pèlerin (fr. "Pilgrim Castle"), also known as Atlit Castle, 1218–1291
 Sidon, 1260–1268
 Beaufort Castle, Lebanon, 1260–1268
 Jordan River Project, Israel, 1955 -
 Jordan River Project, Jordan, 1955 -

In the County of Tripoli, now in Northern Lebanon and coastal Syria:

 Chastel Blanc, 1117–1271
 The city and fortress of Tartus (Tortosa), Templars headquarters 1152–1188 and fortress
held until 1291, including the Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa
 Areimeh, from the early 1150s to 1187 with interruption 1171–1177
 Arwad island (Ruad), occupied in 1300–1302

In the Principality of Antioch, now in Turkey:

 Roche-Guillaume, 12th century–1203 and 1237–1298
 Trapessac, in the 12th century until 1188
 Bagras (Gaston), 1153–1189 and 1216–1268
 Roche de Roissel [fr], from the 12th century to 1268
The Templars also held commandries in Ascalon, Jaffa, Tyre, Laodicea, Rhosus, Alexandretta,
and Ayas.

74
 CYPRUS: The Templars briefly owned the entire island of Cyprus in 1191–1192, preceding
the establishment of the Kingdom of Cyprus
 Gastria Castle, 1210–1279
 Kolossi Castle, 1306–1313
 Fortresses in Germasogeia and Khirokitia

Also commandries in Nicosia, Famagusta, Limassol, Paphos, and Psimolofou, including the
Twin Church of the Templars and Hospitallers in Famagusta

Templar establishments in Europe.

 Templar fortress of Paris, now destroyed.
 Commandry of Coulommiers, France
 Commandry of Avalleur, in Bar-sur-Seine
 Commandry of Saint-Blaise, Hyères
 La Rochelle, Charente Maritime, France
 Chapelle des Templiers de Metz - 12th-century Gothic chapel with octagonal plan and
various paintings
 Commandry of Libdeau, Toul - 12th-century Gothic chapel with rectangular plan and traces
of paintings.
 Commandry of Notre-Dame-de-la-Boissière, Châteaudun - 12th-century Gothic chapel.
 Commandry of Sergeac
 Commandry of Dognon, Blanzac-Porcheresse - 12th-century chapel with rectangular plan
and various paintings.
 Commandry of Sainte-Eulalie-de-Cernon
 Commandry of Richerenches
 La Couvertoirade, Aveyron - A castle, commandry and fortifications
 Commandry of Celles
 Commandry of Arville, now restored with a museum of Templar history.

PORTUGAL

75
Convent of the Order of Christ, Tomar

 Castle of Almourol
 Castelo Branco
 Castle of Idanha
 Castle of Monsanto
 Castle of Penha Garcia
 Castle of Pombal
 Castle of Soure - received and reconstructed in March 1128, was the first castle of the
Knights Templar.
 Quinta da Regaleira
 Old town of Tomar, including the Castle, the Convent of the Order of Christ and the Church
of Santa Maria do Olival

SPAIN: Crown of Castile and Leon
 Castle of Montalbán in San Martín de Montalbán, province of Toledo Castle of Villalba in
Cebolla, Province of Toledo
 Castle of San Servando, in Toledo
 The Templar House, Toledo
 Iglesia Veracruz in Segovia
 Castillo de los Templarios in Ponferrada
 Castle of Alcañices, in Zamora

76
Crown of Aragon
 Peniscola Castle
 Castle of Castellote
 Castle of Miravet
 Castle of Barbens
 Castle of Gardeny, in Lérida
 Commandry of Palau, in Palau-solità i Plegamans
 Castle of Xivert in Valencia
 Castle of Cintruénigo: the birth of a 12th-century gilda around the encomienda of Novillas,
in the Valley of the middle Ebro, delimited by Queiles and Huecha, as a point of connection
between the three kingdoms of Pamplona-Navarra, Aragon and Castile.

England

Sorted by county
 Temple Church, Bristol, Bristol
 Denny Abbey, Cambridgeshire
 Temple Church, Temple, Bodmin Moor, Cornwall
 St Michael's Mount, Cornwall
 Temple Sowerby, Cumbria
 Cressing Temple, Essex
 Little Maplestead, Essex
 Garway Church, Herefordshire
 St Mary The Virgin church, Welsh Newton, Herefordshire
 Church of St Mary the Virgin in Baldock, Hertfordshire
 Temple Dinsley, Hertfordshire
 The Manor of Temple Ewell, Kent
 Rothley Temple (Rothley Preceptory), Rothley, Leicestershire
 Eagle Hall Lincolnshire
 South Witham Lincolnshire
 Temple Bruer, Lincolnshire
 The Temple including Temple Church, London
o Inner Temple
o Middle Temple
 Temple Mills, Stratford, London
 Temple Cowton, North Yorkshire
 Westerdale Preceptory, North Yorkshire
 Temple Cowley, Oxfordshire
 Templars Square, Oxfordshire
 Cameley and Temple Cloud, Somerset
 Templecombe, Somerset
 Keele, Staffordshire
 Temple Balsall, Warwickshire
 Church of St Mary the Blessed Virgin, Sompting. West Sussex
 Shipley Church, Shipley, West Sussex
 Temple Newsam, West Yorkshire

77
 Temple Farm, Rockley, Wiltshire

Scotland
 Temple, Midlothian
 Castle Rainy and Templars' House, Turriff, Aberdeenshire
 Darvel, East Ayrshire

IRELAND
 Templetown, County Wexford
 Clontarf Castle (Templar Preceptory), County Dublin
 Baldongan Church (in-ruins), Skerries, County Dublin
 Temple House, Ballymote, County Sligo

CROATIA
 Cesargrad (Kayersperg)
 Brckovljani,
 Fortress of Klis,
 Glogovnica
 Gora, Croatia
 Gornji Slatinik
 Hrvatska Dubica
 Lovčić
 Našice,
 Nova Ves
 Rassecha – Nova Rača
 Senj
 Zdelja village near Virje
 Vižinada
 Vrana Fortress

ITALY
 Castello della Magione, Poggibonsi
 San Pietro alla Magione, Siena
 Valvisciolo Abbey, Sermoneta
 Abbey of St. Michael in Montescaglioso
 Templars' Tower at San Felice Circeo (from 1240 to 1259)

OTHER COUNTRIES

 Tempelhof, Berlin, Germany

 Templstejn, Czech Republic[16]
 Chwarszczany village, Poland[2]
 Castle in Serednie, Serednie, Ukraine

78
79
 CHAPTER IV
Knights Templar: Gothic Architecture

Pope Innocent II // Fan vaulting and glass windows at Bath Abbey

Gothic architecture superseded the Romanesque style by combining flying buttresses, gothic (or
pointed) arches and ribbed vaults. It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time,
being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the
sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky
forms of the previous Romanesque style. Saint Augustine of Hippo taught that light was an
expression of God. Architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that
reflected this teaching. Colorful glass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was
much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had
an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and
later fan vaultings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God was also
80
expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only
invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the
greatness of God. The floor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of
scholasticism: the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics
are exhibited by the most famous sacral building of the time: Notre Dame de Paris. Gothic
architecture first emerged in northern France around 1140.

Westminster Abbey
The Gothic style of building was soon taken up by the English, and used in Canterbury Cathedral
and Westminster Abbey.

81
82
Design of Gothic Cathedral-Gregorio Papareschi, was appointed to the post of Pope Innocent
II, in the year 1130, supported to the Papal throne by Bernard of Clairvaux.
Following his appointment, to the Papal throne, Pope Innocent II, approved the request made by
the Knights Templar, granting them the right, to build and run their own churches. Overnight the
Templar’s became answerable to only one person; the Pope, and out of reach of most
authorities. They could hold their own court, impose taxes, and no longer did the church hold
any pressure over them. They were their own men, and becoming a powerful order.

They planned and developed their own style of buildings, one which was French Gothic by
design. This new style was born in 1134.

83
The Templar’s mentor and spiritual leader; St.Bernard of Clairvaux, showed his flair, and his
designs were used for the building of the north tower at Chartres Cathedral.

Gothic architecture dates back to the 12th century, it was to be an exciting time in Medieval
European history, with the development of a new style of buildings. Many a knight had served
in the Holy Land, on the Crusades, and many had been influenced by the buildings and
engineering styles used.

Gothic architecture evolved over a 300 year period, with bright and airy interiors, pointed arches
to emphasize light and soaring spaces, ribbed vaulting, flying buttresses, tall spires and
gargoyles.The early forms of Gothic architecture was predominately used for the building of
cathedrals, and later used in the building of castles, palaces and bridges.

Gothic architecture first emerged in northern France around 1140.

Westminster Abbey
The Gothic style of building was soon taken up by the English, and used in Canterbury Cathedral
and Westminster Abbey.

Gothic architecture in Medieval England was developed from Norman building styles, which
related to buildings from 1200 – 1500.

Early English Style: 1200 – 1300

84
Decorated Style: 1300- 1400

Perpendicular Style: 1400 – 1500

Gothic churches and buildings were different to Normans, on their style and way of construction.

 Stone blocks lined side by side was the choice of Normans, but Gothic buildings used
many a shaped stone.
 Hollow walls favoured by Normans, became solid under Gothic builds, thus they could
handle far greater weight.
 The use of pointed arches strengthened buildings, compared to Normans round arches.
Cathedral roofs were much larger, and buttresses were installed to take extra weight, alongside
the nave and into the foundations. These changes spread additional weight around the building,
creating additional strength

IMAGES OF MEDIEVAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE of the TEMPLERS

TEMPLE CHURCH LONDON EXPOSED.

Built in the 12th century by the Knights Templar, Temple Church accelerated to world fame in
2003 when Dan Brown featured it on the Grail trail in his bestselling work of fiction The Da
Vinci Code. This magnificent building reflects the architectural style of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem and my photography captures both the designers esoteric knowledge as
represented in symbols, tiles and decorations and their mastery over shape, ratio, proportion and
symmetry as witnessed in the brave, gravity defying architectural features.

 Consecrated in 1185 - round shape (standard for Templar churches of this period,
probably referred to the shape of the Holy Sepulcher Church in Jerusalem, where the
Templars were founded) . Extensive use of dark "Purbeck marble" in interior.
 Nave is 59 feet in diameter
 New, enlarged chancel consecrated in 1240. Height to Vault 36 feet 3 inches (Aisles are
the same height as the central space.)
 Extensively restored in the 19th Century.
 Greatly damaged during the Second World War, and rebuilt afterwards
 Famous for its marble tomb effigies, most of which were seriously damaged during the
Second World War and are now restored. (effigies in Nave, 6 of them made of Purbeck
Marble)

85
Floorplan

Adapted from Godfrey p.

Exterior

86
 Courtesy of Kristen Chiacchia/ Courtesy of Kristen Chiacchia/ Spring, 2000 Courtesy of Kristen Chiacchia/
Spring, 2000 Spring, 2000
Chancel from South
Nave from South East end of chancel

Interior
Nave
Note that some of the Purbeck Marble had faded in the earlier view.
The darker color in the newer view is characteristic of new Purbeck Marble

Adapted From Bond,Early Christian Architecture Courtesy of Kristen Chiacchia/ Spring, 2000

Nave in 1913 (from South-West) Nave in 2000 (West side)

Note tomb effigies on Floor

Chancel

87
 <
Adapted From Bond,Early Christian Architecture

Chancel in 1913 (to West)

Tombs

Adapted from Prior & Gardiner

Medieval Figure Sculpture in England, p 558

Purbeck Marble effigy of a Knight, ca 1230

(Photo from 1912- before effigies were damaged in WWII)

88
 Adapted from Prior & Gardiner
Medieval Figure Sculpture in England, p 558

Purbeck Marble effigy of a Knight, ca 1245

Note Crossed Legs
(Photo from 1912- before effigies were damaged in WWII)

Aesthetic of Gothic Architecture-

Classic Elements
While the Gothic style can vary according to location, age, and type of building, it is often
characterized by 5 key architectural elements: large stained glass windows, pointed arches,
ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, and ornate decoration.

LARGE STAINED GLASS WINDOWS

While stained glass windows are found in many places of worship, they are particularly
prevalent in Gothic cathedrals. Featuring meticulously cut colored glass, these kaleidoscopic
windows—which are typically either tall and arched ‘lancet' windows or round ‘rose' windows
—are larger than those found in other types of churches. This allowed them to let in more
dazzling light.

Interior of Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (Photo: Jean-Christophe BENOIST (Own work) [CC BY

3.0], via Wikimedia Commons)
Gothic stained glass windows also frequently feature tracery, a decorative type of stone support,
and detailed scenes from Biblical stories.

89
POINTED ARCHES

A primary feature of many religious structures, ample archways can be found in most Gothic
churches and cathedrals. Rather than the wide, rounded arches characteristic of Romanesque
buildings, however, architects working in the Gothic style adapted the tall, thin pointed arches
found in Islamic architecture.

90
This silhouette accentuated each cathedral's height, symbolically pointed toward the sky, and
accommodated similarly-shaped vaulting.

RIBBED VAULTS

In order to incorporate higher ceilings and taller windows into their designs, Gothic architects
utilized a new method of structural support called ribbed vaulting. Ribbed vaulting involves the
use of intersecting barrel vaults—arches placed parallel to one another in order to support a
rounded roof.

91
In addition to showcasing a more decorative aesthetic than traditional barrel vaults, these criss-
crossed constructions offer increased support for the sky-high buildings.

FLYING BUTTRESSES

On top of these advanced vaulting techniques, Gothic architects employed another unique
method of structural support: flying buttresses. These projecting stone structures reinforced the
buildings by redistributing the weight of the heavy roof to a lower, more solid level.

92
Flying buttresses ensured the cathedrals' integrity so that architects did not need to sacrifice the
thin walls and large windows distinctive of the Gothic style.

ORNATE DECORATION

A final feature found in Gothic architecture is the presence of ornate decorative elements. These
include embellished colonnades and colonettes, sculptural moldings, statues of saints and
historical figures, pinnacles and spires, and gargoyles, grotesque figures that double as water
spouts.

93
 KELLY RICHMAN-ABDOU
HTTPS://MYMODERNMET.COM/GOTHIC-ARCHITECTURE-
CHARACTERISTICS/2/#:~:TEXT=WHILE%20THE%20GOTHIC
%20STYLE%20CAN,FLYING%20BUTTRESSES%2C%20AND
%20ORNATE%20DECORATION.

The Gothic period spanned a long period of history and its intricate buildings are still captivating
today

The Gothic style of architecture and art originated in the Middle Ages and was prevalent in
Europe between the mid-12th century and the 16th century. It was heavily ornate and
conceptual, with its architecture characterised by high buildings, intricate aesthetics, cavernous
spaces and expansive walls. It is rooted in French architecture, but can be found all over Europe
and even in other continents. The style was originally referred to as “French Work” (Opus
Francigenum), and was used extensively by religious bodies, especially the Roman Catholic
Church. The greatest number of surviving Gothic architectural buildings are churches. From
smaller chapels to the largest Cathedrals.

The Gothic style was an evolution from Romanesque, which was marked by its many arches,
vaulted ceilings and smaller stained glass windows. The Gothic style took these features and
exaggerated them, increasing the scale of arches and the magnitude of the windows. The walls of

94
the buildings, however, became thinner and were supported by flying buttresses to assist the
architects in achieving structures that appeared to be closer to the heavens.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, advances in engineering enabled architects to design and
complete increasingly huge buildings. Features such as the flying buttress, rib vaulted pointed
arch – known as the Gothic arch – were used to support very tall buildings and allow in as much
natural light as possible. Stained glass windows allowed coloured light into vast interiors.

The Basilica Church of Saint-Denis is regarded as the first truly Gothic building, and marks the
styles evolution out of Romanesque. He created a pointed arch, ribbed vault and flying
buttresses that supported the large clerestory windows.
These immense Gothic cathedrals were for a long time been the landmark of its town or city, and
– in the years before modern tall buildings – was almost always the highest spire in the city. The
Gothic churches and cathedrals generally had tall towers. The Basilica of Saint-Denis had two
towers of equal height on its west front, a plan that was copied in the plan for Notre-Dame de
Paris. In Italy, the towers of the churches were often separate to the main building. External
facades were heavily ornamented with sculptures and decorations that depicted scenes from the
bible.

Rosslyn Chapel is an example of Gothic Architecture

The Gothic period spanned a long period of history and its intricate buildings are still captivating
today

The Gothic style of architecture and art originated in the Middle Ages and was prevalent in

95
Europe between the mid-12th century and the 16th century. It was heavily ornate and
conceptual, with its architecture characterised by high buildings, intricate aesthetics, cavernous
spaces and expansive walls. It is rooted in French architecture, but can be found all over Europe
and even in other continents. The style was originally referred to as “French Work” (Opus
Francigenum), and was used extensively by religious bodies, especially the Roman Catholic
Church.
The Gothic style was an evolution from Romanesque, which was marked by its many arches,
vaulted ceilings and smaller stained glass windows. The Gothic style took these features and
exaggerated them, increasing the scale of arches and the magnitude of the windows. The walls of
the buildings, however, became thinner and were supported by flying buttresses to assist the
architects in achieving structures that appeared to be closer to the heavens.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, advances in engineering enabled architects to design and
complete increasingly huge buildings. Features such as the flying buttress, rib vaulted pointed
arch – known as the Gothic arch – were used to support very tall buildings and allow in as much
natural light as possible. Stained glass windows allowed coloured light into vast interiors.
The Basilica Church of Saint-Denis is regarded as the first truly Gothic building, and marks the
styles evolution out of Romanesque. He created a pointed arch, ribbed vault and flying
buttresses that supported the large clerestory windows.

These immense Gothic cathedrals were for a long time been the landmark of its town or city, and
– in the years before modern tall buildings – was almost always the highest spire in the city. The
Gothic churches and cathedrals generally had tall towers. The Basilica of Saint-Denis had two
towers of equal height on its west front, a plan that was copied in the plan for Notre-Dame de
Paris. In Italy, the towers of the churches were often separate to the main building. External
facades were heavily ornamented with sculptures and decorations that depicted scenes from the
bible.

96
The name “Gothic” Architecture came from a derogatory commentary on the style written by
Giorgio Vasari in 1550, as the style began to decline. He described the architectural features that
came to define Gothic Architecture as “barbarous German style” and blamed “the Goths” for
destroying ancient buildings and replacing them with ones in this style.

As a style that spanned such a long time in history, Gothic architecture does of course have a
number of different manifestations. It does have some clear characteristics. These are large
stained glass windows, ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, ornate embellishments and pointed
arches.

Stained glass windows have always been used in places of worship, but are particularly common
in the Gothic cathedrals, where they are larger than in most other churches and let in huge
amounts of tinted light. These windows were often used to tell stories from the bible in their
decorative scenes. Natural light entering through high windows was an important characteristic
in the style. This was closely tied to the belief that light was important in holy settings and was
linked to divinity.

Basilique Saint Denis France. Photo by Ninara via Flickr

Where the Romanesque style buildings featured wide, round arches, the Gothic churches moved
towards an adaptation of Islamic arches: tall and thin arches with pointed peaks. These narrower
looking, pointed arches emphasised the height of the buildings.
Ribbed vaults were used as a structural support to enable the height of the buildings with their
taller windows. These ribbed arches intersected with barrel vaults that were placed at parallel
intervals to support the rounded roof and the height of the buildings.
Flying buttress also support the height of the buildings. These strong structures supported and

97
distributed the weight o the heavy roofs by proving a more solid base. The buttresses allowed the
architects to keep the thin walls and large windows that defined the Gothic style.
There are many noteworthy buildings that were built in the Gothic style, including Westminster
Abbey, Notre-Dame in Paris, Milan Cathedral, and St Stephen’s Cathedral.
Late Gothic style hit a peak with German churches featuring vaulted halls. Whereas in much of
Europe Gothic buildings were fabricated with stone, Italian Gothic used brick and marble
instead. Gothic architecture began to decline as Renaissance architecture began to rise in
popularity in Italy, France and around Europe.

The building of gothic cathedrals developed in step with the development of the design process.
Through the medieval apprenticeship system, accumulated knowledge was passed down. Over a
period of about a century and a half, designs increased in complexity and sophistication as the
new techniques developed into a coherent ‘gothic’ style.

Added to this accumulating knowledge taken from experience, came the use of small-scale
models, constructed similarly to the proposed full-scale building, and used to test the overall
stability of a design. Detailed testing was made ‘on the job’, by building the cathedral one bay at
a time, while using proven elements from previous designs.

98
So it was that cathedral construction evolved, with ribbed vaults and pointed arches appearing at
the start of the eleventh century. This first major innovation in gothic cathedrals - the pointed
arch - replaced the rounded Roman arch and enabled the building of more complex and higher
buildings. This evolved to include the ribbed, arched vaults of large buildings, which were able
to span much large spaces than could the Roman arch.

church and cathedral construction

Cross-section of Laon cathedral nave, showing the unusual four-tier

construction
[Shaded part corresponds to buttressing illustration below -
click on shading to jump]

By trial and error came the flying buttress to counteract outward pressures, so allowing ever
taller and more complex structures. Flying buttresses were first recognised as being used
in Notre Dame in Paris shortly before 1180.Later, throughout the twelfth century, came the
technology that gradually removed the requirement for walls to carry loads. The gothic builders
discovered that it was no longer necessary to build curtain walls between the load-bearing
skeleton of the church, because the skeleton carried all the weight. This allowed the builders to

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become much more adventurous, and to fill the spaces between the load-bearing pillars and ribs
with glass.The leading person to consolidate all these building techniques was Abbé Suger
(Abbot of St. Denis, 1081-1151).

building a cathedral

When building a cathedral, the usual tendency was to get something up and running as quickly
as possible. Thus, you might build the chancel first, and then extend outwards as time and
money became available.

In some sense, a cathedral is like a building made of playing cards, each section leaning on
others in some sort of equilibrium. This also will determine the stages of the construction. It will
be expensive to shore up one part while another is being built, only to have to remove it later.
Much of the building process of the gothic cathedrals was innovative and experimental. Bits did
tend to fall down from time to time.

While one process was to build from the chancel outwards, I do believe some started with
building the nave, a series of simple square boxes. But this means starting high up, instead of
having the slopes of a chancel to lean against. However, the simpler method of starting from the
west could easily be cheaper. If you look carefully at the west (main) entrance, you will see that
between each door there is also the base of a massive buttress, disguised by the statuary around
the doorways. These buttresses again block the house of cards, in this case preventing the
cathedral facade from moving outwards under the pressure of the vaults.

On this postcard of Amiens cathedral, the west facade buttresses have been highlighted in blue.
The buttresses are disguised by statues and other carving, and the artistic horizontal storey
divisions.

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 Amiens cathedral - west facade, showing buttresses

For reasons that are not exactly clear, the bays are numbered from the west facade. Thus the bay
nearest to the chancel is often called ‘the last bay’. Maybe this is an indication that construction
started from the west end of the cathedral.

how gothic cathedrals stay up

Gothic cathedrals have large curtain walls filled in with stained glass, walls that do not support
the weight of the vaulting and roofs. The cathedrals are often very tall and have to resist
considerable side pressures from wind. In general, the further north, and the taller the cathedral,
the greater the wind pressures. When you reach Britain, the cathedrals are generally lower and
with lower-pitched roofs [1], in part because of the higher wind speeds.

[based on 19th century drawing of Amiens cathedral]

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102
103
 The main weight of the cathedral
structure is carried downwards by the
tall pillars that march along the nave and
the side aisles. The pointed arch vaulting
directs more of the force downwards
than does the Roman arch, but there
remain lateral (sideways) forces to be
managed. Down the marching pillars
and bays there are counter-forces from
bay to bay, but pressures remain towards
the outside, for which solutions had to
be found.

There gradually developed an external

system of buttressing, which applied
counter-acting force sideways towards
the cathedral wall. This resists the
tendency of the walls to bulge out from
the lateral pressures.

There are no lateral forces exerted by

the roof in situ, for the roof is framed in
wood and cross-pinned to hold it
together; but, of course, the wind forces
do transmit force laterally. The upper
flying buttress redirects the wind forces
from the roof and the clerestory wall,
guiding them downwards into the pier
buttress.

The lower flying buttress performs the

same duty, but for the outward lateral
forces being exerted by the nave
vaulting.

The pier buttress, as you can see from

the diagram, blocks the equivalent force from the vaulting of the side aisle. The pier buttress also
supports the flying buttresses, bracing them so the cathedral wall does not move outwards. The
pier buttress also transforms the still sideways forces into downward ones.

The pinnacle adds further weight to the pier buttress, helping to anchor it against sideways
pressure. Piers are optional and positioned according to the stresses found by the builders.
Remember that these arrangements were worked out as the builders noticed problems,
modifying the structure if they noticed.

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Let the light flood in

gothic vaulting

Roman arches are fine for spherical domes and

barrel roofs, but not for more complex shapes.

In the diagram to the left, note that the arches

for an oblong bay must span three different
distances. This can be handled effectively by
the use of pointed arches, by varying the
steepness of the arcs, thus terminating all three
arch lengths at the same height above the nave.
This is shown by the colour coding in the
diagram.

The gaps between the arches can then be filled by simple curves.

In some cathedrals, a sexpartite design is substituted in order to further spread the vault load.
For example, an extra arch would run between the two mauve arches, joining with the tip of the
yellow arches. Each end of this extra arch will then be supported on two more intermediate
pillars, normally of a narrower section, which will thus transmit some the of the weight
downwards. Bourges is an example of sexpartite vaulting, the following illustration has been
shaded to show one sexpartite section of the vaulting:

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Bourges sexpartite roof vaulting. Credit: AEngineer

Further notes on the vaults and the stone

out of which they are made.

Left: Labelling the parts of the nave

This illustration should be studied in
concert with the cross-section of Amiens
cathedral, above.

Note how the clerestory stained-glass

windows fit between the ribs and up into
the associated vaulting. The vaulting is
supported by the ribs [see diagram
above]. The ribs descend onto the pillars,
which reach down to the ground.

Outside the cathedral, the flying

buttresses press against the cathedral
wall in line with the pillars on the inside,
leaving the window walls unobstructed.

Abbé Suger, who was the effective

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inventor of this style at the royal church of Saint Denis, had a poetic and imaginative approach
to this new light which he had invited into the church. He intended that the beauty that he
brought into the church would raise the worshipper from the material to the non-material,
bringing him closer to god.

Above the doorway of Saint Denis, Abbé Suger [1081 - 1151] had inscribed

“Whoever thou art, if thou seekest to extol the glory of these doors,
Marvel not at the gold and the expense, but at the craftsmanship of the work,
Bright is the noble work; but being nobly bright, the work
Should brighten the minds, so that they may travel, through the true lights,
To the True Light where Christ is the true door ...
The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material.”

The symbolism of Saint Denis and other cathedrals was often abstruse and esoteric. Thereby,
Suger, in the manner of great teachers, sent complex messages to the extremely highly educated
classes, while attempting to communicate with all people, by what he termed “analogical
vision”, through the jewelled beauty and artistry of his visionary construction. For some further
details on the construction of levels or storeys

so now for a bit on stone

Well, I suppose we all know what stone is, it’s that stuff that’s all over the place on this
fascinating planet. Well, that’s mostly what I know about it anyway; but I hear tell that there are
people who spend their whole lives studying stuff like stones, so I imagine there must be a lot
more to it than that. (Maybe eventually, I will find an enthusiastic expert who can write some
plain English on the subject for me.)

Just one or two notes relevant to cathedrals. The stone needs to be hard enough to stand up, and
to last a thousand or two years, and easy enough for a medieval craftsman to work with rather
primitive tools.

Stone is very strong in compression, and only about a tenth of that strength in bending and
sheering (tension, stretching), while the medieval mortar is about a tenth of that
sheering/bending strength.

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Notice the greyed stones in the arches of diagrams A and B. On the arches, you will see a small
triangular diagram. If nothing were holding the shaded stone place, it would fall to the earth; but
locked in place, weight (force) is coming down on the stone (the stone, of course, also has some
weight). That force is directed mainly along the stone.

As you will see, the stone in the pointed arch [A] is at a more vertical angle than the stone in the
Roman (rounded) arch [B]. This means that a greater proportion of the load on the stone is
transmitted downward and less outward than is the case with the rounded arch. The differing
forces are represented by the differing lengths of the sides of the triangle, and these can be
calculated. Be aware that in general the wider the span, the greater the forces.

Those nice vaults under which you are standing can be estimated to weigh towards 300,000
kilograms for the quadripartite vault, and towards 400,000 kilograms for the sexpartite [2] - a
nice headache for you if the medieval craftsmen were slacking on the job. Note that the
sexpartite tends to cover the equivalent of two quadripartite vaults, thus making the overall
weight of sexpartite vaults less and thereby reducing the stresses throughout the structure.
(Bourges can be thought of as a very special, high-tech cathedral.)

Moving to diagram C above, you will note that, at the overhang there are forces inclining the

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stone to bend downwards. Tensile forces are generated at x and compressive forces are
generated at y, and thus the pressure is to pull the stone apart at x and tear it apart. In the arch
stones, similar forces are being applied. Note that, were the stone at C to be made of butter, it
may tend to sheer rather than bend.

other major materials used in building cathedrals

wood

Until very recently, the roofs of the great cathedrals were framed in massive and complex
structures of wood, often known as ‘the forest’.

the forest supporting Soissons cathedral roof

credit: Ministère de la Culture (France)

Due to its vulnerability to fire, the‘forest’ has been a great bane for gothic cathedrals from the
earliest times. This regularly caused great damage to the cathedral at large, by damaging the
stone work, as well as setting fire to the cathedral structure and furnishings.

Now, restoration is turning to reinforced concrete for roof framing as, for instance, at Noyon.
Iron and steel has also been used on occasion in the past (see Chartres - roof space: le charpente
de fer).

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iron

In the days when these cathedrals were built, iron was a very expensive material, probably
imported from Spain. A cathedral has some relationship to a playing card construction, with
various parts of the structure leaning against other parts.

Sainte-Chapelle, near the Notre Dame cathedral in Paris, a fairly small structure, was built over a
period of only five to ten years. It was put up by Louis IX, in a rush, to house the supposed relic,
the Crown of Thorns,and so Louis IX could race off on the seventh crusade. Amazingly, Louis
had paid more than three times as much for the Crown of Thorns than it cost to build Sainte-
Chapelle. Note, a reliquary is the decorated box that holds a sacred relic. The design of
reliquaries has been influenced by church design, and visa versa. The shrine of Edward the
Confessor in Westminster Abbey is sometimes also regarded as having a visual reference to
Sainte-Chapelle.

Sainte- Shrine of Edward

A reliquary, used
Chapelle, the Confessor,
to house a sacred
1857 Westminster
relic; from Laon
Abbey. Image
cathedral
credit

Interestingly, the chapel incorporated a form of iron reinforcement, with two ‘chains’ of hooked
bars encircling the upper chapel, the main part of the structure. Further, there were iron
stabilisers across the nave (with a vertical tension bar).

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Drawing by Lassus of reinforcing bars

Also, an impressive eight-pointed iron star helped hold the apse together. Its iron bars radiated
from a central collar. (The drawings above and below were made by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine
Lassus during the restoration of Sainte-Chapelle.)

Drawing of eight-ponted iron star by Lassus

For further illustrations, see chaînage, or stabilising rods.

See also using metal in gothic cathedral construction.

Because of the rather dodgy stability of the gothic buildings, later additions of iron stabilisation
can be seen in many cathedrals, for example in Westminster Abbey.

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Iron stabilising bars in Westminster Abbey [indicated with blue arrows]

Similarly, wooden shoring is not uncommon during the recent century, while in Sainte Chapelle,
this innovatory reinforcement is hidden from sight, incorporated into the building.

Sainte Chapelle suffered much during the centuries, from repeated fires [1630 and 1736] and
even flooding of the Seine [1690]. And then, of course, came the French Revolution, Sainte
Chapelle was used as a flour store, a club room and a judicial archive. Sainte Chapelle was not
handed back to its intended use for about forty years. After the depredations of the Revolution,
excellent restoration and refurbishment was supervised by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus [1807-
1857], and continued by Eugène Emmanuel Viollet Le-Duc [1814 – 1879].

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Flying buttresses [at Laon cathedral, corresponds to shaded area in first diagram]

Note the buttresses marching down the side of the cathedral. Between each pair of
buttresses in this innovatory construction technique, there is no serious weight coming
down from the roof and the vaults. These in-between walls now have to carry relatively
very little weight and, therefore, can be opened up to accommodate the glory of
large stained-glass windows, thus letting in the light. Note the arch construction of the
flying buttresses, naming parts of a gothic cathedral - interior

[1st chapel: Chapels in the Ambulatory are traditionally numbered from the South,
while main bays are numbered from the West.]

Christianist cathedrals and churches are usually built to have a floor-plan shaped like a cross.
The head of the cross is generally oriented towards the East, towards Jerusalem. Thus the
transept, running north and south, is the cross-bar of this cross. The foot of the cross, at the west
end, accommodates the spectacular portals of the main entrance . (Some cathedrals have five
aisles - for example, Bourges.)

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The five-arch portal at the west facade of Bourges cathedral

gothic cathedral building start dates, including precursor buildings. Gothic cathedrals
were built over extended periods, often centuries. Frequently, the work was started then
stopped for years or even decades, according to the availability of will and resources.
Therefore, the dates below must be read with caution.

The French cathedrals were, in general, serving towns and were a matter of civic pride; there
was even the equivalent of a race to build bigger and taller [see Beauvais], just as with modern
skyscrapers. In Britain, however, most of the important cathedrals were primarily associated
with monastic community buildings, hence the usual cloisters. For the most ‘French’ cathedral in
Britain, visit Westminster Abbey - and don’t forget to look up at the vaulting, it is more
decorative and elaborate than any I know in France.

Being more precise, and quoting from Mark, “The Bourges sexpartite vault is estimated to
weigh 370,000 kg (820,000 lb), that is approximately 400 imperial tons. Whereas, Mark
estimates that the Cologne quadrapartites to weigh 270,000 kg (600,000 lb), that is going on
300 imperial tons. [Abstracted from Mark, primarily from p.115.]
[An imperial (long) ton is 2, 240 lb or 1016.05 kg.
A short or American ton is 2,000 lb or 907.18 kg.
Increasingly used is the metric tonne of 1000 kg, or 2, 204.6 lb.]

Comparing one Bourges sexpartite with two quadrapartites, a Bourges sexpartite covers an area
of about 92.2% of two Cologne quadrapartites. Thus, 400 tons at Bourges matches to about (300
tons x 2 x 92.2%), that is 553 tons. You can see from the figures that the sexpartite formation is
more efficient in supporting and spreading the load than the quadrapartite configuration

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The vaults also have rubble, or fill, to increase pressure and to help stabilise them. This included
in the weights quoted. Mark estimates that the horizontal outward thrust on the main piers as
28,100 kg (62,000 lb) at Bourges, and 31,300 kg (69,000 lb) at Cologne. The secondary, lighter
pier at Bourges, Mark estimates at 11,300 kg (25,000 lb).

glossary

 clerestory. Also clerstory, clarestory, clerestorey, clarester, cleer story, clear story,
clearstory.
[Commonly believed to be from the French, clere, clear + story, stage of a building or
‘floor’ of a house. Clere must here have meant ‘light, lighted,’ since the sense ‘free,
unobstructed’ did not yet exist. This assumed derivation is strengthened by the
parallel blind-story, although this may have been a later formulation in imitation
of clere-story. The great difficulty is the non-appearance of story in the sense required
before c. 1600, and the absence of all trace of it in any sense in 14th, 15th, and chief part
of 16th c. At the same time there is a solitary instance of storys in the civic Rolls of
Gloucester [R. Glouc.] (1724), which may mean ‘elevated structure’ or ‘fortified place’.
The noun estorie in Old French [OF]. had no such sense, but the past
participle estoré meant ‘built, constructed, founded, established, instituted, fortified,
furnished, fitted out’, whence a noun with the sense ‘erection, fortification’ might
perhaps arise.]
 The upper part of the nave, choir, and transepts of a cathedral or other large church, lying
above the triforium (or, if there is no triforium, immediately over the arches of the nave,
etc.), and containing a series of windows, clear of the roofs of the aisles, admitting light
to the central parts of the building.
 Clearstory is now more common in the USA, whereas European usage
prefers clerestory. It is interesting to note that large numbers of the more useful
monographs on the architecture of medieval France originate in the USA, while many of
the more philosophical studies originate in the United Kingdom.

 The word triforum has no reliable etymology, but has come to mean the arcaded gallery
below the clerestory windows and above the nave aisles and side bays. More effectively,
I would use triforium as describing a minor gallery somewhere above the nave aisle
level. This word was first used by Gervase of Canterbury, c. 1185, to refer to a gallery at
Canterbury Cathedral, and was used only in the context of Canterbury Cathedral until
about 1800

 Tympanum (in French, tympan) : the half-moon shaped space above the exterior doors
of a cathedral, shaded by the archivaults above. The tympanum often illustrates events in
the life of Christians, or events in the Bible or in the life of a saint.

 Transept: Going across the main body of the cathedral, with north and south arms,
sometimes with side doors.
Narthex: A vestibule, found in some earlier churches.
Side aisles: these can sometimes be double.

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 Nave: the space between four pillars is called a bay or a transverse section. The vaulting
went diagonally across between the piers of each bay. [Nave is the French word for ship
or vessel]

 Chancel: is the part of the church to eat of the transept. The word choir is sometimes
used sloppily for this area, but more sensibly just applied to the area where the choir
sings. The chancel includes the high altar at its eastern end.

 Apse: semi-circular or polygonal ending to the chancel.

Ambulatory: walking area around the chancel.

 Chevet: a name used in France for the eastern end of the church in general, including the
chancel, apsidal chapels and ambulatory.

 Rood screen (choir screen, chancel screen, or jube) : an ornate stone or wood partiton
dividing the nave from the choir.

Abacus

A flat slab forming the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column.
An abacus is sometimes called an impost or impost-block, but it is really an impost-block
from which arches spring.
Another name for springer.

Ambulatory

Walking area around the chancel.

Apse [Fr. abside]

Semi-circular or polygonal ending to the chancel. The apse can be further extended by
apsidal chapels.

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 plan of a Gothic cathedral - interior

Absidiole - French for a minor apse or 'apselet'.

The plan of Saint-Sever abbey church (on left) has a central apse and six absidoles that
form a complex, parallel and stepped system making up the chevet of Saint-Sever-sur-
Adour Abbey church

Arches and vaults

pointed and Roman arches; barrel and groin vaults; diaphragm, horseshoe and stilted
arches
An arch supports the stonework of a building above an opening such as a window
or a door.
• Roman and Romanesque arches are rounded, formed in a continuous curve,
usually a semicircle.
• Gothic arches are pointed, enabling them to support loads over varying spans.

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While arches are essentially two-dimensional supports for the superstructures above them, a
vault can be regarded as a three-dimensional expression of such support.

• A barrel vault is also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault.

• A groin vault can be the intersection of two barrel vaults, see the pink areas in the diagrams
below. This form naturally evolves into domes and pointed arches.
The word "groin" refers to the 'crease' between intersecting barrel vaults.
Roman architects determined that two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles formed a groin
vault. However, the groin vault requires very precise shaping of the stone. This skill declined in
the West as the Roman Empire ended.
Groin vaults can also be found supported by four columns in extensive spaces such as crypts.

In order to see how groin vaults relate to (probably earlier) barrel vaults, the illustrations just
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above have the same highlighting colours : pink for the vault (or its equivalent location)
and green for one of the columns (or its equivalent location).

• A horseshoe arch is similar to the arch of a barrel vault, but having the two springer stones are
placed slightly closer together than the widest part of the arch being supported.
Victorians, including church anoraks, loved to try and classify anything they could get their
hands on. Here is an illustrated example of what they tried with arches.

• A stilted arch is one where the curve of the arch begins above the impost line, standing on
the springer. The arch is on stone stilts!
When rounded Roman arches were used, they could well span different widths. However, being
a semicircle, a wider Roman arch would be higher as well as wider. Thus stilts were used to
maintain a uniform height, raising the smaller width and height arches to the same level as the
larger ones.

Sometimes, barrel vaults and their associated groin vaults have been constructed in conjunction
with pointed Roman arches.

• A particular arch is the diaphragm arch. Also known as flying screens, because the space
between the arch and the surrounding walls and ceiling provide a solid screen with minimal
support - it flies. The diaphragm arch has fire break properties, inhibiting sparks and flames that
rise with heat from flowing between different areas of the building.

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https://www.abelard.org/france/cathedral_glossary.php

‘Treasure Tunnels’ Under Israeli City

Archeologists have uncovered a new network of hidden tunnels buried beneath the city of Acre
in Israel, believed to have been built by the Knights Templar as a passageway to their treasure
tower.

Thanks to years of excavations, archeologists have unearthed historical relics left by the Knights Templar
order, disbanded by Pope Clement V in 1312 following conflicts between France’s King Philip IV and the
crusading monks.

Undoubtedly one of the most important Catholic military orders in history, the Templar’s rise to
power and their eventual downfall has been the subject of many studies, legends, and conspiracy
theories. Now, we actually have more of the truth reveiled. As part of a documentary series by
National Geographic called Lost Cities, archaeologist Albert Lin and his team utilized light
detection and ranging technology known as LiDAR, an innovative tool that allows researchers to
detect hidden artifacts underneath the Earth’s surface through aerial scanning to produce accurate
3D maps.

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Lin’s team decided to scan an area in the port of Acre in today’s Israel, where the Knights
Templar’s fortress headquarters stood and functioned some 800 years ago. The LiDAR survey
revealed a sprawling network of tunnels, and what appears to be a guardhouse, buried underneath
the modern city of Acre. Researchers believe these tunnels connected the Knights Templar’s
fortress with the city’s port, allowing the Templars to carry treasure safely to their treasure
tower.“These warrior monks are the stuff of legend, and so is their gold,” Lin said in the
documentary. “During the Crusades, the Knights Templar battle for God, gold, and glory.
Somewhere in the modern city of Acre lies their command center, and possibly their treasure.”
The Knights Templar once controlled the city of Acre for about 100 years after losing their
headquarters in Jerusalem to the Muslim ruler Saladin in 1187. The Templars were trained as
skilled fighters with the objective of protecting and advancing Christianity through warfare.
They also successfully raised a tremendous amount of funds to fuel the Crusades.

Their recent discovery got researchers suspect that the Templars’ gold could still be buried
somewhere in these underground tunnels. So far, however, they have not found any evidence of
gold belonging to the Knights Templar in the city of Acre. Plans to excavate the newly
discovered tunnels have yet to be made.

Nevertheless, LiDAR technology has once again been proven to significantly improve methods
of scouting hidden artifacts without the need for archaeologists to conduct excavations – and
with LiDAR-driven discoveries occurring around the world, more and more hidden treasures
buried underneath the Earth’s surface are to be revealed. Could we one day find the Holy Grail?

Convento de Cristo/Mosteiro de Cristo

The Vatican of the TEMPLERS

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The Convent of Christ (Portuguese: Convento de Cristo/Mosteiro de Cristo) is a former Roman
Catholic convent in Tomar, Portugal. Originally a 12th-century Templar stronghold, when the
order was dissolved in the 14th century the Portuguese branch was turned into the Knights of the
Order of Christ, that later supported Portugal's maritime discoveries of the 15th century. The
convent and castle complex is a historic and cultural monument and was listed as
a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

The convent was founded by the Order of Poor Knights of the Temple (or Templar Knights) in
1118. Its construction continued until the final part of the 12th century with the construction of
the oratory, in one of the angles of the castle, completed by the Grand Master D. Gualdim
Pais (sometime around 1160). Around 1190 it was encircled and resisted the armies of
caliph Abu Yusuf al-Mansur who was successful in taking strongholds in the south. (A plaque
was erected near the entrance to the castle to commemorate this event).
During the second quarter of the 13th century, Tomar was transferred into the control of the
Templars, becoming its seat. The castle became an integral part of the defence system created by
the Templars to secure the border of the young Christian Kingdom against the Moors, which at
the time occupied the area to approximately the Tagus River. But, following the dissolution of
the Templar Order, on 14 March 1319, and following the request of King Denis of
Portugal, Pope John XXII instituted the Order of Christ. The seat of the former Knights Templar
was converted in 1357 into the seat of this new order.
The famous round church (rotunda) of the castle of Tomar was also built in the second half of
the 12th century. The church, like some other templar churches throughout Europe, was
modelled after the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was believed by the crusaders to be a
remnant of the Temple of Solomon. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem may also
have served as model.

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Order of Christ
Following the dissolution of the Templar Order, on 14 March 1319 (following the request of
King Denis of Portugal), Pope John XXII instituted the Order of Christ. The Templar order had
been suppressed during most of Europe from 1312 to 1314, but in Portugal its members, assets,
and partly its membership were transferred to the Order of Christ.[1] The seat of the former
Knights Templar was converted in 1357 into the seat of this new order. As a result, at about the
first half of the 15th century, work was completed to adapt the Templar oratory, introducing an
open choir to the western niche, about half-way up the wall. What remains of this adaptation was
the colonnade frame with interior arch. At the same time the main palace was constructed.
During the internship of Prince Henry the Navigator as its leader (1417–1450), the Order of
Christ initiated the construction of two cloisters under the direction of master Fernão Gonçalves:
the Claustro do Cemitério (Cemetery Cloister) and Claustro das Lavagens (Washing Cloister).
Prior to these large works, Henry began work on constructing the Chapel of São Jorge sometime
in 1426 and was responsible for urban improvements in the town of Tomar.
In 1484, King D. Manuel (who became Master of the Order in 1484 and King of Portugal in
1495) ordered the construction of a sacristy (today the Hall of Passage), that connected the choir
to the Chapel of São Jorge, linking the choir with the wall of the stronghouse. [1] By the end of the
century, the convent's General Chapter, decided to expand the convent (sometime around 1492),
with 3,500 reis being spent on the public works in 1499: the chapterhouse, main altar, ironworks
for the niche/archway, paintings and sculptures (for the same) and the choir were all expanded or
remodeled.
A new meeting of the Chapter to reform the Order, ordered by the King 1503, expropriated the
old Vila de Dentro, within the walls and closed the Sun Gate and Almedina Gate.[1] On 11
October 1504, Francisco Lopes was nominated as masterbuilder for the project, by King John III,
receiving 8$000 reis annually and 120 reis for meals. By 1506, D. Manuel decided to order the
construction of the church's nave.
The successor of Manuel I, King John III, demilitarised the order, turning it into a more religious
order with a rule based on that of Bernard of Clairvaux. He also ordered the construction of a
new cloister in 1557, which is one of the best examples of Renaissance architecture in Portugal.
In 1581, after a succession crisis, the Portuguese Nobility gathered in the Convent of Christ in
Tomar and officially recognised Philip II of Spain (Philip I of Portugal) as King. This is the
beginning of the Iberian Union (1581–1640), during which the Crowns of Portugal and Spain
were united in a dynastic union. The aqueduct of the Convent was built during this period
(aqueduct completed in 1614).

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124
Templer Possessions

125
The castle and Convent of Christ have examples
of Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline and Renaissance architectural
styles.

Floorplan of the church of the Convent of Christ. The Templar round church (late 12th
century) is indicated in red, while the manueline nave (early 16th century) is in blue.

Castle
The castle of Tomar was built around 1160 on a strategic location, over a hill and near river
Nabão. It has an outer defensive wall and a citadel (alcáçova) with a keep inside. The Keep, a
central tower of residential and defensive functions, was introduced in Portugal by the Templars,
and the one in Tomar is one of the oldest in the country. Another novelty introduced in Portugal
by the Templars (learned from decades of experience in Normandy and Brittany and elsewhere)
are the round towers in the outer walls, which are more resistant to attacks than square towers.
When the town was founded, most of its residents lived in dwellings located inside the protective
outer walls of the castle.

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Church
The Romanesque round church is a Roman Catholic Church from the castle (charola, rotunda)
was built in the second half of the 12th century by the Knights Templar. From the outside, the
church is a 16-side polygonal structure, with strong buttresses, round windows and a bell-tower.
Inside, the round church has a central, octagonal structure, connected by arches to a surrounding
gallery (ambulatory). The general shape of the church is modelled after similar round structures
in Jerusalem: the Mosque of Omar and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
The capitals of the columns are still Romanesque (end of the 12th century) and depict vegetal
and animal motifs, as well as a Daniel in the Lions' Den scene. The style of the capitals shows
the influence of artists working on the Cathedral of Coimbra, which was being built at the same
time as the round church.
The interior of the round church is magnificently decorated with late gothic/manueline sculpture
and paintings, added during a renovation sponsored by King Manuel I starting in 1499. The
pillars of the central octagon and the walls of the ambulatory have polychrome statues of saints
and angels under exuberant Gothic canopies, while the walls and ceilings of the ambulatory are
painted with Gothic patterns and panels depicting the life of Christ. The paintings are attributed
to the workshop of the court painter of Manuel I, the Portuguese Jorge Afonso, while the
sculptured decoration is attributed to Flemish sculptor Olivier de Gand and the Spaniard Hernán
Muñoz. A magnificent panel depicting the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, by Portuguese
painter Gregório Lopes, was painted for the Round Church and now hangs in the National
Museum of Ancient Art in Lisbon.

Intricate work on
Church walls

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Main Entrance. RIGHT PIC-The famous chapterhouse window, made by Diogo de Arruda
in 1510–1513.
Manueline nave

During the administration of Prince Henry the Navigator (first half of the 15th century), a gothic
nave was added to the round church of the Convent, thus turning the round church into a

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church apse. From 1510 onwards, King Manuel I ordered the rebuilding of the nave in the style
of the time, a mix of late gothic and renaissance that would be called Manueline style by art
historians. The architects involved were the Portuguese Diogo de Arruda and the Spaniard Juan
de Castillo (João de Castilho).
From the outside, the rectangular nave is covered by abundant Manueline motifs, including
gargoyles, gothic pinnacles, statues and "ropes" that remind the ones used in the ships during
the Age of Discovery, as well as the Cross of the Order of Christ and the emblem of King
Manuel I, the armillary sphere. The so-called Window of the Chapter House (Janela do
Capítulo), a huge window visible from the Saint Barbara Cloister in the Western façade of the
nave, carries most of the typical Manueline motifs: the symbols of the Order of Christ and of
Manuel I, and fantastic and unprecedented elaborations of ropes, corals and vegetal motifs. A
human figure in the bottom of the window probably represents the designer, Diogo de Arruda.
This window of the Convent constitutes one of the masterworks of Manueline decoration. Above
is a smaller circular window and a balustrade. The façade is divided by two string courses of
knotted ropes. The round angle buttresses are decorated with gigantic garters (alluding to
investiture of Manuel I by the Order of the Garter by the English king Henry VII).
The entrance of the church is done through a magnificent lateral portal, also decorated with
abundant Manueline motifs and statues of the Virgin with the Child as well as the Prophets of the
Old Testament. This portal was designed by João de Castilho around 1530.
In the interior, the Manueline nave is connected to the Romanesque round church by a large arch.
The nave is covered by beautiful ribbed vaulting and has a high choir that used to have
Manueline choir stalls, unfortunately destroyed by invading Napoleonic troops in the early 19th
century. Under the high choir there is a room that used to be the sacristy of the church. Its
window is the famous Chapter House Window already mentioned.
Cloisters

Gothic Cloister of the Cemetery (first half of the 15th century).

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The Convent of Christ has a total of eight cloisters, built in the 15th and 16th centuries. Some
examples:

 Claustro da Lavagem (Washing Cloister): Two-storey gothic cloister built around 1433
under Henry the Navigator. The garments of the monks used to be washed in this cloister,
hence the name.
 Claustro do Cemitério (Cloister of the Cemetery): Also built under Henry the Navigator,
this gothic cloister was the burial site for the knights and monks of the Order. The elegant
twin columns of the arches have beautiful capitals with vegetal motifs, and the walls of
the ambulatory are decorated with 16th-century tiles. In a manueline tomb (circa 1523)
rests Diogo da Gama, brother of navigator Vasco da Gama.
 Claustro de Santa Bárbara (Saint Barbara's Cloister): Built in the 16th century. The
Chapter House Window and the West façade of the manueline nave of the church are visible
from this cloister.
 Claustro de D. João III (Cloister of John III): Started under King John III of Portugal, was
finished during the reign of Philip I of Portugal. The first architect was Diogo de Torralva,
who began the work in 1557, to be finished in 1591 by Philip I's architect, the Italian Filippo
Terzi. This magnificent, two-storey cloister connects the dormitory of the monks to the
church, and is considered one of the most important examples of Mannerist architecture in
Portugal. The storeys are connected to each other by four elegant helicoidal stairways,
located at each corner of the cloisters.

Renneissance Cloister

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 SYNOPSIS IN PICTURES

The Templers were formed to protect the pilgrims and travelers not to mention soldiers that
crossed the way to Jerusalem the holy city of Christedom

The second theory was that they were to find the Holy Grain and the Shroud of Jesus

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132
VOCABULARY

133
ARMAMENTS

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135
 THE III rd THEOREY OF TEMPLER’S ORIGIN
• An examination of the interactions of the Christian Knights Templar and their Muslim
counterparts, the Assassins, reveals of the profound changes in Western society that resulted.
•The secret Muslim order of the Assassins, disparaged as the world's first terrorist group was
in fact a highly trained and mobile force much like the Ninjas of japan. They were formed to

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attack the formidable Christian armies and quickly disappear. The templers were formed to
meet the might of these assasins.

A thousand years ago Christian battled Muslim for possession of a strip of land upon which
both their religions were founded. These Crusades changed the course of Western history,
but less known is the fact that they also were the meeting ground for two legendary secret
societies: The Knights Templar and their Muslim counterparts, the Assassins.

This resulted in transforming the Templars from the Pope's private army into a true occult
society, from which they would sow the seeds of the Renaissance and the Western Mystery
Tradition. Both orders were destroyed as heretical some seven hundred years ago, but
Templar survivors are believed to have carried the secret teachings of the East into an occult
underground, from which sprang both Rosicrucianism and Masonry. Assassin survivors,
known as Nizari Ismailis, flourish to this day under the spiritual leadership of the Aga Khan.
Wasserman in the above book strips the myths from both groups and penetrates to the heart
of their enlightened beliefs and rigorous practices, delivering the most probing picture yet of
these holy warriors.

See also author Dr Uday Dokras’s book THE THUGEE-Monsters in the dark which deals
with the assasins and their flight and refuge into India.

Origins of the ancient Assassin Cult

Owing to a dispute over succession, Islam was torn between two sects: Shias and Sunnis. The
Shias were further divided into ‘Ismaili’ Shias and ‘Twelver’ Shias in the 8th century. The
Ismailis were a minority, and they were quickly sidelined. They burst onto the scene again in the
9th century. Their major success came in the form of Fatimid Caliphate. The Ismailis were able to
establish their Caliphate in the Islamic world with Cairo as their capital. However, the Fatimid
Caliphate ran into a succession crisis when Caliph Al-Mustansir died, leading to a succession
dispute. People at large believed that Caliphate would go to Nizar, the eldest and well-prepared
son of Al-Mustansir.

However, Al-Afdal the Grand Vizier who effectively controlled the government organized a coup
and installed the younger son Al-Mustai’li as Caliph, as he could control him. The civil war
between the two groups led to numerous battles, and soon Nizar had to capitulate. Nizar was
captured and executed. However, a small group in the Muslim empire’s eastern part continued to
support the murdered prince’s house later known as Nizari Ismailis. The movement was led
by Hassan-ibn-e-Sabbah, the founder and leader of the secret order of Assassins. The order
which was to be feared by Crusaders and Muslims alike.

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Consolidation and expansion

Hassan-ibn-e-Sabbah was able to establish his headquarters in the remote castle of Alamut.
Alamut was located at the top of a mountain right in the heart of the militaristic Sunni Seljuk
empire. The Seljuks considered the Assassins or “Hashashins” (correct Arabic pronunciation
of Assassins) a heresy movement, and they were keen to extinguish the flame of this newfound
movement. The Hashashins now were no longer a clandestine underground movement. They now
operated from a solid strategic and military base, right in the heart of the Sunni Seljuk empire.
The Seljuks mounted numerous offensives against the Assassins, but they were not successful in
quelling the new threat. Soon the Sultan of the Seljuk empire died, fragmenting the empire among
warring military personals and religious leaders. Ibn-e-Sabbah took advantage of the golden
moment and expanded his influence. Hassan expanded by capturing strongholds in Elborz
mountains. He captured the strategic forts of Girdkuh and Lamasar.

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The word “Fida’i” literelly translates to someone who is willing to sacrifice their life for the cause.

Strategic Challenges
The Assassins did not have proper continuous land under their control. Their citadels were their
small pockets of power which were surrounded by hostile enemy territory. Hassan’s dream of
subduing the Seljuk empire also faded away because, after the death of the Caliph, the Seljuk
empire did not have a central figure. To capture the Seljuk empire, Ibn-e-Sabbah now had to fight
numerous warring princes, military leaders, and religious figures. Even though the enemy was
weakened, the decentralization did not allow him to overthrow the enemy empire. There was no
longer a single strong figure to target.

The beginning of Assassinations — A terrorizing tool of political and regional

influence

Alamut how it looked back in the day. Source: Tr2p

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Hassan’s cult of Assassins was named Hashashins owing to the myth that they used to get high on
hashish or opium and carried out assassinations.
According to Marco Polos’s accounts, Hassan had built lavish gardens in his castles where
beautiful men and women resided. Only those who were to be made assassins were allowed in the
so-called paradise that Hassan had created. The entrants were drugged with hashish or opium, and
they were made to believe that they were in haven. They were then taken out of the haven and
made to carry out assassinations. They longed to get back in the garden of delights. They were
told that only death as a martyr would grant them access back to paradise.
This belief made the Assassins formidable and fearless killers. They were called Fida’i, literally
translating to those willing to sacrifice their lives. They were the ancient manifestation of suicide
bombers. They had no fear, and death only brought them closer to their desired haven. This
formidable force of Fida’i was used to eliminate targets that posed a threat to the Assassins. They
killed Viziers, Emirs, local rulers, and religious figures. The Hashashins expanded to Syria during
the First Crusade, and they intermingled with Christian Crusader states and the Saracen dynasty.
Hassan-ibn-e-Sabbah died in Alamut at the age of 70. He did not leave the castle for 34 years until
his death.
Role of Assassins during the Crusade wars between Muslims and Crusaders
The Assassins made two Assassination attempts on Saladin.
Assassins were most active during the mighty Crusades. Rashid-ud-din-Sinan, the new
leader of the cult, quickly intermingled with Syria’s political affairs and the holy land. He
operated out of his headquarters in Masyaf. Upon realizing the increasing influence of an up and
coming ambitious Muslim leader, he sent his Fidai’i to kill him. However, the new leader
survived two assassination attempts. This leader was later known as Saladin. In response, the
Saracens laid a siege on Masyaf. However, the fort could not be captured, and Sinan and Saladin
reached a compromise. However, this reflects the extent of influence the Assassins had in the
region.

The Assassins are also rumored to have a relationship with Richard the Lionheart, one of the
most prominent leaders of the Crusade. Philip Augustus’s close aide Conrad was elected the King
of Jerusalem. Richard the Lionheart did not want Conrad to be King and Augustus to have
influence. Just a few days before the new Monarch’s coronation ceremony, he was killed by two
Assassins disguised as Christian Monks. These Fida’i were sent by Sinan. However, Richard the
Lionheart was accused of Conrad’s murder, among others because of his enmity towards Conrad.
The Hashashins or Assassins were the modern day equivalent of suicide bombers.

The destruction of Ismaili Nizari state by Mongols

Sinan passed away at the end of the 12th century. The 13th century only brought grim news for
the secret order of Assassins. The Muslim world saw the Mongol invasion in the 13th century.
The Mongols crushed everything in their path. They specifically targeted the Assassins and their
forts. Soon, Hulagu Khan besieged Masyaf. Muhammad the 3rd was the Nizari Ismaili Imam at
that time. He capitulated and surrendered. He was captured and later executed by Mongols. Soon,
all other Assassin strongholds fell to the Mongols, and they were completely obliterated from the
region. Their castles were torn down and their libraries were burnt. The Hashashins were killed
mercilessly.

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The ruins of Alamut castle. Source: tehrantimes

The Holy Grail (Breton: Graal Santel, Welsh: Greal Sanctaidd, Cornish: Gral) is a treasure that
serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Different traditions describe it as a cup, dish
or stone with miraculous powers that provide happiness, eternal youth or sustenance in infinite
abundance, often in the custody of the Fisher King. The term "holy grail" is often used to denote
an elusive object or goal that is sought after for its great significance.
A "grail", wondrous but not explicitly holy, first appears in Perceval, le Conte du Graal, an
unfinished romance written by Chrétien de Troyes around 1190. Chrétien's story attracted many
continuators, translators and interpreters in the later 12th and early 13th centuries,
including Wolfram von Eschenbach, who perceived the Grail as a stone. In the late 12th
century, Robert de Boron wrote in Joseph d'Arimathie that the Grail was Jesus's vessel from
the Last Supper, which Joseph of Arimathea used to catch Christ's blood at the crucifixion.
Thereafter, the Holy Grail became interwoven with the legend of the Holy Chalice, the Last
Supper cup, a theme continued in works such as the Lancelot-Grail cycle and consequently Le
Morte d'Arthur

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 PART II
The Hindu Temple Architecture

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 CHAPTER V
The Hindu Temple - Where Man Becomes God
Ancient Indian thought divides time into four different periods.
These durations are referred to as the Krta; Treta; Dvapara; and
Kali.
The first of these divisions (Krta), is also known as satya-yuga, or the Age of Truth. This was a
golden age without envy, malice or deceit, characterized by righteousness. All people belonged
to one caste, and there was only one god who lived amongst the humans as one of them.
In the next span (Treta-yuga), the righteousness of the previous age decreased by one fourth. The
chief virtue of this age was knowledge. The presence of gods was scarce and they descended to
earth only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. These deities were recognizable by
all.
In the third great division of time, righteousness existed only in half measure of that in the first
division. Disease, misery and the castes came into existence in this age. The gods multiplied.
Men made their own images, worshipped them, and the divinities would come down in disguised
forms. But these disguised deities were recognizable only by that specific worshipper.
Kali-yuga is the present age of mankind in which we live, the first three ages having already
elapsed. It is believed that this age began at midnight between February 17 and 18, 3102 B.C.
Righteousness is now one-tenth of that in the first age. True worship and sacrifice are now lost. It
is a time of anger, lust, passion, pride, and discord. There is an excessive preoccupation with
things material and sexual.

Temples appeared on the horizon only in the Kali-yuga. During this existing last phase,
temples (as public shrines), began to be built and icons installed. But the gods ceased to come
down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their presence could be felt when the
icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly built. In contrast to the previous periods
when the gods were available to all equally, now it is only the priests, belonging to a traditional
hierarchy of professional worshippers, who are the competent individuals to compel this
presence.

safe haven : From the contemporary point of view, temples act as safe haven where ordinary
mortals like us can feel themselves free from the constant vagaries of everyday existence, and
communicate personally with god. But our age is individualistic if nothing else. Each of us
requires our own conception of the deity based on our individual cultural rooting. In this context
it is interesting to observe that the word ‘temple,’ and ‘contemplate’ both share the same origin
from the Roman word ‘templum,’ which means a sacred enclosure. Indeed, strictly speaking,
where there is no contemplation, there is no temple. It is an irony of our age that this
individualistic contemplative factor, associated with a temple, is taken to be its highest positive
virtue, while according to the fact of legend it is but a limitation which arose due to our
continuous spiritual impoverishment over the ages. We have lost the divine who resided amongst
us (Krta Yuga), which is the same as saying that once man was divine himself.

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But this is not to belittle the importance of the temple as a center for spiritual nourishment in our
present context, rather an affirmation of their invaluable significance in providing succour to the
modern man in an environment and manner that suits the typical requirements of the age in
which we exist.

Making of the Temple

The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though any land
may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its sanctification, the
ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: “The gods always play where
groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with pleasure gardens.” Not
surprisingly thus, many of India’s ancient surviving temples can be seen to have been built in
lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to be particularly suitable for building a
residence for the gods.

No matter where it is situated, one essential factor for the existence of a temple is water. Water is
considered a purifying element in all major traditions of the world, and if not available in reality,
it must be present in at least a symbolic representation in the Hindu temple. Water, the purifying,
fertilizing element being present, its current, which is the river of life, can be forded into inner
realization and the pilgrim can cross over to the other shore (metaphysical).
The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance and
magical fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the ‘type,’ of the soil it
contains. This includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining characteristics is
divided into four categories, which are then further associated with one of the four castes:
1. White Soil: Brahmin
2. - Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste)
3. - Yellow Soil: Vaishya
4. - Black Soil: Shudra
5. Similarly for the smell and taste:
6. Sweet: Brahmin
7. - Sour: Kshatriya
8. - Bitter: Vaishya
9. - Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been
given in life)

The color and taste of the soil determines the “caste” of the temple, i.e., the social group to which
it will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an auspicious site
specifically favourable to himself and his social environment.
After these preliminary investigations, the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled:

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Tilling: When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is entrusted to
the soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm of nature has not
been interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth Goddess herself is
impregnated in a symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura meaning seed and arpana
signifying offering. In this process, a seed is planted at the selected site on an auspicious day and
its germination is observed after a few days. If the growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed
suitable for the temple. The germination of the seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the
inherent potentialities which lie hidden in Mother Earth, and which by extension are now
transferred to the sacred structure destined to come over it.
Levelling: It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is regarded
as being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind the levelling of
the land. It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild, unruly, and errant
world.

vastu-purusha mandala-Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready
for the drawing of the vastu-purusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple.
The Metaphysical Architecture of the Temple. The basic plan of a Hindu temple is an expression
of sacred geometry where the temple is visualized as a grand mandala. By sacred geometry we

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mean a science which has as its purpose the accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in
relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Characteristically, a mandala is a sacred shape
consisting of the intersection of a circle and a square.
The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it.
Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the number four (four
castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for heaven
since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end signifying timelessness and eternity, a
characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by extension the temple) is the meeting
ground of heaven and earth.

These considerations make the actual preparation of the site and laying of the foundation doubly
important. Understandably, the whole process is heavily immersed in rituals right from the
selection of the site to the actual beginning of construction. Indeed, it continues to be a custom in
India that whenever a building is sought to be constructed, the area on which it first comes up is
ceremonially propitiated. The idea being that the extent of the earth necessary for such
construction must be reclaimed from the gods and goblins that own and inhabit that area. This
ritual is known as the ‘pacification of the site.’ There is an interesting legend behind it:
Once when Shiva was engaged in a fierce battle with the demon Andhaka, a drop of sweat fell
from Shiva’s forehead to the ground, accompanied by a loud thunder. This drop transformed into
a ravenously hungry monster, who attempted to destroy the three worlds. The gods and divine
spirits, however, rushed at once on to him and held him down. When the demon fell on the
ground face downwards, the deities lodged themselves on to the different parts of his body and
pressed him down. It is because of this reason that the recumbent individual came to be known as
‘Vastu,’ which means the lodgement of the gods. He is pictured as lying down inside the
mandala with his arms and legs so folded as to cover the whole area, and his head pushed into
the north-eastern corner of the square. As many as forty-five gods are lodged on his body
directly on the limbs and joints.

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This vastu-purusha is the spirit in mother-earth which needs to be pacified and is regarded as a
demon whose permission is necessary before any construction can come up on the site. At the
same time, care is taken to propitiate the deities that hold him down, for it is important that he
should not get up. To facilitate the task of the temple-architect, the vastu-mandala is divided into
square grids with the lodging of the respective deities clearly marked. It also has represented on
it the thirty-two nakshatras, the constellations that the moon passes through on its monthly
course. In an ideal temple, these deities should be situated exactly as delineated in the mandala.
In the central grid of the vastu-mandala sits Brahma, the archetypal creator, endowed with four
faces looking simultaneously in all directions. He is thus conceived as the ever-present
superintending genius of the site. At this exact central point is established the most important
structure of the sacred complex, where the patron deity of the temple is installed. Paradoxically
this area is the most unadorned and least decorated part of the temple, almost as if it is created in
an inverse proportion to its spiritual importance. Referred to as the sanctum sanctorum, it is the
most auspicious region in the whole complex. It has no pillars, windows or ventilators. In
addition to a metaphysical aspect, this shutting off of air and light has a practical side to it too. It
was meant to preserve the icon, which, in olden days, was often made of wood. Also, besides
preventing the ill effects of weathering, the dark interior adds to the mystery of the divine
presence.
Throughout all subsequent developments in temple architecture, however spectacular and
grandiose, this main shrine room remains the small, dark cave that it has been from the
beginning. Indeed it has been postulated (both by archaeology and legend), that the temple
developed from the cave-shrine of the extremely remote past. This is another instance in
Hinduism where the primitive and the modern, along with all the developments in-between, can
be seen to co-exist remarkably and peacefully.

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 Sanctum

This a ticle by Nitin Kumar Editor http://www.exoticindia.com

Ayodhya Trust plans to build 1,200 temple pillars by next March, finish first floor by
2022
Experts from IIT Madras and Roorkee’s Central Building Research Institute are testing three
pillars to check if they are strong enough to hold the weight of the entire structure.
By: Express News Service | Lucknow |September 29, 2020 11:18:30 am

148
The height of the first floor will be 1,850.70 square metres
As the actual construction of the Ram temple in Ayodhya is expected to start from October 15,
the Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra trust plans to complete the first floor by 2022. The
1,200 pillars with a depth of 200 metres are expected to be completed by March next year.
Experts from IIT Madras and Roorkee’s Central Building Research Institute are testing three
pillars to check if they are strong enough to hold the weight of the entire structure. An IIT
Madras team had recently taken samples to test soil and concrete mix.
Trust member Anil Mishra, who is looking after the construction on behalf of the Trust and the
temple construction committee, told The Indian Express they were considering a phase-wise
plan.

How one family has taken India’s 1,000-year-old temple architecture to the world
ug
Sometime in 2008, the over 500-year-old Gunja Narasimha Swami temple in Karnataka was in
dire need of repair and restoration. The foundation of the temple, located on the banks of the
Kaveri, about 32km south of Mysuru, had become weak due to flooding and loosening of soil. It
developed cracks and some structures of the temple crumbled.

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Sthapati (architect and sculptor) R Selvanathan, the 37th lineal descendant of Kunjara Mallan
Raja Raja Perunthachan, who constructed the 1010-year-old famous Brihadeeswara temple in
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, was chosen for the restoration of this Vijayanagara period temple. He
decided to bring down the external structure stone by stone, replaced the old foundation with a
new one using concrete, and reassembled the stones exactly like the original structure.
Selvanathan is upholding the over 1,000-year-old family tradition of constructing and renovating
temples even today.

Selvanathan’s canvas is global, much like his uncle and father, who constructed and renovated
temples in America, England, Singapore, Malaysia, Fiji, Sri Lanka and Canada. I worked with
60 shilpis (stone carvers) on the Gunja Narasimha Swamy temple restoration, which was
completed in 2011. Dr N V Ramanuja Iyengar, an NRI from Florida, USA, funded the project
that cost over Rs 2.5 crore,” says Selvanathan, whose latest renovation and restoration project is
underway at the Sri Thiruketheeswaram Temple, Mannar in Sri Lanka.

The superstructure, or Vimana, made of brick and mortar was replaced with granite at Sri
Thiruketheeswaram Temple, Mannar, in Sri Lanka. Pic: M/s Sri Vaidyanatha Sthapati Associates
Upholding an age-old tradition on a global stage

This temple in Mannar, where Shiva is the primary god surrounded by 25 sub-shrines, was
constructed 60 years ago under the guidance of Selvanathan’s grandfather, Shilpa Kalasagaram
M Vaidyanatha Sthapati. Years of ethnic conflict between the Sinhalese and Tamils in Sri Lanka
had left the temple in ruins.

“In 2017, I was assigned the task of renovating the temple, replacing brick and mortar with
granite stone. I took with me 100 shilpis, who have been working on this project for the last three
years. The superstructure of brick and mortar was replaced with granite. All the sub-shrines were
also demolished and constructed in granite stone,” adds 54-year-old Selvanathan, who grew up
with the sound of chisel and hammer, seeing sculptors working in his family-run workshop
– pattarai.

The work in Sri Lanka is now almost complete but artisans are stuck there due to the
Coronavirus. All the stones needed for reconstruction were available locally. But that’s not the
case with all his projects.

For the Kauai Adeenam Temple at Hawaii, US, Selvanathan shipped hand-carved stones from
India. It is America’s only all-granite hand-carved Sri Siva Temple.

“The work is nearing completion now. Ten of our shilpis assembled the stones there. All the
stones were hand carved in Bengaluru and transported to Hawaii by ship. Gurudeva (who
commissioned the work) wanted the temple stones to be carved manually as this was the process
followed in ancient times and ensures longevity of the structure,” he says.

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Kauai Adeenam Temple at Hawaii, US, is America’s only all-granite hand-carved Sri Siva
Temple. Pic: Ponni Selvanathan

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Similarly, when a beautiful statue of lord Vishnu was found in Phang Nga forest in Thailand, the
government wanted to replicate it and place it in the Thalang National Museum. “The statue was
fragile and damaged. I spent two weeks there, examined it, made its cement replica and it was
shipped to India,” he says.

The procedures mentioned in ancient texts

The ancient processes of construction, restoration, rehabilitation of statues as well as temples are
well documented in ancient texts. Temples need renovation every 12 years, according
to shastras, something that the Sthapati clan continues to do even for overseas temples till date.
Selvanathan has already renovated twice the Sri Siva Vishnu Temple in Maryland, just outside
Washington D.C, which was designed and constructed by his paternal uncle Dr V Ganapathi
Sthapati, who was conferred the Padma Bhushan in 2009. Selvanathan had also worked on the
project with his uncle.

“Our shastras like Manasaaram, Mayamatham, Viswakarmeeyam, Vaikanasam, Pancharathram

and Kumarathanthiram give detailed instructions on the processes to be followed for temple
construction, renovation and restoration. I also follow Sirpachenool treatise by my Guru Dr
Ganapathi Sthapati. The book deals with iconometry – forms and measures,” he says.

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The traditional knowledge is passed on from one generation to the next. While the sthapati clan
thrived under the royal patronage upto the 18th century, it was supported by the Nagarathar
community, also known as Nattukottai Chettiars, during the 19th and 20th century.The
remuneration of the SAhilpikars ranges from Rs 15,000 to Rs 40,000 depending on the
hierarchy. Pic: M/s Sri Vaidyanatha Sthapati Associates

During the renovation of temple structures and statues, shilpis make use of similar material as
used initially. “In case of the non-availability of the particular material, we use better material
with high quality as per our scriptures. For example brick structures can be replaced by good
quality stones,” he says.Rules prescribed in the shastras are followed during construction and
restoration of temples.
Temple restoration work usually addresses regular wear and tear, natural calamities, unnatural
reasons like political unrest causing damage to temples, deliberate damage to temple parts,
weakening of foundation besides damage by unwanted weeds and plant roots. A sthapati needs
to examine the temple or sculpture under restoration, study the nature of damage and then
carryout the work as per shastras.

How Selvanathan became a sthapati

The world famous Pillayarpatti Ganapathi Temple rajagopuram, sponsored by the Nagarathars,
was designed and built by Selvanathan’s grandfather M Vaidyanatha Sthapati.

While Selvanathan began exploring the nuances and curves of the tradition from childhood, he
was formally initiated into the field by his paternal uncle.

Selvanathan graduated in BSc (Temple Architecture) from the Government College of

Architecture and Sculpture, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu — the only technical institution for
temple architecture in India.

Selvanathan is now training his son, who will be the 38th generation in his prestigious lineage
following these traditions.

Apart from this, he is also now working towards conserving the craft. He trains
graduate sthapatis from his alma mater. “Through this institution, the shilpi tradition of
imparting knowledge, which was strictly from father to son, was thrown open to all with no
restriction around caste, family or community,” he says.

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Around 20 to 25 students pass out from the college each year. “They work with me on projects
within India and overseas and get practical training,” he says. He is now among the few
torchbearers of this tradition that has stood the test of time for over a thousand years.

ASI restoring Markandeshwar temple in Maharashtra

The restoration work of Markandeshwar temple in Maharashtra by the Archaeological Survey of

India (ASI) is in full swing. Known as the “Khajuraho of Vidarbha”, the temple of Markandadeo
is situated on the bank of River Wainganga in Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra.

The temples are part of the Nagara group of temples of North India and, based on their style of
architecture, date back to 9-12th centuries CE. The temples belong to Saiva, Vaishnava and
Sakta faiths.
Most of the temples have a simple plan, with ardhamandapa, mandapa, antarala and garbhagriha
forming the component of the entire set up.
The temples have seen large scale destruction caused on the main shrine (garbhagriha) and the
very first recordings made by Sir Alexander Cunningham, who is known as the father of Indian
archaeology, states that - about 200 years ago the shikhara of the main shrine and mahamandapa
was struck by a lightning, which led to the partial collapse of the shikhara (the finial, north and
south facade).
Sir Alexander Cunningham, born on 23 January 1814 in London, joined the Bengal Engineers at
the age of 19 and spent 28 years in the British army in India, retiring as major general in 1861.
His interest in Indian history and architecture led to his taking part in the excavation of many
sites in India, including Sarnath and Sanchi. He also served as the first director of the Indian
Archaeological Survey (ASI). He died on 28 November 1893 in London.

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The then Gond ruler renovated the temple about 120 years ago, trying to restore the fallen
portions as much as possible. This restoration attempt was, however, not as per the desired
conservation standards. However, the restoration of the temple by Gond ruler helped in the
preservation of the religious character of this temple and it continues to attract large gathering of
devotees.
The ASI initiated the largescale conservation work of the temple in November 2017. A detailed
documentation process was initiated to carry out the condition mapping of the temple in order to
carry out the conservation process. The documentation process revealed that originally a three-
leaf masonry construction with iron clamps had been used to tie the adjacent stones of outer and
inner stone walls, also, the inner area between the two walls was filled of rubble masonry with
lime. Around 1,500 stone fragments were dismantled and later documented in the process.
Detailed documentation of the architectural components, thickness of joints, their colour and the
quarry was investigated; including the mortar used for binding was also analyzed. Prior to the
conservation process, soil Investigation studies, foundation strengthening studies, studies of old
as well as new stones, beam studies with full scale testing, beam positioning, capacity of beam in
flexural and compression etc. were also carried out.
The conservation process was then started by numbering each stone and components of the
garbhagriha was numbered and detailed drawings / photographs of each part of the temple was
prepared, showing the numbered stones. This documentation was carried out before the
dismantling work, in order to restore back all the original stones in their original location
maintaining their authenticity.
The stones from the temple were then dismantled in one of the most strenuous and painstaking
process and they were thoroughly cleaned in order to remove dirt, dust, algae and mortar
remains.
In order to achieve high degree of accuracy, following the trial and error method, critical layers
of inner masonry were arranged and placed on ground for checking the exact position and then
placed and fixed at their original location on the temple.
The reconstruction of the temple in stone was then carried out to its original height and form
duly following the detailed drawings showing each numbered stone. The references from the
older photographs were also taken to check respective North, South and West side.
The old rusted iron clamps were replaced by new stainless-steel clamps which were fixed using
adhesive (hardener + resin + stone dust).
During the conservation process, all the original stone members, beams were retained and used
extensively, and wherever they were found broken, they were mended together. The broken
members beyond scope of mending and repairs were replaced with new ones.
As of now, the reconstruction process is in full swing and the ASI has completed the wall portion
and the sikhara portion has been taken up now.
The quarry site for the stones used in the original temple construction was also identified along
the banks of River Wainganga. A team of skilled craftsman are have been involved in the
process of chiseling, finishing the architectural members, planning to fix them in the original
form and shape.

Chettinad’s masons slowly revive centuries-old lime-egg wall plaster technique

15
Jul

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The aroma of freshly ground spices, ginger and garlic wafts through the afternoon air as one
takes a stroll on the KB Street in Kottaiyur in Tamil Nadu’s Chettinad region. Chettinad is well
known for its spicy cuisine, which uses boiled egg as a garnish in most of the dishes. But the use
of eggs is not limited to food. Egg whites have also been an integral part of wall plasters of
Chettinad homes for centuries. The mirror-like, shiny interior walls not only reflect the age-old
way of beating the scorching heat but also carry the pride of masons, who have been passing on
the egg white plaster technique from generation to generation.On K B Street also stands the
house where mason SP Mookkiah used for the first time the centuries-old lime egg plaster
technique, which is slowly reclaiming its glory after being on the verge of extinction some years
ago.

Centuries-old legacy

Chettinad, in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district, is known for its majestic mansions and
concentrated clusters of Nattukottai Chettiars, a rich and affluent mercantile community. The
architectural style of the mansions has stood the test of time, modernity and convenience.

Just like cement plaster, Chettinad plaster is also used in the final stage of wall finishing. The
bricks are covered with multiple layers of white lime mortar and plastered with the egg-lime mix.
“This layer is different not only because of the composition of the plaster but also because the
final texture is soft, shiny yet firm,” Mookkiah says.

Besides, the wall doesn’t require regular painting unlike other plastered walls, points out
Visalakshi Ramaswamy, who started the M.Rm.Rm. Cultural Foundation in 2000 to support and
document works towards the revival of rural crafts, textiles and architecture. Her other projects
include kottan — the traditional palmyra basketry; kandanghi saris and athangudi tiles of
Chettinad.

73-year-old Mookkaiya from Karaikudi and his son, are among the last skilled masons practicing
this craft. Originally carpenters, the family has been keeping Chettinad plastering alive for four
generations now. Last year, the Crafts Council of India awarded Mookkiah for his contribution
towards the ‘Revival of Languishing Crafts’. Egg lime plastering technique

Mookkiah explains that the plaster is made by grinding three portions of sand to one portion of
limestone. The dry mixture is allowed to settle for about 3-4 days. The masons procure conches
and shells from the coastal areas of Ramanathapuram and Thoothukudi. They are powdered and
added to the limestone mixture. Finally, kalmavu podi or whitestone powder is added to the dried
powder mix.Moreover, some people began to move away from the technique because some of
the raw materials are derived from animals. “While most of the cultural aspects of Chettinad
thrived and brought tourism to this place, the egg-lime plaster technique somehow found no
takers. “Most of the artisans who have mastered the techniques are over 50 years of age,” he
says.However, now Mookkiah as well as M.Rm.Rm. Cultural Foundation are working towards
restoration of this craft. Mookkiah’s son is following in his footsteps. The father-son duo has
completed projects in Pondicherry besides working for some clubs and hotels.

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Currently, in Chettinad, there are seven skilled artisans, including Mookkiah, who are using this
technique. Students of architecture also come to him to learn and incorporate egg-lime plaster in
their work in the hope of becoming Chettinad architects some day.

Mookkiah has been training masons and workers from across the country, including Kerala,
Karnataka, Punjab, Odisha and Telangana. The M.Rm.Rm Cultural Foundation, flag bearer of
the revival of the craft, had also conducted workshops for masons.

The walls don’t require painting ever. But training is not enough. It is necessary that people
acknowledge this craft and commission the services of masons for the technique to grow. “It
ultimately depends on the people who choose to see its beauty and participate in its resurrection,”
Ramaswamy adds.

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 CHAPTER VI
Tracing the evolution of temples in
India & Abroad

Tracing the evolution of temples in India

Three-day national workshop on temple architecture begins

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A three-day national workshop on ‘Temple architecture and iconography: in Sthapatis’
Perspective’ got under way here on Monday with experts delving on the evolution of
temples from prehistoric times to the standardisation of the architecture.
The workshop has been organised by the Department of Ancient History and
Archaeology, University of Mysore. Delivering the keynote address, A. Sundara, retired
professor, Department of Ancient History and Epigraphy, Karnatak University, Dharwad,
traced the growth of temples to when they were idols being worshipped in the open.

Vedic period
There is no evidence of the existence of temple architecture during the Vedic period
though there is evidence of cults in prehistoric times.
Over generations, this was systematised and paved the way for the evolution of temple
structures.
There is evidence of figurines worshipped in the open and in later periods, people thought
it fit to construct a shrine to protect main deities, Professor Sundara said. This continued
and over the centuries, new components, including enclosures, were added to the sanctum
sanctorum, besides a mantapa to accommodate the needs of rituals that became more
complex with the passage of time.

Vijayanagar period
Temple architecture evolved fully during the Vijayanagar period and the Virupaksha
temple, complete with a shrine and a mantapa, was the best example of the fullest
expression of such evolutionary trends. Though early Hindu shrines were made of brick
and kiln, Buddhist and Jain shrines were made of stone since they evolved from the
around 1st Century BC.

What are some iconic Hindu temples outside India?

Hinduism is not only restricted to India but is embraced by the world and has nearly billions of
followers across the globe. With so many Indians settling down globally, there was bound to be a
rise in the number of temples that were built to support the faith.
A follower or not , here are a few Hindu temples located outside India that will take your breath
away , a must visit !

Here are some of the most beautiful Hindu temples outside India:
1. Prambanan Temple (Java, Indonesia)

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The Prambanan temple is in Central Java of Indonesia and is the largest Hindu temple site in
Indonesia. And is also one of the biggest in Southeast Asia.
‘Prambanan’ or ‘Candi Prambanan’ or ‘Candi Rara Jonggrang’ is a Hindu temple in Central
Java, Indonesia containing idols of Lord Shiva, Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu. It is the largest
Hindu temple site in Indonesia and one of the biggest one in Southeast Asia.
Built in 850 CE, it’s composed of 8 main shrines called the ‘gopuras’ towering 47-metre-high
(154 ft) inside a large complex of individual temples. They are further surrounded by 250 smaller
gopuras. Prambanan attracts many visitors from across the world.
Nearly, all the walls of the temple are covered with hand carved art. All narrate the stories of the
incarnations of Lord Vishnu’s Dasavataram, the Ramayana, adventures of Lord Hanuman and
about other Hindu legends.
2. Angkor wat, Cambodia.

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The name “Angkor Wat” translates to capital temple. It was built in the early 12th century in
Cambodia by the King Suryavarman II of Khmer kingdom. It took 27 years to complete the
construction and was first called “Varah Vishnu-lok”. The world famous temple was first a
Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Later it hosted both Hindu & Buddhist cultures starting
in 14th century.
The western world paid a visit this marvel in 16th century during the British & Portuguese
colonization era.
Tourists visiting Angkor Wat also pay a visit to the nearby ruins of Angkor Thom and Bayon.
These 2 fantastic Hindu temples served as the ancient capital of Khmer empire.
3. Tanah Lot Temple, Bali, Indonesia.

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Situated on a large rock on the sea at Indonesia the Tanah Lot is one of the most famous Hindu
temples in Bali. This temple is one of the 7 sea temples, each within eyesight of the next, which
form a chain along the south-western coast of Bali. It is a revered tourist destination drawing
millions of tourists and is one of the most photogenic places of Bali. The Tanah Lot temple has
been a part of Balinese mythology for centuries.
4. Shri Shiva Vishnu Temple, Victoria, Australia.

This temple is located in the suburb of Carrum Downs in the state of Victoria, Australia. Also the
largest Hindu temple in the state. This is temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.
It was established in 1982 and was built and designed in Dravidian architecture, a south Indian
architectural style. The first prayer meeting was held at 6:00 PM on November’s last Saturday in
the year 1982. It is considered to be one of the most popular temples in Australia.
5. Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Atlanta, U.S.A.

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This 32,000 square feet temple sits on 30 acres land which currently makes it the largest Hindu
temple in the U.S.A. The tower of the temple stands at 75 feet making it the tallest building in
the city. More than 1,300 craftsmen and 900 volunteers dedicated their time in putting this
34,450-piece stone building together. Most of the temple’s work was hand carved. Furthermore,
4,500 tons of Italian Carrara marble, 4,300 tons of Turkish limestone, and 3,500 tons of Indian
pink sandstone was shipped to this location.
6. Akshardham temple, New jersey, U.S.A.

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The Akshardham temple in Robbinsville of New Jersey is presently under construction. It started
in 2014 and is expected to be finished and opened by 2016. Based on the two colossal
Akshardhams of Delhi and Gujarat, it is dedicated to Vishnu temple.
When finished it will be larger than its parent structures spreading over 162 acres of land. Thus,
making it the largest Hindu temple in the world in terms of area. Currently, the largest Hindu
temple is the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu. And it will be surpassed
by the new temple by 14 acres in area. This will surely be one of the best Hindu temples outside
India.
7. Sri Subramaniar Swamy Devasthanam, Batu Caves, Malaysia.

Batu Caves are a series of limestone caves situated at a distance of 13 km north of Kuala
Lumpur. Outside India it is one of the most popular and tallest Statues of Lord Murugan,
standing 42.7 meters in height. It was constructed in 1890 by Tamil trader K. Thamboosamy
Pillai. It eventually became a tourist destination ever since.

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The famous yearly Hindu festival of Thaipusm in Malaysia is celebrated in this temple complex.
It attracts a large number of pilgrims from Malaysia as well as from India, Australia and
Singapore.

8. Shri Venkateswara (Balaji) Temple, Birmingham, U.K.

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Designed to replicate the Tirupati Thirumala Temple in Tirupati, India, Sri Venkateswara Balaji
Temple was opened in August 23, 2006. It is the first temple of Lord Venkateswara in Europe.
The main shrine houses 12 feet statue of Lord Venkateswara, the incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
9. Pashupatinath temple, Nepal.

Pashupathinath Temple is one the most important temples of Lord Shiva in the world. It is the
oldest Hindu temple in Kathmandu and was constructed in 753AD by King Jayadeva. But, it was
reconstructed in 12th century and 17th century after that.
It is the oldest Hindu temple of Kathmandu though it is still not clear when it was founded. There
are many legends related to the foundation of the temple however, till date nothing has been a
confirmation regarding its erection or how long it has been in existence.
The temple is famous for the fact that wishes get fulfilled here. One can also see a sprawling
collection of other temples, ashrams, images and inscriptions around Pashupatinath.
It has a Nepalese Pagoda style of architecture, different from the traditional Hindu temples of
India. Only followers of Hinduism can enter the main temple and the other buildings are
available for foreigners to visit. You will often find sadhus in Pahsupathinath temple, if you ever
visit. This temple is also on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Centre. One of the astonishing
Hindu temples outside India.
10. Arulmigu Sri Rajakaliamman Glass Temple, Tebrau, Malaysia.

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Sri Rajakaliamman Glass Temple is one of the oldest temples and probably the only Hindu glass
temple in Malaysia and also in the world.
The temple is an important tourist attraction in Johor and has been drawing hordes of local and
foreign visitors since its construction. The temple had its humble beginnings as a hut-like
structure dating back to 1922. At least 90% of the temple is embellished by a mosaic of 300,000
pieces of glass of different colours.
It contains the Athma Lingam sanctuary of Lord Shiva as a lotus. Devotees can pour rose water
on it and perform their prayers. The Siva lingam is the first of its type in Malaysia which is
designed with ‘Mukni’rudraksha beads. It happens to have an unusual embossed texture. Each
‘Rudraksha’bead is embedded in the walls with a chanted prayer. The temple also has 10 gold-
finished sculptures. Surely, one of the must visit Hindu temples outside India.
11. New Vrindaban Temple, West Virginia, U.S.A.

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New Vrindaban temple is part of the ISKCON International Community of West Virginia. New
Vrindaban is named after the Indian city of Vrindavan which is also called Brindavanam. The
temple is also called as The Palace of Gold opened in 1979, great acclaim from people. The
Washington Post called the place ‘Almost Heaven’ and have been adored by Hindus and non-
Hindus equally ever since.
12. The Sri Venkateswara Temple, Pittsburgh, U.S.A.

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The Venkateswara temple of Pittsburgh is located in Penn Hills of Pittsburgh, USA. It is one of
the earliest traditional Hindu Temples built in the United States. Sri Venkateswara Temple
organization was established on Aug 7, 1975.
13. Dhakeshwari National Temple, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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 Th
e Dhakeshwari National Temple is a Hindu temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is state-owned,
hence the distinction of being Bangladesh’s ‘National Temple’. The name ‘Dhakeshwari’ means
‘Goddess of Dhaka’. Since the destruction of Ramna Kali Mandir in 1971 by the Pakistan Army
in the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Dhakeshwari Temple has assumed status as the most
important Hindu place of worship in Bangladesh.
14. Shri Kali Temple, Burma

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Shri Kali Temple is a Hindu temple located in Little India of Yangon downtown in Burma. So if
you are planning to take the new highway to Thailand, you might want to stop by here and check
this heritage site. It was built by Tamil migrants in 1871 while the Burma Province was part of
British India.
15. Sri Siva Subramaniya temple, Nadi, Fiji.

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The Sri Siva Subramaniya temple is a Hindu temple in Nadi, Fiji. Yes in Fiji! It is at the southern
end of Nadi is the largest Hindu temple in the Southern hemisphere. It was first constructed in
1926 and the temple was again totally rebuilt in 1986. The temple was built in the best traditions
of ancient Dravidian Indian temple architecture.
16. Sagar Shiv Mandir, Mauritius.

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Sagar Shiv Mandir is a Hindu temple sitting on the island of Goyave de Chine, Mauritius. It is a
place of worship for Hindus settled in Mauritius and it is also visited by tourists. The temple was
constructed in 2007 and it hosts a 108 feet height bronze coloured statue of Shiva. The location is
an epitome of beauty.
17. Shri Krishna Temple, Darsait, Oman.

Shri Krishna Temple is situated near Church in Darsait and is about 28-30 kms from Seeb
Airport. This temple was constructed by Merchant Community from Gujarat settled in Muscat,
in the year 1987. Subsequently, it was extensively renovated in the year 2013 having all the
facilities for devotees to worship. A Multi Purpose Hall having a capacity of 500-700 worshipers
to take part in the function is organised by the Management.

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18. Sri Thendayuthapani Temple, Singapore.

The Sri Thendayuthapani Temple, better known as the Chettiars’ Temple is one of the Singapore
Hindu community’s most important monuments. It was gazetted as a national monument on 21
October 2014. It was built in 1859 by the Tamil Chettiar community. This Shaiva temple,
dedicated to the six-faced Lord Subramaniam (Muruga) is most active during the festival of
Thaipusam.
19. Varun Dev Temple, Manora, Karachi.

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This 1000 year old Varun Dev Temple in Pakistan which was once a very celebrated entity is
now lying in a dilapidated state due to the negligence of government. The structure still appears
grand from afar, while the leftover tile work and craftsmanship gives a sense of its glorious past.
Sad part is that the cold hatred on Hinduism in Pakistan resulted its walls and rooms serving as
toilets for the locals of Manora’s sandy beach.
20. Nallur Kandaswamy temple, Jaffna District, Sri Lanka.

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Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil also called as Nallur Murugan Kovil is one of the most notable Hindu
temples in the Jaffna District, Sri Lanka. Located in the town of Nallur. The presiding deity is
Lord Murugan in the form of the holy Vel. The idol of the Nallur Devi or goddess was given to
the temple in the 10th century CE by the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, in the style of
Sembian bronzes.
21. Erawan Shrine, Bangkok, Thailand.

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The Erawan Shrine is a Hindu shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, that houses a statue of Phra Phrom,
the Thai representation of the Hindu creation god Brahma. A popular tourist attraction, it often
features performances by resident Thai dance troupes, who are hired by worshippers in return for
seeing their prayers at the shrine answered. On 21 March 2006, a man vandalised the shrine and
was killed by bystanders. However, two months after the incident a new Brahma statue was
completed and placed in the shrine on 21 May 2006.
22. Murugan Temple, Sydney, Australia

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Murugan Temple situated on the Mays Hills of New South Wales of Sydney, Australia is one
famous temple of Hindus. Lord Murugan is the Lord of Tamils. He is also known as the Lord of
the hill region and his abode is usually located on hills. In Sydney, the deity is also known as the
‘Sydney Murugan’.
The temple of Sydney Murugan was built by Tamils residing in Australia. It is taken care of by a
Hindu society called ‘Saiva Manram’.
The ‘Saiva Manrams’ have made great efforts to establish this temple. The temple also provides
great opportunities for the Hindus in Australia.
23. BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, London (Neasden Temple), United States

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The BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Neasden, London is dedicated to Lord Swaminarayan.
He is the central figure of a modern sect of Hinduism known as Swaminarayan Hinduism. This
sect is a form of Vaishnavism.
The Neasden Swaminarayan Mandir is known to be Britain’s first authentic Hindu temple built
in a traditional manner with stone unlike other converted secular buildings. The BAPS as initials
in the name of the temple is the name of the ‘Sanstha’ with which it is associated –
Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha.
The temple was inaugurated in 1995 and consists of a ‘mandir’ and a ‘haveli’. The temple is
highly appreciated for its stone architecture.
24. Mother Temple of Besakih, Bali, Indonesia

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Mother Temple of Besakih or ‘Pura Besakih’ is the most important, largest and holiest Hindu
temple in Bali. It is an extensive complex of 23 distinct temples. Out of these, the largest one is
the Pura Penataran Agung, the main sanctuary of the complex, which is built on six levels,
terraced up the slope.
There is no confirmed information about the origin of the temple however, it is said to be from
prehistoric times.
This temple was nominated as a World Heritage Site. Each year around 70 festivals are
celebrated in the complex of this temple.
25. Radha Madhav Dham(Texas, USA)

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Radha Madhav Dham’or ‘Barsana Dham’ is the temple of Lord Krishna. It is the oldest Hindu
temple in Texas and the largest in North America. It is also one of the largest Hindu temple
complexes in the Western Hemisphere.
The temple was built as a representation of the holy land of Braj in India where Radha and
Krishna are believed to have lived 5000 years ago.
Areas around the temple are built as places for meditation. All the major Hindu festivals are
celebrated in the temple. Janmashtami celebrations of Radha Dham are the biggest one in entire
North America.
26. Katasraj Temple

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The Katas Raj Temples near Chakwal in the now Pakistan are attributed to the eras of the Hindu
kings dating from about 615-950 CE. These temples are dedicated to Lord Shiva and are being
considered for the world heritage site list. It is also said that during their exile period, this temple
is where the Pandavas dealt with Yakshas questions.

29. Munneswaram Temple, Sri Lanka

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With a complex linking five temples, this temple can remind the time of Ramayana, where it is
recognized that here Lord Rama requested to Lord Shiva and prevailed the fight against the
Ravana.
30. Sri Sri Radah Krishna Temple (Utah, United States)

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The Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple has situated in US. Actually it was built to assemble the two
communities like the Hindu society in Utah province. Behind this, the Sri Sri Radha Krishna
temple has brought the awareness of their (akin of ISCON culture) religion along with the Indian
culture to wider world.
Variety of Hindu festivals has celebrated in this temple like holi, janamstami etc.

It is the largest Hindu temple site in Indonesia and also one of the biggest in Southeast Asia. It
also has the smaller shrines which are

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Kataragama Temple/ Kathirgamam Murugan Temple - Sri Lanka[1]
Kathirgamam Temple is one of the most venerated shrines for Lord Muruga/Karthikeyan. This is
one of the temples like Munneshwaram Temple where there is a shrine for Hindu and Buddhist
deity. The temple is venerated by Muslims as there are many legends associated with the temple

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Thirukoneswaram Temple - Triconamalee, Sri Lanka[2]
Thirukoneswaram Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva who is known as Thirukoneswarar (

● Korea: two temples are built in Pyongyang city.

I believe there are more than 5,000 Hindu Temples in Nepal.

Most iconic ones are as follows:-
1. Pashupatinath, Kathmandu (Greatest Shiva Temple)
2. Changunarayan, Bhaktapur (Oldest, 325 AD)
3. Suryavinayak Temple, Bhaktapur (7ht century)
4. Nyatapola, Bhaktapur (unique 5 story pagoda)
5. Krishna Mandir, Patan
6. Haleshi Mahadev, Khotang
7. Budhanilkantha, Kathmandu
8. Muktinath, Mustang
9. Doleshwor Mahadev, Kathmandu
10. Dakshinkali, Kathmandu

10 Mosques in India that were built over Hindu Temples

India’s history ranges thousands of years and it is something that makes all Indians proud to be a
part of it. India is the same country where people proudly boasts its history that includes epics

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like Mahabharata and Ramayana that mentions the rich archives of knowledge, grand
infrastructures, the vast wealth and many many temples. However, many are lost or destroyed
due to the age long invasion and rules of the Mugals and British empire. What is more sad is that
the temples were not just destroyed but converted into Mosques. Places which once used to echo
in the songs and chants of ancient Sanskrit music, prayers and slokas have no trace of even a
Hindu dust around today.
The Muslim rule in India robbed off India from some its most precious treasures in terms of
temples and knowledge centres. It is said that almost 3000 temples were either destroyed and left
in ruins or it were used to construct Islamic Dargahs, Mosques, Khanqahs, Mazars, Tombs.
Out of thousands of them, here is the list of 10 of such popular temples converted into a
MOSQUE

1. The Ram Janmabhoomi Temple Ayodhya – Babri Masjid

According to the Hindus, the land on which the Babri mosque was built in 1528 is the ‘Ram
Janmabhoomi’ (birthplace of the Shri Rama). But, Mir Baqi, one of Mughal king Babur’s
generals, is said to have destroyed a pre-existing temple of Rama and built a mosque called Babri
Masjid (Babur’s mosque) at the site. Both the communities have worshiped at the “mosque-
temple”, Muslims inside the mosque and Hindus outside it.
Some say that the Temple of Lord Rama at Ayodhya was pulled to the ground by Babur but
some believe that the temple was destroyed by previous Islamic rulers as the mosque structure
does not belong to that era. However, it is doubtless that a temple existed and people from
centuries used the site to worship Lord Rama. With strong archaeological evidence now
available a large temple base was found at the Babri Masjid site.

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2. The Kashi Vishwanath – Gyanvapi Mosque

Kashi Vishwanath Temple is one of the most famous Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva and
is located in Varanasi, the Holiest existing Place of Hindus, where at least once in life a Hindu is
expected to do pilgrimage, and if possible, also pour the remains (ashes) of cremated ancestors
here on the River Ganges. The main deity is known by the name Vishwanatha or Vishweshwara
meaning the Ruler of the universe. The temple town that claims to be the oldest living city in the
world, with 3500 years of documented history.
However, the original Jyotirlinga of Kashi Vishwanath is not available. The old temple was
destroyed as a result of the Mughal invasion. Historical records suggest that it was destroyed
many times by Muslim rulers.
A choice target for Muslim invaders, the prominent edifice was destroyed in 1194ce, then rebuilt
20 years later, only to be demolished again in the 15th century. Under the reign of the unusually
tolerant Akbar in the 16th century, it was rebuilt once again; but Akbar’s grandson, Aurangzeb,
destroyed it yet again in 1669, building Gyanvapi Mosque in its place. The present temple was
erected a few feet from the mosque in 1780 by Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar. The gold roof
seen in the photo below was donated in 1839 by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of Punjab.

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3. The Krishna Janmabhoomi Temple – Shahi Idgah Mosque

The Sri Krishna Janmabhoomi temple, also simply called the Krishna Janmabhoomi, Krishna
Janmasthan or Kesava Deo Temple is located in the holy city of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. Like the
Dwarkadish Temple in Dwarka, Gujarat, the Krishna Janmabhoomi temple is also said to have
been built by the Lord Krishna’s grandson, Vajra. Legends say that Mathura is said to be the
birthplace of the god, and locals believe that the temple was made 5,000 years ago. While the
mythical Yadava king is credited for its creation, the temple underwent a significant upgrade
during the reign of Chandragupta II, around 400 AD.
After being demolished in 1017 AD, the temple was rebuilt by Bir Singh Bundela or Vir Singh
Deo, an Orchha king under the Mughal Empire. The Krishna Janmbhoomi temple was
also destroyed by emperor Aurangzeb and Shahi Idgah mosque was built above the
Keshava Deo Temple. It was a majestic temple and still can be seen from miles away. With the
next temple only being built in 1965 after a long political dispute that is still ongoing. This fourth
temple is what you see today, but the historical center of this place remains unchanged; you can
still see the ancient prison cell where it is said that Krishna was born on a dark, rainy night.
Inside the mosque, broken and defaced sculptures inside the mosque made up of temple ruins.
There is stone installed by ASI that proudly states the fact that this site was actually made by the
ruins of the temple.

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4. Rudra Mahalaya – Jami Masjid

A ruined temple complex of Rudra Mahalaya is located at Siddhpur in the Patan district of
Gujarat. Siddhpur is an ancient holy town on the banks of river Saraswati. The town of Siddhpur
derives its name from the ruler of Gujarat, named Siddhraj Jaisinh, who built a magnificent
Rudra Mahalaya temple in the 12th century AD.
The construction of Rudra Mahalaya was started in 943 AD by Mularaja Solanki and was
completed in 1140 AD by Siddharaj Jaisinh. The temple was dismantled by Allauddin Khilji
during 1410-1444 and later Ahmed Shah I demolished this temple and converted some part of it
into the conjoint mosque. In the 10th century Mularaja Solanki, the founder of the Solanki
dynasty of Gujarat, began the construction of Rudra Mahalay temple. As per the local folklore,

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Muladev’s crimes hung heavily on his mind during his old age. To get rid of his bad deeds he
built Rudra Mahalaya. However, the construction remained incomplete due to unknown reasons.
Siddharaj Jaisinh established the temple complex during the 12th century and it became the
prime temple complex of Siddhpur.
According to another legend, Govinddas and Madhavdas took up their haunt among the grass
that covered the neighborhood of the Rudra Mahalaya. They found a shrine and Shiva Linga.
This led to the erection or completion of the temple. Then the astrologers had predicted the
destruction of the building. Then Siddharaj put up the images of many great kings in the temple,
along with a representation of himself in the attitude of supplication, with an inscription saying
that, even if the land was laid waste, this temple will never be destroyed. In 1296 AD, Mughal
king Alauddin Khilji sent a strong army under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan Jalesri who
destroyed the temple complex. The temple was further demolished and the western part was
converted into a Jami Masjid by Ahmed Shah I of Muzaffarid dynasty.
5. Bhojshala – Kamal Maula Mosque

Bhojshala is an ancient temple of Mata Saraswati. The temple was built in the year of 1034
AD by Raja Bhoj, the mighty Hindu King whose empire stretched from Rajasthan to Odisha and
from Madhya Pradesh to Maharashtra. This temple of Mata Saraswati is situated at Dhar district
in Madhya Pradesh, which was the capital of Raja Bhoj. Bhojshala was home to thousands of
students and scholars and it was the main center of education.
The process of Islamic attack started 36 years before the attack when a Muslim fakir named
Kamal Moulana entered Malwa in 1269 AD. He used treacherous ways and converted many

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Hindus to Islam. He collected detailed information of Malwa region for 36 years and handed it
over to Alauddin Khilji.
Bhojshala was first attacked by infamous and cruel Muslim invader Alauddin Khilji in 1305
AD. After the sacrifices of Hindu king Raja Mahakaldev and his soldiers in the battle, Khilji
killed 1200 Hindu students and teachers in Bhojshala as they refused to convert to Islam.
A Muslim emperor named Dilawar Khan destroyed Vijay Mandir (Surya Martand temple) and
tried to convert part of Saraswati Temple Bhojshala into dargah. Today Muslims offer Namaz in
this same Vijay Mandir and now conspiracy is hatched to prove that it is actually a dargah named
‘Lat Masjid’. Again, Mehmudshah attacked Bhojshala and tried to convert it into dargah. He
encroached land outside Saraswati Temple and built ‘Kamal Moulana Makbara’ after 204 years
of the death of Kamal Moulana. On this ground only, conspiracy is hatched to prove that
Bhojshala is actually a dargah.
Before 12 March 1997, Hindus were allowed to take darshan but were not allowed to perform
puja. CM Digvijaya Singh issued a draconian order allowing Muslims to offer Namaz in
Bhojshala on every Friday and barred Hindus even from entering Bhojshala. However, Hindus
are now allowed only one day on Vasanta Panchami to enter and perform puja in Bhojshala.
6. Adinath Temple – Adina Mosque

Location at Pandua, West Bengal, Adina mosque was built by Sikandar Shah in 1358-90 AD
over a grand ancient Hindu temple which is now said to be one of India’s biggest mosques.
Legend says that the mosque was originally a Hindu temple of Lord Shiva which was broken
down and rebuilt into a mosque. The Adina Mosque has many distinct remnants of Hindu deities
on the gateways and the walls of the mosque. Also, the interiors of the mosque had Hindu
carvings and designs. It is one of the finest architectural structure built in Bengal.
There are ample signs to show that the there was Hindu influence on this structure. One stone
slab displays Ganesh while another depicts the Nataraj statue of Lord Shiva. There are several
others including the crests of doorways at the entrance of the northern as well as the eastern face.

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Inside the mosque, the stonework is equally convincing that the original building was a temple.
The name “Adina” of Adina mosque is also believed to come from the word “Adinath” depicting
Lord Shiva.
7. Bhadrakali Temple – Jama Masjid

Jama Masjid, which was built during 1424 CE in Ahmedabad (originally known as Karnavati)
made by Ahmed Shah I is originally a Hindu temple of Goddess Bhadrakali. Ahmedabad city’s
original names were Bhadra, Karnavati, Rajnagar, and Asaval in different eras. The name Bhadra
was named after the Goddess, whose temple was built by Rajput Parmar kings of Malwa
(Rajasthan), who ruled this area in between 9th-14th centuries. Jama Masjid Ahmedabad
Bhadrakali Temple.
Filigree carvings of flower and Paisley motifs, lotus flowers and creepers, mandalas, elephants,
coiled serpents representing the kundalini, celestial dancers and bells are found carved on the
100 odd surviving pillars that line the temple complex. If this was originally supposed to be a
mosque built with a large hall for mass prayers, then there would be no purpose of having so
many pillars in between. Most of the pillars are carved in typical Hindu temple style. Mosques
have large halls or open places where many can offer namaz (prayer) at a time. The pillars cause
an obstruction while offering Namaz whereas many Hindu temple pillars are usually carved with
stories from the Puranas, Vedas, and Itihasas like Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The original Bhadra fort still exists in a distorted shape. Jama Mosque is situated outside Bhadra
Fort area, along with the south side of the road extending from Teen Darwaza to Manek Chowk.
Ahmedabad was named after Ahmad Shah I of the Muzaffarid dynasty who captured Karnavati
in 1411. He established Ahmedabad as the new capital of Gujarat Sultanate and built Bhadra Fort
on the east bank of the Sabarmati river.

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8. Vijay Temple – Bijamandal Mosque

Vidisha is a city in the state of Madhya Pradesh, around 60km from the capital city of Bhopal.
Vidisha is famous for its Bijamandal Masjid and its interesting history. In India, many rich and
marvelous Hindu temples were destroyed and converted into mosques during Islamic rule. The
Bija Mandal Mosque is another example of the Hindu temples that were robbed, plundered,
demolished, destroyed and converted into mosques using the same raw materials from the
demolished temples.
Today, Bijamandal having lost all its ancient grandeur stands still through the passage of time as
a bitter, painful and sad reminder of the invasions and brutality of Mughals and Islamic invaders.
The Bijamandal mosque was constructed using the raw materials of a demolished Hindu temple,
dedicated to Goddess Charchika, which was built by the erstwhile Paramar Kings.
One of the pillars at the site bears an inscription which suggests that the original temple was
dedicated to the presiding deity Vijaya, the goddess, and granter of victory, and was built by
King Naravarman of Malwa. This is clearly mentioned by ASI at the site. The etymology of the
word Bija or Bijaya is a distortion of the original name of the Goddess Vijaya Rani. Bija Mandal
or Bijaya Mandir was a temple dedicated to a Hindu goddess.
Aurangzeb looted, plundered and demolished the temple in 1658-1707 AD. He buried all the
treasured idols at the northern side of the temple and converted it into a mosque. For around 300
years, the now protected ASI monument was used as a central prayer hall and mosque for
celebrations and large gatherings, especially during Eid.

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9. Somnath Temple – Temple Restored

Located in Prabhas Patan near Veraval in Saurashtra on the western coast of Gujarat, Somnath
Temple is believed to be the first among the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva. It is an
important pilgrimage and tourist spot of Gujarat. Destroyed and reconstructed several times in
the past, the present temple was reconstructed in Chaulukya style of Hindu temple architecture
and completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was envisioned by Vallabhbhai Patel and was
completed under K. M. Munshi, the then head of the temple trust.

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The entire temple priests were massacred and the temple valuables looted during the sack by
Ghazni.
There is also an interesting story that Muslim invaders believed that the devils idols are kept in
the temple of Al-Lat etc. and that is why it was sacked again and again. It is known that many
pre-Islamic Arabians came to this temple for pilgrimage as the god here represented their moon
god.
In AD 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni first looted the temple, and then came Afzal Khan, the
commander of Alauddin Khilji and later Aurangzeb. It is said that the temple was looted and
destroyed as many as seventeen times. The great Temple was sacked again and again from
Ghazni to the Muslim dynasties of Gujarat to the Portuguese and up till Aurangzeb. A symbol of
a great civilization laid in ruins till Vallabhai Patel decided to rebuild it.
10. Several Hindu & Jain Temples – Qawwat al-Islam Mosque
Dhruv Stambh/Vishnu Dhwaj – Qutub Minar

Qutub Minar in Delhi was actually Dhruv Sthambh or Vishnu Dhwaj that existed even before
the times of King Vikramaditya and had Arabic scripts and motifs retro-installed by Qutb-ud-din
Aibak between 1191 – 1210 AD, followed by his successors Iltutmish, Alauddin etc till 1315
AD. If we look at Qutub Minar from the top angle, it shows a lotus of 24 petals. Lotus is
definitely not Islamic symbol, but it is an ancient Vedic symbol and the creator Brahma is said to
have been born from a lotus that emerged from Lord Vishnu’s navel.

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There is a township adjoining the Kutub Minar is known as Mehrauli. That is a Sanskrit word
Mihira-awali. It signifies the township where the well-known astronomer Varaha-Mihira of
Vikramaditya’s court lived along with his helpers, mathematicians, and technicians. They used
the Qutub tower as an observation post for astronomical study. Around the tower were
pavilions dedicated to the 27 constellations of the Vedic Astrology. Qutubuddin has left us an
inscription that he destroyed these pavilions. But he has not said that he raised any tower. The
ravaged temple was renamed as Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque.

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The first mosque of Delhi is Qubbat al-Islam or Quwwat al_Islam which, Qutubud-Din Aibak
constructed after demolishing the Hindu temple built by Prithvi Raj Chauhan and leaving certain
parts of the temple outside the mosque proper; and when he returned from Ghazni he started
building, under orders from Shihabud -Din Ghori, a huge mosque of inimitable red stones, and
certain parts of the temple were included in the mosque.

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 CHAPTER VII
Aesthetics Vs. Meaning: The Importance of Hindu
Architecture
https://www.indictoday.com/long-reads/aesthetics-meaning-importance-hindu-
architecture/

The Perspective Heaven

Any student of architecture with reasonable skills in photography knows by instinct upon
entering the precincts of an Islamic monument like the Taj Mahal, Agra, or the Bibi Ka Maqbara,
Aurangabad that he has landed into perspective heaven.
The perspective here is easily coaxed out of almost any angle. Point the camera in the right
direction and the perspective lines are ready-made. The beautiful gardens with many layers of
fountains, water passages, shrub lines, and footpaths straddle throughout the monument.
The parallel and perpendicular lines that run across the precincts provide the third dimension to
the photograph by creating depth in space. The geometrical designs crisscross in perfect
symmetry in and around the monument framing it in a ready-made perspective from many
angles.

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Taj Mahal, Agra
Most of the Islamic monuments in India and abroad, much like their Renaissance counterparts
were built from this aesthetic perspective. They were created to dazzle and impress the visitor
with grandeur and power. They were built for beauty and beauty alone. Aesthetics is what drove
them. Much thought went into creating them so that they would look perfect from every angle.
This is not just true of the Indo-Saracenic or the Mughal monuments in India. Taj Mahal is not
the only one with the beautiful perspective lines. Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, Buland Darwaza in
Sikri, the tombs of the Barid Shahi Kings at Bidar, and the Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad are
all built on the concept of perfect geometrical symmetry built to please the eye.
And this is where the Hindu temple differs from them.
In Search of Meaning

Of course, the Hindu temple is also built to please the eye. There is no art in India which violates
the basic principles of aesthetics. Indian craftsmen were always well-versed in the universal
principles which went into creating a piece of art that pleased the senses.
But this is not where they stopped. Beauty or aesthetics was the means, but it was not the goal of
Indian art. The goal of Indian art was to transcend the beautiful, transcend what merely looked
good to the eye. The goal of Indian art was to transport the viewer to the higher planes of
consciousness. Coomaraswamy says:
‘Just as Professor Masson-Oursel has pointed out, ‘Indian art is aiming at something quite other
than the copying of Nature. What we assume, quite superficially, to be the inspiration of art for
art’s sake, really proceeds from religious scholasticism that implies a traditional classification
of types established by convention. If here or there a relief or painting exhibits some feature

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drawn from life, it is only accidentally that the artist has, in spite of himself, transcribed
something from actual Nature: and this is certainly, from the indigenous point of view, the least
meritorious part of his work.’ Those who wish to study the ‘development’ of Indian art must
emancipate themselves entirely for the innate European tendency to use a supposedly greater or
less degree of the observation of Nature as a measuring rod by which to trace stylistic sequences
or recognize aesthetic merit. Indian art can only be studied as showing at different times a
greater or less degree of consciousness, greater or less energy; the criteria are degrees of
vitality, unity, grace, and the like, never of illusion. (Transformation of Nature… 117)
He makes it clear that aesthetics is incidental to Indian art; it is never its primary goal. The
primary goal is to guide the devotee towards the Ultimate Truth.
The Hindu temple is most certainly beautiful. Anyone who has ever laid his eyes upon the
majesty that is the Kailashnath, Ellora; or looked upon the stupendous achievement that is the
Brihadeeswar, Thanjavur; mused about the sheer will power and beauty personified that is the
Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho; or wondered about the caves of Elephanta, will swear that
there is seldom anything in the Hindu temple that is not beautiful.

Shikhara of Kandariya Mahadeva with Miniature Shikharas creating the Main Shikhara
But the Hindu temple does not stop there. Beauty is a side product, but not the end goal of the
Hindu temple.
One will find perspective lines in the Hindu temple too. Not as many and not as readily available
to the camera as they do in an Islamic monument, but they are available. They are not the entire
point thought. Ritual symbolism is always more important to Hindu architecture than symmetry.
And thus you will find the temple pond always on the Ishana Kona of any temple which is
absolutely not mirrored on the Agneya or the Nairittya side.
Symmetry is not the point here. Similarly, the Hindu temple grows organically, and different
parts of the temple mirror different needs and symbolize different meanings.

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A Temple Pond, Kerala
So the perspective lines do exist in the Hindu temple but as soon as you approach the structure
your eyes start deciphering structures within the structure, temples within temples, rathas within
rathas, gavaksha within gavaksha, shikharas upon shikharas, motifs decorated with miniature
motifs.
There is action everywhere. You become mesmerized with a war scene and just then your eye
flits to another scene nearby in which a couple is in an amorous embrace. Then your eye catches
the beauty and the relaxed poise of the Vishnu in tribhanga just nearby.
Once again your eye flits across and you see a Shiva Dakshinamurthy. In between, there are
swans, elephants, horses, makaras, and other animals. There are doorways within doorways.
Monoliths with a thousand individual sculptures carved in it. Look away and you discern a
Puranic story being portrayed, an aspect of Rama’s or Krishna’s life portrayed.
You soon become overwhelmed. The Hindu temple is all action and yet it leads towards ultimate
inaction inside the garbha-griha. But the outer walls are all action. It is designed to not let your
eyes rest at one place. It is designed to make the disciple view the samsara in all its
ephemeral avataras; to realize that all that is worldly will disappear and is impermanent.

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Outer Walls of Laxman Temple, Khajuraho – Samsara in all its Complexity
The Hindu temple is not passive. It actively tells stories. It imparts meaning to every part of its
structure; it tells stories and teaches deep truths with every figure of its sculptures.
There is no icon, no niche, no part of the Hindu temple which does not exude meaning and this
meaning always leads to the realization of the Ultimate Truth, represented in its fullest by the
deity in the garbha-griha.
While a mosque or a tomb is nothing more than beautiful, with its beauty lying in its social use
and its historical details, the Hindu temple lends itself to many purposes, but most of all it readily
and passionately lends itself to meaning, meaning which is not directionless but which guides the
devotee towards the Ultimate Truth.
The intention of the creators of these great temples was never missed upon the audience that
visited them. The rules that governed the concept and creation of the temple also went to
condition the mind and the behavior of the devotee too.
Everyone who visited the temple had a certain expectation from it, and this expectation was
neither aesthetic nor intellectual. The devotee came to the temple for having ‘darshana’ of the
deity, for finding meaning in life and in the temple, as Coomaraswamy once again stresses:
“…whereas we make an aesthetic emotion the first and final end of art, medieval man was
moved far more by the meaning that illuminated the forms than by these forms themselves…”
(Christian and Oriental… 111)

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The meaning is not just confined to the sculpture that adorns its walls or to the vigraha in the
garbha-griha. The structural parts of the architecture also convey meaning. There is nothing
purely decorative in the Hindu temple. Every piece of sculpture and every structure of the
building conveys some meaning, tells some story. To a Hindu architect the adjective ‘decorative’
sounds pejorative, as Coomaraswamy explains:
“The product was not called “art”, but an “artifact,” a thing “made by art”; the art remains in
the artist. Nor was there any distinction of “fine” from “applied” or “pure” form “decorative”
art. All art was for “good use” and “adapted to condition”. Art could be applied either too
noble or to common uses but was no more or less art in the one case than in the other. Our use
of the word “decorative” would have been abusive as if we spoke of a mere millinery or
upholstery: for all the words purporting decoration in many languages, referred originally not
to anything that could be added to an already finished and effective product merely to please the
eye or ear, but to the completion of anything with whatever might be necessary to its functioning,
whether with respect to the mind or the body: a sword, for example, would “ornament” a knight,
as virtue “ornaments” the soul or knowledge the mind.” (Christian and Oriental… 111-112)
The meaning in a Hindu temple exudes from the plan of the elevation, from the material that is
used in the walls, and which is used to fashion the vigraha. The meaning is there in the Utsava
Murti of the temple, but also in the rituals that are being followed. The meaning is in how the
deity is worshipped; how the priests worship; and how the devotee has darshan.
The Hindu temple is beautiful, but it also transcends beauty. The Hindu temple is aesthetic, but it
goes beyond it. The Hindu temple is a representation of the cosmos, but its meaning goes beyond
even the cosmos and leads towards the timeless and the eternal; the Ultimate Consciousness.
The goal of the Hindu temple is not to impress its visitor by its architectural magnitude or even
by its sculptural beauty. Its goal is to elevate the consciousness of the devotee, to transport him
to higher planes of consciousness. The Hindu temple, like all other Hindu sciences, is a means to
reach higher stages of consciousness. It is a means for self-realization.
At first look, it seems surprising that something as concrete as architecture can transport
someone to sublime heights of philosophy, but the Hindu temple does just that. And it has
developed special techniques to achieve that.
The Aedicule in the Hindu Temple

In order to understand that we need to first understand the meaning of the term aedicule, this is
frequently used about the Hindu temple. In the context of the Hindu temple, the term aedicule
refers to the miniature shrine or a mini replica of the entire temple, temple shikhara or vimana,
which is to be found most prominently on its shikhara and outer walls of the garbha-griha.
It is found in all three major varieties of Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida and is so profusely used in
some architectural styles such as that of the Kalyani Chalukyas and Hoysalas of Karnataka that
Gerard Foekema calls the very style as ‘architecture decorated by architecture’.

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Kalleshvara Temple, Hire Hadagalli, Karnataka – Architecture decorated by Architecture
The aedicule is so universally present that it overwhelms the visitor, forcing him to constantly
keep shifting his attention from one miniature shrine to another, making it hard for him to
distinguish where one aedicule ends and another begins. It is this feature which led James
Fergusson to observe that “everywhere…in India, architectural decoration is made up of small
models of large buildings.” (Ferguson 285) Adam Hardy who considers the idiom of aedicule as
the fundamental concept behind Indian architectural thinking, says:
“…it was some time after my first trip to India that it gradually became clear to me that
aedicules are not just ornaments, but the basic units from which most Indian temple architecture
is composed. Temple design is conceived as containing numerous smaller temples or shrines,
arranged hierarchically at various scales, embedded within the whole or within one another.
Once this simple concept is understood, other things fall into place.” (Hardy 10)

The Hindu philosophy imagines macrocosm in microcosm (Yatha pinde, tatha brahmande
and this thinking is reflected in all art in India. It is also the basic idea behind the idiom of the
aedicule. The entire temple is reflected in its parts. Sometimes the aedicules are themselves made
up of smaller aedicules and this series continues up to the point where architecture allows it to. It
conveys the idea of an endlessly regressing series of aedicules, something like the fractal
geometry.

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Kashi Vishwanatha Temple, Lakkundi – Fractal Geometry at Display
As the temple is a representation of the universe, hence the entire universe is reflected again and
again in the smallest parts of the temple. The idiom of aedicule is most prominently used in the
shikhara of the temple. In some styles, like the Shekhari mode of the Nagara style, the shikhara is
made of its smaller versions, called urushringas (half shikharas). These urushringas crowd
together and rise to meet at the top beneath the amalaka.
Hindu Temple as Mount Meru

The Hindu temple architecture elevates the devotee to higher planes of consciousness by using
spiritual symbols. In one symbolism, the Hindu temple is built and perceived in the image of
Mount Meru, the sacred mountain.
Mount Meru represents ultimate knowledge and climbing it symbolizes attaining self-realization.
As a devotee enters a Hindu temple, such as the Kandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho, and
as he proceeds through the various parts of the temple, from mukh mandapam, to mandapam,
to mahamandapam, and then finally to garbha-griha, he symbolically climbs the Mount Meru,
leaving the world, its multiplicity and ignorance behind and proceeds towards the pinnacle of
knowledge, that is self-realization; he proceeds to have darshan of the deity in the garbha-griha,
where he realizes his oneness with the deity or the Supreme consciousness.

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Kandariya Mahadeva as Mount Meru

This process is mirrored in the symbolism. The outermost walls of the temple are full of every
kind of sculpture but as one goes inside the sculpture becomes more divine in nature and
gradually disappears in the garbha-griha except the main deity.
The garbha-griha is so named because it is literally the womb of the temple. It is the geometrical
centre of the temple site, with its centre, the brahmasthana, occupied by the primary deity. It is
called the womb because, under the deity, the ‘seed’ of the temple is inseminated in
a kalasha (pitcher) and buried. It is directly above this that the image of the deity is installed.

Hindu Temple as a Fire Altar

The temple vimana is imagined as the fire of a fire altar, of a Yajna vedi or Vedic fire altar. The
shape of the vimana which tapers, recedes, and coalesces into one point at the top with many of
half-vimanas, or half-shikharas or miniature aedicular vimanas decorating the ascent of
the vimana resembles the sacrificial fire of a fire altar.

The Temple as the Divine Tree

The symbolism of the seed is taken further. This seed is believed to have sprouted upwards in the
form of the temple vimana and branching out in various shoots, leaves, and branches, it again
coalesces at the top in one kalash, bearing fruit which again contains the seed from which it
came, and thus directly above this, outside the temple, over the vimana, another kalash is
installed which has the same ‘seed’ which is deposited in the kalash underground. Here the
temple vimana is imagined as a tree. As S. K. Ramachandra Rao puts it:
“The spot where the ‘womb’ is hidden would be the seat of the icon. The icon represents the sap
of the temple-tree, the four walls would indicate the spreading branches all around. The roof
resting over the wall is technically called ‘row of doves’ (kapota-pali or simply kapota), after the
birds that perch on tree-tops. The sanctum is thus a neat model of the growing tree.” (Rao
74)
The seed in the underground holds the seed of supreme consciousness. When this consciousness
sprouts, it takes the form of the deity in the garbha-griha. On the other hand, the consciousness
from above also descends and meets the consciousness that is rising from below. The ascent of
individual consciousness is complemented by the descent of the universal consciousness. It is a

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symbolic way of showing the individual consciousness rising up to meet the universal or
supreme consciousness.

Shikhara of Brihadeeswar Temple – Gangaikondacholapuram – Temple as a Divine Tree

This ascent and descent are taking on the vertical axis of the temple, in the garbha-griha and in
the vimana that tops it. The devotee that stands in the mandapam, in front of the deity lies on the
horizontal axis of the temple. It is his active desire, his deep faith which lets him partake in the
divine ascent and divine descent that is taking place in the garbha-griha.
Through the authority of the shastras; the agency of the temple as a Yantra to bring about desired
goals; through the worship offered by the priest on the behalf of the devotee; and through divine
grace, the devotee partakes in the ascent of consciousness. Deeply meditated upon, the ascent of
the consciousness in the garbha-griha becomes his own ascent.

“The shrine thus demonstrates the constellation of the human and the divine currents; matter
moves up and the spirit flows down. The devotee that stands in front of the icon is expected to
partake in this transaction. The emanations that proceed from the icon must be picked up by the
faith in his heart. Devotion is the transformer. The rituals conducted within the shrine involve
these ideas and attempt to facilitate transformation along the horizontal axis of icon-devotee.
The devotee represents active matter and the icon passive spirit. The two are brought together in
the creative act of worship.” (Rao 80)
This is why darshan holds such importance for a Hindu devotee visiting a temple. More than
prayers, more than signing devotional hymns, it is the act of darshan which is central to a temple
visit and which transforms the individual consciousness of the devotee having darshan to higher
levels.

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The symbolism of the temple vimana as the tree is also understood by its etymology. The very
Sanskrit word ‘vimana’ has two connotations: “that which is without comparison” and “that
which brings about fruit”. Hence the word ‘vimana’ means the one which bears fruit.

Hindu Temple is all about Meaning

To come back to the point where we started, the Hindu temple is not just a monument. It is a
living institution but even more than that it has a meaning and a goal. Through its imagery and
play with sculpture and architecture, it elevates the devotees to higher planes of consciousness.
It is not just there to be seen and to be impressed with. It is not just a geometrical marvel. It is not
just a photographer’s delight. It is more than the perspective that it offers. It is more than the
faith that it commands. It speaks in the language of symbols. It aims to transcend the concrete.
It aims to carry the devotee towards truth through its brilliant imagery and potent symbols. The
Hindu temple is not silent. It speaks. The Hindu temple is not passive. It acts. The Hindu temple
is not just a place. It is a process: the process of self-realization.
The Hindu temple is all about meaning. It is a device which means to decipher the deepest
secrets of life and existence to its devotees, through the most elaborate system of sculptural and
architectural symbols.
This is where it differs from both the church and the mosque. But the philosophy behind the
Hindu temple is also very different from the modern concept of architecture .

Destruction of Hindu Temples: Loss of Physical Spaces for Hindus

It was this enduring, prosperous and robust temple ecosystem that the first wave of alien Muslim
armies encountered when they knocked on the doors of Bharatavarsha. The incisive historian and
scholar, Sita Ram Goel describes[i] this encounter vividly:

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On the eve of Islamic invasions, the cradle of Hindu culture was honeycombed with temples and
monasteries, in many shapes and sizes. The same sources inform us that many more temples
and monasteries continued to come up in places where the Islamic invasion had yet to reach or
from where it was forced to retire for some time by the rallying of Hindu resistance. Hindus
were great temple builders because their pantheon was prolific in Gods and Goddesses and their
society rich in schools and sects, each with its own way of worship. But by the time we come to
the end of the invasion, we find that almost all these Hindu places of worship had either
disappeared or were left in different stages of ruination. Most of the sacred sites had come to be
occupied by a variety of Muslim monuments-masjids and îdgãhs (mosques), dargãhs and ziãrats
(shrines), mazãrs and maqbaras (tombs), madrasas and maktabs (seminaries), takiyãs and
qabristãns (graveyards).
From the earliest destructions of Hindu temples that roughly began with the Martanda-Surya
Devalaya at Moolasthana (today’s Multan in Pakistan), the subsequent eight hundred years of
India’s history is in many ways just one single, long tale of ceaseless, large-scale temple
destructions. Sita Ram Goel has also meticulously documented this tragic record in his two-
volume “Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them.” These volumes cite seventy primary-source
Muslim histories and estimate that about three thousand temples have been destroyed across the
vast geography of Bharatavarsha including what is today Afghanistan and Pakistan. The volumes
conclude that this number[ii] is just the “tip of the iceberg.” It is estimated that the actual figure
is at least ten times this number.
Destroying the Sense of Sanctity
Of the prominent temples destroyed, only the Shiva Devalaya at Somanath, Gujarat has been
fully rebuilt and restored. And among Kashi, Mathura, and Ayodhya, only Mathura has been
partially recovered and restored notwithstanding the splendid Krishna Janmasthana
Temple that stands on the site today.
The design and intent behind the destruction of these sites most sacred to Hindus was clear: to
shake the foundations of the faith of Hindus in their three most revered deities viz, Shiva (Kashi
and Somanatha), Rama (Ayodhya), and Krishna (Mathura).
This protracted history is also witness to several of these temples being rebuilt. But that is only
by way of an aftermath of sorts. What should also be examined are the associated and ancillary
destructions that occurred as a consequence of this primary destruction of the physical structure
of temples. As also the widespread and permanent erasure of physical and cultural memory. The
immediate examples that come to mind is the present condition of the entire region of the
erstwhile Greater India (Brihadbharata), and in recent memory, of Undivided India.
Both in Afghanistan and Pakistan, little if anything remains of its Dharmic past. The
aforementioned Moolasthana, after it was repeatedly attacked and razed to the ground, lost its
original identity when the Ismaili ruler replaced the Sun Temple with a mosque in the late
10th century. The Persian scholar Al Beruni visited Moolasthana in the 11th century and reported
that it was no longer being visited by Hindu pilgrims because the Sun Temple lay in ruins
without being rebuilt. This loss was accompanied by an irreversible loss of all its unique local
customs, traditions, dialect, texts, art forms, apparel, technical and other skills, cuisine, utsavas
and so on. Needless to say, Moolasthana’s instance played out in exactly the same fashion in
temples destroyed in every single region even in what is known as India today. We can cite a few
representative examples.

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Ummatur
Ummatur is today a small village about 170 kilometres by road from Bangalore. It was once the
capital of the Ummatur king, a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire. Ummatur is also the place
from where Sri Krishnadevaraya began his campaign of Digvijaya or imperial conquest. To
commemorate his trail of victory, Sri Krishnadevaraya later endowed the Bhujangeswara and
the Ranganatha Swamy Temples with land grants and other bounties. The Ranganatha
Swamy temple has his bust engraved on one of its pillars. Both temples face each other and are
now under the state government’s control are in a condition of significant disrepair.
Note: Click on the gallery to view the images
Barring the postmaster of its local post office, hardly anybody in the village is aware of or
interested in the historical significance of their own place. This official also doubles up as the
Purohita of the Ranganatha Swamy temple.
Umari
The next example is a superb eighth or ninth century Surya Temple built by
the Pratihara rulers in Umari in the Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh. In keeping with
tradition, this Nagara-style temple faces east and is built on an elevated platform, and the plan
comprises a Garbha Girha, Antarala and a Maha Mantapa. It is adorned with fine sculptures
of Ganesha, Kartikeya, Vishnu, Sapta Matrikas, the ten avataras of Vishnu, and various
figures of Surya among others.
When the present author visited it about eight years ago, it was largely inaccessible and its
Moola Murti was reported to be stolen. It was hardly maintained and one is doubtful as to how
much longer it will survive.
Antri
Vir Singh Bundela was a powerful, able and valiant Bundela Rajput king who ruled the
kingdom of Orchha between 1605—27 CE. He threw an open challenge to the might
of Akbar who was at the height of his power by attacking and murdering at Antri Abul
Fazl, considered one of the "nine gems" of Akbar's court.
Vir Singh was also a prolific temple builder and commissioned numerous temples in the
Brajmandal region that comprises today’s Mathura and Vrindavan. He was also the patron of
the Bhakti Saint Keshavdas.

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Grave of Abul Fazl at Antri
Although local legends abound about the brave Vir Singh, little if any of the physical spaces that
he created remains today in Antri. However, the tomb of Abul Fazl has been preserved intact.
Rajorgarh
The badly-ruined Neelakantha Temple in Rajorgarh in the Alwar district
of Rajasthan showcases the prowess of the Pratihara architecture. An inscription dated 961 CE
recovered by the Archaeological Survey of India shows that it was built by Maharajadhiraja
Mathanadeva, a Pratihara feudatory. In its present condition, notes the ASI record, the temple is
a
…three-shrined complex of which the central one facing west and dedicated to Siva-linga, has
preserved its full elevation including sikhara, while the lateral shrines are now bereft of their
superstructures. The three shrines are pancharatha and share a common rangamandapa,
supported on four central pillars and preceded by a porch. The temple has a pitha which
supports a vedibandha with niched figures. The jangha of the central shrine bears figures of
Narasimha (north), Harihararka (east) and Tripurantaka (south) on the bhadra niches and those
of surasundaris and dikpalas on other projections. The rangamandapa has a concentric ceiling
of coffered cusps of the padmasila type while all the pillars are laden with figural ornaments of
surasundaris and gandharvas in multiple zones.
However, today it remains largely inaccessible, atop a steep mountain with hardly any directions
to locate it easily. When the present author visited it, it was home to animals and found that
priceless sculptures were carelessly strewn around, and it was hard to clearly make out the details
of the sculptures. Its heritage has all but been permanently lost.
Indeed, one can add any number of such temples of considerable antiquity to this list including
the magnificent Shiva temple at Malwai on the Madhya Pradesh-Gujarat border built by the
Bhils in the 12th Century. These temples are only symbolic and symptomatic of the same
phenomenon which can best be described in an oblique fashion.

It is striking that when one visits a Kugrama (a dilapidated village) far away from “civilisation,”
one suddenly witnesses a temple of immense grandeur or a monument of great antiquity. But
there seems to be no logical explanation as to why all of them still lie in utter ruin and
unforgivable neglect long after the vandals have departed and seventy years after India attained
freedom. When we observe the simple fact that almost no temple of the classical era exists in the
entire Ganga-Yamuna region, it is hard to avoid the inescapable conclusion as we shall see.
But if this is the fate of the aforementioned temples of antiquity, we must also examine the
condition of restored temples at say, Konark, Khajuraho, Ellora and
numerous Chalukya and Hoysala temples. Apart from a handful of Chalukya and Hoysala
temples, none of the others have active worship, which is a sure sign of a lapsed cultural
heritage. They have become mere tourist attractions, accompanied by the familiar detrimental
elements at a typical tourist site in India. The fabled UNESCO World Heritage site, Hampi for
example, has witnessed[v] considerable drug trade, the hippie culture, murders, and other crimes.
This is another form of the same cultural negligence and apathy noted in the examples cited
earlier.This phenomenon is but one more facet of civilizational and cultural persecution that
Hindus have internalized and even normalized.

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Continual and Continuing Loss of Hindu Physical Spaces
One can also consider the impact of large scale temple destructions from another
perspective. Dr. J K Bajaj, India’s foremost demographer and scholar, in his researches,
provides some conclusions. In the same Ganga-Yamuna belt—or North India, broadly speaking
—there is not a single village or town that has remained in the same place for more than four
hundred years. In his study tours, Dr Bajaj found[vii] only one village near Hissar, Haryana,
which remained intact for more than six hundred or so years. He also found that it almost exactly
resembled a typical South Indian village in terms of its plan and layout: for example, where and
how the temple, water bodies, burial grounds, fields and farmland, boundary, etc should be
located. This was completely unlike any typical North Indian village falling in the entire stretch
of Punjab to Bihar to Bengal.
To understand the impact of temple destructions, it is important to understand what’s known as
the “rooted” Indian psyche. An honest study of Hindu history and culture shows that this psyche
is one which is deeply rooted to their tradition (Sampradaya) and the intimacy that their
immediate surrounding provides them. Unless violently forced, Indians typically never moved
out of their villages for generations. Until very recently, the term "mera gaon" (or "namma
ooru/halli" in Kannada) was a term connoting attachment and conveying a sense of
belongingness. This has been used in countless books, stories and movies as a recurrent theme.
Indians typically never traced their roots to an urban centre.

Thus, when a Nalanda University which was economically and otherwise supported by over
two hundred villages (apart from royal patronage) is mercilessly destroyed with one body blow,
when Chidambaram, Rameswaram and countless such temples are razed, it automatically
destroys all this substructure including people, traditions, customs, and way of life. Today, the
local populace of even these celebrated temple towns and heritage sites know very little of their
own place.
Or to state the obvious, destruction of temples is the destruction of memory and connections. The
history of every civilisation and culture also lies in its physical spaces which are both the
incubators and resting places of its arts and way of life.

Concluding Remarks
Of course, one can rationally explain the religious motives of alien faiths destroying Hindu
temples and everything associated with them. Yet, what explains the fact that in the modern
time, Hindus are themselves stealing their own Deities and selling them to the very people whose
religious tenets ordain them to destroy idols? The enormous wealth accruing from trade in stolen
antiques and idols is one of the major fuelsfor the ever-expanding terror activities across the
globe.Dr. S L Bhyrappa explores this phenomenon in his epic Kannada novel, Thantu very
artistically using the theft of the Saraswati Murti (belonging to the Hoysala era) as a motif.
Similarly, the Telugu poet and novelist Viswanatha Satyanarayana also explores this cultural
loss and alienation in a different way in his Veyyi Padagalu. The Devadasi in the novel who
performs the last dance of her life as her regular Seva in the temple of her village dies on the
stage. Her art form dies forever with her death.

In Dr. S L Bhyrappa’s other novel Mandra, the same Mahadeva temple in which the
protagonist learnt classical music in his youth has transformed into a place of debauchery in his
own lifetime. In his youth, the Mahadeva temple epitomized a sacred space of music. In his old

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age, the Atma Linga has morphed into a phallus. He is himself a helpless eyewitness to this
transformation.

The conception, origin, evolution, and development of temples as physical, architectural

structures is perhaps as old as the dawn of human civilisation as we know it. Temples represent
one of the finest, deepest, grandest, and most profound expressions of the Human Spirit of awe,
wonderment, and a timeless yearning for spirituality, philosophy, art and creativity etched in
stone, wood, and other mediums.
Indeed, when we notice the various forms of temples from the earliest of civilisations—Minoan,
Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Mayan, Chinese, Incan, and most certainly, Bharatiya—we notice
precisely this same spirit of yearning. In fact, the etymology of the word, “temple” can be traced
to the Latin term, “Templum” meaning, a shrine, sacred place, an open area meant for augury,
and so on. However, almost no temple of the non-Bharatiya antiquarian civilisations survives
today thanks largely to their destructive encounter with Christianity and Islam. But it is also
notable that these two Prophetic religions with their zealous abhorrence against and prohibition
of what they call “idol worship,” “but,” etc, nevertheless have countless mosques, dargahs,
churches, cathedrals, shrines, etc. In a way, this represents the triumph of the aforementioned
innate spiritual longing over manmade, prophetic prohibitions.
The role, significance and eminence of Hindu temples becomes abundantly clear when we regard
them in this protracted historical backdrop. As is well known, the words for “temple” in Sanskrit
and Bharatiya Bhasha are variously, “Devalaya,” “Devasthanam,” “Aalya,” “Mandir,”
“Kovela,” “Koil,” and so on. A quick derivation of the etymology of “Devalaya” is as
follows: Devasya (Devaanaam) Alayah. This means, “a place in which resides light, sport,
victory, transaction, prayer (stuti), joy, bliss, dream, beauty, and dynamism.” For an excellent
and more detailed exposition, one can refer Devalayatattva by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.
While the pre-Christian Western civilisations developed temple culture largely as places for
public congregation, divination, and augury, Bharata elevated it in an all-encompassing sense.
For instance, the English word, “temple” also means the locations spanning the two sides of the
forehead, which is flat, akin to a sacred altar. In the Bharatiya conception, the entire body is itself
a temple suggested by slokas such as Dehah devalayah proktah jivo devah sanatanah, hrudya
tadvijaaneeyaat vishwasyaayatanam mahat, and so on. Thus, the feet are the main doors, the
reproductive organ the Dhwajasthambha, the stomach the Balipeeta, the heart
the Navaranga, the neck the Sukanasi, and the head the Garbhagriha. In short, a temple
represents and encompasses all three staras or stages: Adhibhuta, Adhidhaiva, and Adhyatma.
The following quotations elegantly and accurately capture the essence of the philosophy
underlying Devalaya (Note: I shall use the terms “temple” and “Devalaya” interchangeably in
this essay).

I] The underlying philosophy of temples is rooted in an attempt to experience the Brahmanda—

which is space-time neutral—that is ensconced in the Pindanda, which is subject to the vagaries
of space and time.
II] Temples are built in order to remind the devotee of Parameswara’s creation and the Human
Being’s body and the evolution of his Jiva [life, life-force] by carving sculptures and Murtis.[ii]
More fundamentally, the earliest conceptions of temples emanated from the Vedic vision of the
heart as a cave—for example, nihitam guhaayaam, hrudayam tadvijaaneeyaat, the
extraordinary Jnana Yagna verses occurring towards the end of the Mahanarayana

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Upanishad. The summary of these conceptions is a visualisation that in our heart resides the
Parameswara (or the highest knowledge) in the form of light and it should be our goal and aim to
realise this light. This conception strikes us when we notice the fact that the Mula-Murti resides
in the Garbha Griha, which is the heart of any temple.
On the physical plane, it is undeniable that temples as we know them originated[iii] from Yagna
Vedis. For a comprehensive discussion on this topic, one can again refer to Shatavadhani Dr.
Ganesh’s Devalayatattva.

The Devalaya Ecosystem

The foregoing introduction serves to illustrate the sort of the firm foundation which in turn paved
the way for the evolution of what can be called as the Devalaya Ecosystem. The Devalaya
Ecosystem is a socio-cultural accomplishment and a civilizational summit that is unparalleled
anywhere in human history. The fact that even today there is a new temple being built, some old
temple being renovated in some corner of Bharata almost everyday testifies not only to the
endurance and longevity of its roots but is also an eminent proof that as long as Sanatana
Dharma survives in the world, it will invariably find its expression in temples.
From the perspective of the Trigunas (basic attributes or qualities of human nature),
namely, Sattva (balance, serenity, etc), Rajas (activity, passion, vigour,
etc, and Tamas (laziness, indolence, stupor, etc), a Devalaya is the purest architectural,
sculptural, and artistic embodiment of the Sattva Guna. By itself, it does nothing, it takes no
action. But by its mere existence it inspires, motivates and guides all noble human endeavours in
multiple realms. A Devalaya thus becomes the pillar and the rest house supporting,
accommodating, and enabling the attainment of Dharma and fulfilling the various duties and
activities related to Artha.
HTD-2-300x225_1.jpg

Image courtesy:- Google Image Search

In the realm of Dharma, it is the place to perform Acaras (customs, ceremonies, rituals,
celebrations) like Namakarana (naming ceremony), aksharabhyasa (initiation ceremony where
a child learns to write alphabets), vivaha (wedding), and so on. These ceremonies are part of the
individual discharging his/her Dharmic duties. In the realm of the community, the Devalaya is
the place for conducting mass marriages, Utsavas, Jatras, Annadanam, and other such

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celebrations. Indeed, not too long ago, the Devalaya was also the place where justice was
dispensed as seen even today in Dharmasthala.
On the plane of the Adhidaivika (divine, spiritual), we can consider the Deity
of Vastushastra, Viswakarma. His nine sons including Malakara, Darukara, Kuvindaka,
Kumbhakara, Sutradhara and others represent the respective professions of garland-maker,
carpenter, weaver, potter, and sculptor. These apart, we also have the farmer, chef, runner (or
messenger), singer, artisan and accountant among others. In other words, we do not fail to notice
in these instances, how these professions are sanctified by making them the descendants of a
particular Deity. Every profession had its rightful place and every professional could make a
living through honest labour. Needless, it’s equally clear how all of these professions make up an
entire economic system spawned and supported solely by a temple.
It is precisely this that we observe in every temple town across Bharatavarsha: Kashi, Mathura,
Kanchi, Chidambaram, Tirumala-Tirupati, Madurai, Palani, Pandarapura, Badirnath, and Puri.
We can also consider a tangential facet here: any Daana (donation, endowment, gift) given to a
temple became what’s known as Devasva or the property of the Deity over which nobody
(including the donor and the king) had the right. This in a way illustrates how well thought out
the system of checks and balances that were implemented. Dr. S Srikanta Sastri explains[iv] the
various facets of the Devalaya Ecosystem quite picturesquely in a passage that merits quoting at
length:
…temples occupied a prominent place from the perspective of education, fine arts, [reflected
the] economic condition [of the kingdom] and social service.
Thus, people had a firm belief and faith in the pious act of donating to temples. [Donors
included] everybody from the monarch to the most ordinary citizen…temples were governed and
maintained by a duly elected board. They distributed money, food grain, and seeds to farmers
from the Deity’s Treasury…[temples] were also engaged in moneylending…temples conducted
various celebrations like Pakshotsava [fortnightly utsavas], Maasotsava [monthly utsavas],
Brahmotsava, and oversaw the distribution of the harvest derived from temple lands.
Theatre and dance halls organized dramas during Utsava days in both Sanskrit and Desha
Bhashas. Music and dance recitals offered as Seva for the Deity immensely enriched art forms
like classical music, Bharatanatyam, and Vastushilpa [sculpture art]. Moral and spiritual
discourses by learned scholars, Yatis, and such other eminences were drawn from the Vedic and
Puranic lore thereby instilling and reinforcing Dharma among the pilgrims and others who
visited the temple.
There were also lecture halls for imparting higher education in Veda, Vedanga, Medicine and
other subjects by teachers and scholars employed by the temple. Students were given free
scholarship and boarding and lodging…
Massive temples were secure like fortresses and contained an abundance of food grain, water
and other supplies and provided shelter to refugees during wartime…Because Hindu kings
regarded temples as sacred spaces, they deferred harming or despoiling them even slightly even
if this caution meant certain defeat in war….
Temples in island nations like Java, Bali, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia were built following
the ideals and physical plan of various Indian temples.
As with most facets of our culture and society, temples also show a remarkable sense of
unbroken continuity and cultural unity in that they are still a living memory. The majestic
Somanatha Devalaya that was rebuilt in 1951 is a superb testimony to this inherited knowledge-
heritage, traditions, and rituals which were preserved intact even after hundreds of years of its

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repeated destruction and alien rule of India. Similarly, many of the ancient temple towns that
have also survived brutal shocks but still continue to thrive also echo the same.
Art forms such as Natyamelas, Harikata, Yakshagana, Kudiyattam, and Kathakali are the direct
offshoots of this same, sprawling Devalaya Ecosystem. For centuries, these art forms became the
immensely popular and excellent vehicles for transmitting a towering, beautiful, and sublime
culture. One can refer to Rallapalli Anantakrishna Sarma’s evocative and vividly descriptive
essays to glean valuable details and insights about the contribution of the Devalaya Ecosystems
especially during the Vijayanagara Era.
Notes:
[i] Devalayatattva: Pg 166: Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh
[ii] Bharateeya Samskruti: Pg 171: Dr. S Srikanta Sastri
[iii] Other excellent works include Prof S K Ramachandra Rao’s Indian Temple
Traditions, Stella Kramrisch’s The Hindu Temple (in two volumes), and Ananda K
Coomaraswamy’s writings on Indian art and sculpture.
[iv] Ibid: PP 171-72

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 CHAPTER VIII
Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of South
India
Introduction: In South Indian Temples, the equivalent term of Shikhara is vimana; unlike
the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including the sanctum beneath. In the
south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with
a finial. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian
temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples.
. Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:

 Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each
face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also
sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be
called "heterogeneous".

 Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be
more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
 Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the
top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in
overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the
northern Deccan and West India

Evidence of engineering marvel of Indian architecture can be clearly seen in the country's
temples. In Christianity the Height of the church was their way of showing the power of the
church in the community during the middle ages. The Gothic cathedral had to tower above
every other building to symbolize this majesty and authority of the church.
Cathedrals were very important because they were buildings made for Christians to praise and
worship God. Cathedrals were very tall, large buildings, so you could easily find one. Over
time, cathedrals were eventually built to have pointed arches. The builders did this because it
made cathedrals appear taller.

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why are cathedrals gothic? Gothic architecture, on the other hand, focused on height and light—
despite being constructed from heavy stone, Gothic cathedrals seem to defy the laws of gravity.
Common traits include pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, all of which enabled
the structures to be built taller and stronger. One of the fundamental characteristics of gothic
architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below)
enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers. This all meant
that gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights.

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However,in the case of the architecture of the Hindu tyemples, it is not only about the work of
ancient engineers of India; it is important to say that Hindu cosmology shapes the temples’ form
because 'it recreates the universe and every person’s struggle, occurring over multiple lifetimes,
to cast aside illusion in order to realize divine truth and oneness with an infinite god.' (India
Revealed: Hindu Temples of South India). The Vimana towers symbolize power and
connection between the human world on earth and the abode of gods and goddesses in
high heavens.This structure is the mountain residence of the gods because according to Hindu
cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains.

The temple’s overall form, dominated by its large central tower (vimana), reconstructs the
appearance of god’s mountaintop dwelling. All of these temples have beautiful, precise, and
harmonious geometry and many of them are richly decorated with sculptures of gods, animals,
flowers, erotic scenes, geometric patterns, and other figures bringing the memory of
mythological episodes.

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Temples were built to house a sacred symbol of a particular god.
Vimana is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South
India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of Odisha using the Kalinga style of
architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as it is in the shikhara towers of
temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically
smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking
architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as a pyramid, consisting
of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati vimanas that have up to
four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.
In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called
a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-
shaped crowning cap above the vimana.
A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main
entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is
believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall.
This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum
and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do
not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples
where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple complex itself.

Golden shrine of Tirumala Venkateswara Temple

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The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example.
This shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in
size when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth
century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory
even today.
1. The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous
example where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the
temple's history and identity.
2. Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana, the huge one for Shiva and the second one
for his consort, Meenakshi.
3. The vimana of the Big Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated
height. This form is not very common.
4. The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of
the vimana. It is a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana
chakra.
5. The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.

Several temples of India have impressive, soaring towers ‘Gopuram' (or ‘Gopura’), usually
ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. Gopurams are the dominant
architectural feature of a temple's outer appearance, sometimes soaring as high as 170 feet and
completely overshadowing the main shrine and other structures of the temple, due to their
colossal size. The Early Cholas always built the vimana (tower) of the core temple sanctuary as
the highest structure in the temple complex. Later, the Medieval Cholas began to build the
gopurams even taller than the central sanctuary’s vimana towers.
This building style was continued and widely used by later Hindu dynasties.

In the Dravidian (or South Indian style), “the sanctuary and the superstructure together are
called the vimana. In architecture texts regarding this style, the vimana is described as a
mountain-like spire of a free-standing temple.

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“The most distinctive feature of the Dravidian style is the articulation of the vimana, a composite
of the garbha griha and superstructure or spire (shikhara) which is a trapezoidal structure,
starting on a square base, and soaring up in a series of well-articulated stories called tala…”
(‘Shikhara’ means a dome-shaped crowning cap is located above the Vimana, while a Vimana
resembles a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically. Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of
India, A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com December 31, 2018 |

Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana

1)Sopana Marga:
The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on both
sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures. sōpānamārga (सोपानमार्ग).—m (S Ladder-road.) A
method, course, or way very practicable or easy. Used also literally--Way by a staircase or a
flight of steps or a ladder, a stairway. The Yali (IAST: Yāḻi) is a ancient creature seen in
many South Indian temples, often sculpted onto the pillars. It is portrayed as part lion, part
elephant and part horse, and in similar shapes. It is also part of Chola army troops. with some
bird-like features.
Descriptions of and references to yalis are very old, but they became prominent in south Indian
sculpture in the 16th century. Yalis were believed to be more powerful than the lion, the tiger or
the elephant.
In its iconography and image the yali has a catlike graceful body, but the head of a lion with
tusks of an elephant (gaja) and tail of a serpent. Sometimes they have been shown standing on
the back of a makara, another mythical creature and considered to be
the Vahan of Budha (Mercury). Some images look like three-dimensional representation of yalis.
Images or icons have been found on the entrance walls of the temples, and the graceful mythical
lion is believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading to the temple. They usually

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have the stylized body of a lion and the head of some other beast, most often an elephant (gaja-
vyala). Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha-vyala), horse- (ashva-vyala),
human- (nir-vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana-vyala) ones. Vyala, is also called sardula,
popular motif in Indian art, consisting of a composite leonine creature with the head of a tiger,
elephant, bird, or other animal, frequently shown in combat with humans or pouncing upon an
elephant.
It is a solar symbol, it represents—like the eagle seizing the serpent—the triumph of the spirit
over matter.Occurring in a relatively naturalistic form in the earliest monuments, notably the
great stupa at Sanchi (c. 50 BC) Vyala pouncing on an elephant, khondalite, mid-13th century;
on the Surya Deula (Sun Temple), at Konarak, Orissa, India. BELOW LEFT

and in the Kushan sculpture of Mathura (1st–3rd century AD), the vyala assumed a definite
stylized form about the 5th century. From the 8th century onward, it was constantly employed in
architectural decoration, being repeated, for example, on the walls of temples.

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Meenakshi Amman temple Madurai showing the 1,000 pillars with Vyalas carved on each.

2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha

Upapīṭha (उपपीठ) is a sub structure or member constructed beneath the adhiṣṭhāna. The term
is formed by combining two Sanskrit words namely upa and pīṭha. Upapīṭha serves three
important functions. They are,

1. Upapīṭha contributes to the stability (rakṣārtha),

2. Upapīṭha increases the height of the building (unnatārtha),
3. Upapīṭha enhaces the beauty (śobhārha).

Upapīṭha also symbolically conveys the form of trivarga structure.It is above the plinth called
the Adhiṣṭhāna (अधिष्ठान) or “pedestal” or “molded base”. Adhiṣṭhāna can also refer to an
“object on which something stands”. According to the Mayamata, an adhiṣṭhāna may be
optionally provided with an upapīṭha (sub-structure), but according to the Pādmasaṃhitā this
is mandatory.
According to the Mayamata, Adhiṣṭhāna has the following synonyms: Masūraka,
Vāstvādhāra, Kuttima, Tala; while the Kāmikāgama extends this lists with: Dharātala,
Ādhāra, Dharaṇi, Bhuvana, Pṛthvī, Bhūmi and Ādyaṅga.
3) Adhiṣṭhāna (‘plinth’) represents a part of the trivarga structure, where it is also known
as upāna.

Adhiṣṭhāna, bhitti and prastara forms the trivarga of this structure. In the Upapīṭha, the lowest
moulding, i.e., upāna, represents the plinth. The gala represents the wall and
the kapota or paṭṭikā represents the prastara. The presence of these three parts in the Upapīṭha
makes it look like a miniature structure or shrine.

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Mayamata mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are:

1. vedibhadra,
2. pratibhadra,
3. subhadra.

Mānasāra also mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are:

1. vedibhadra,
2. pratibhadra,
3. mañcabhadra.

sketch of Upapithas, pedestals in Hindu temple architecture, Vedibandha Pratibhanda Manchabandha

BELOW

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3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha. As mentioned above is the base of
the structure causing support tonthe walls. In Buddhism, 'Adhishthana' means power of the
Buddha. The Lankavatara sutra describes it thus: "...sustained in two ways by the power
(adhishthana) of the Buddhas. So the plinth has to have the power to support the structure

To RIGHT- Open Nandi mandapa and the entrance to the Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal temple complex,
Pattadakal, Karnataka, India. The elephants in the adhishthana in different postures.

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4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions
Hindu temple architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span openings. The
post and lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby a horizontal
'lintel' beam rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load above.Hindu temple
architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span openings. The post and
lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby a horizontal 'lintel' beam
rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load above .Tensile stresses once again
come into play in the lower portions of the horizontal lintel, and thus limit the maximum span of
the system. Corbelling involved successive overhanging courses of masonry rising up to cover
the entire span

This method was not effective in spanning large openings either. Even the largest, and most
mature Hindu temples in the nation boasts of innumerable corbelled openings, including
corbelled cross vaults, but not arches5. Interior spaces of such temples were thus usually of a very
human scale, as opposed to the monumental interior spaces that were to be found in
contemporary churches and mosques in other parts of the world.

Post and Lintel system

The carving of the lion symbol represents the Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh,
Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. It
is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India.

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TO RIGHT- 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient
Architecture.

5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha+

LEFT PICTURE- Colorful carved walls of the temple in Tamil Nadu state, South India. — Photo by
ElizavetaLarionova

A garbhagriha or sannidhanam is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of

a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the
temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb
chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in

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Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often
associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain temples. The room has a single entrance,
normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and
at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre,
so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially
the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into
the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons
it very often includes a hollow space.
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north)
or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form
the main vertical axis of the temple. [3] These together may be understood to represent the axis of
the world through Mount Meru. The garbhagriha is usually also on the main horizontal axis of
the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis,
the garbhagṛiha is generally at their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to
focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu
garbhagriha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in
active worship

The Vastu Purusha Mandala is the base of the temple. We have touched upon the base
elements above from 1 to 4 . Above the vastu-purusha-mandala lies the walls of the high
superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches
towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with
symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is
designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of
concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is
inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according
to its ancient mythology.
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or
shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite
Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means
circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the
dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and
mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a
perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square

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is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human
thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun,
horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. ] The square is divided into perfect square
grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple
superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid.
The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar,
Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three
fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through
the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64,
81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to
sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4
padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout.
The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple.
Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered
the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira
in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element,
sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is
dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next
inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify
aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees,
as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or
Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the
Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the
temple or just symbolically represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies
creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the
very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre
of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.
The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is
perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).

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A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the
temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and
geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-
squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises
towards the sky.
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-
griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is
the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local
name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple,
Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It
is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or
vision.

Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted.

In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images
meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from
Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some
they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have
highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma,
and

6) Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main
deity. The term Koshta has two meanings. Anatomical meaning – large space which gives
accommodation to visceral organs of body. Physiological meaning – bowel movement and gut
behavior Read – Koshta – Large Anatomical Body Cavities. Doshas control gut behavior and
bowel movement in physical body. IN CASE OF THE TEMPLES HOWEVER THE
COURTYARD OR INNER SPACE WHEREIN LIE THE TEMPLES TO SMALLER
DIETIES.These could be in the GMandapa also but never in the Garbagriha or inner sanctum.

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LEFT_ 12th century Chennakeshava temple, built by the ruling Hoysala dynasty.Kanchipuram
Temple showing smaller temples or shrines encompassed in the walls. AT RIGHT .

7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature

Vastushastra (architecture)
1) Prastara (प्रस्तर) refers to the “entablature” of a temple (prāsāda or vimāna). It is
considered the third part in the ṣaḍvarga structure.
2) Prastara (प्रस्तर):—One of the eight types of villages, according to Chapter 9 of the
Mānasāra (called the grāmalakṣaṇam). The Mānasāra is one of the traditional authorative Hindu
treatises on Vāstuśāstra. The form of this village is said to be tattadrūpeṇa, which means it
represents the form of the meaning of its Sanskrit name.Prastara (प्रस्तर) means
entablature. It is found above the architrave of the temple, inside or outside. Prastara is one of the
six important architectural parts of the body of the temple. It is the third member of the temple
building from the bottom. Prastara is considered very important in the architectural composition
of the temple.
Prastara, in dravidian context, means a meeting place. This is the meeting place of the two
divisions of the temple namely the prāsāda-varga and the pāda-varga. Pāda-varga represents
the earth and prāsāda-varga represents the Heaven. In the entablature both pāda-
varga and prāsāda-varga unite. Therefore this part is given the name prastara. According to
Hindu metaphysics the mother Earth (bhūmi-tattva) is feminine (prakṛti) in character. It is
embraced by ākāśa-tatva, which is masculine (puruṣa). The prastara represents the union of
these two concepts.
Prastara, according to Mayamata, should be decorated with sculptures
of yakṣas, vidyādharas, bhūtamāla, gaṇas, haṃsas, floral decorations, etc. According to
Mānasāra the semi divine and demi-devine and other celestial beings are to be carved
in śayana (lying) or āsīna (seated) postures.
Prastara ( or extension, flat top) is a sort of entablature in the Hindu temple architecture.It is
a horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings above column capitals, sometimes functions
as a parapet of a story. Prastara is both functional and decorative element located above
the architrave of the temple. Being the third part of the building counting from the bottom,
prastara is a very important element of the overall architectural composition of the temple.

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In the Dravidian context, prastara signifies a meeting place, where the two divisions of the
temple, prasada varga (the Earth) and the pada varga (the Heaven), meet each other.
Prastara consists of several parts from bottom to top: uttara, valabhi (stringcourse above uttara),
and kapota (dripstone). Kapota is usually shaped as a pigeon's head.

The Papanath temple Karnataka showing the entabuleres

8) Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures

See 1. Above

9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace

Haara is a decorative element and refers to name of necklace. It circumambulates the temple just
as a necklace does to the neck and is added to improve the ambiance. A parapet wall is a low or
dwarf wall built along the edge of the roof, terrace, walkway, balcony etc. Parapet walls can
be constructed using different materials.
Types of Parapet Walls
Classification Based on Appearance
Parapet walls are classified into following types based on appearance :
1. Plain Parapet Walls
2. Perforated Parapet Walls
3. Embattled Parapet Walls
4. Paneled Parapet Walls
1. Plain Parapet Walls
 The plain parapet wall is nothing but a vertical extension of the wall at the edge of the roof. It is a
general type of parapet which is specially provided for safety concern.
 Concrete coping is provided at top and corbel below it.
 Plain parapets are easy to construct and requires low maintenance.
 Plain parapet generally looks dull in appearance.

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Fig 1: House with Plain Parapet Wall/ Fig 2: Perforated Parapet Wall/ Paneled Parapet Wall

2. Perforated Parapet Walls

 The perforated parapet wall is also an extension of the wall like plain parapet but in this case, the
extended wall portion is perforated with different sized openings considering the aesthetic
appearance of the structure.
 Differently designed perforations such as circles, trefoils, flower shapes etc. are used.
3. Paneled Parapet Walls
 The Paneled parapet walls are similar to plain parapets but the difference is paneled parapets are
ornamented with series of panel designs on the outside of parapet wall.
 The panels may be oblong or square but no perforations are provided in this case.
 This type of parapets is more prevalent since it provides a beautiful appearance to the structure
and at the same time doesn’t cost much and provides ease in construction.

4.Embattled Parapet Walls

 The Embattled parapets were widely used in olden days especially for castles, forts etc.
 Alternative low and high portions and perforations are provided in the parapet. In ancient periods,
these perforations were generally used by arrow shooters to shoot arrows through it while
defending the castle.
 Because of their beautiful appearance and uniqueness, embattled parapets are being constructed
nowadays to enhance the aesthetic aspects of the structures.

Embattled Parapet Wall ( Great Wall of China) //Sloped Parapet Wall/: Flat Parapet Wall
Classification Based on Shape and Configuration
Parapet walls are also classified based on the shape and configuration as follows:
1. Sloped Parapet Wall
2. Stepped Parapet Wall
3. Flat Parapet Wall

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 4. Curved Parapet Wall
1. Sloped Parapet Wall
Sloped parapet walls are provided for sloped roof structures such as industrial structures, trussed
structures etc.

2. Flat Parapet Wall

3. Stepped Parapet Wall
Stepped parapet walls are also used for inclined roof structures. In this case, the wall is constructed in
staircase-type design as shown in the figure below.
4. Curved Parapet Wall
Curved parapet walls also called as arched parapet walls are recommended for both flat and inclined
rooftops.
Miscellaneous Parapet types
 Several modern types of parapet walls are replacing the above-mentioned types because of their
dominance in all categories such as safety, appearance, economy etc.
 Some of the modern type parapets are fiber-glass parapets, parapet with steel railings, etc.
 Glass or steel railings can also be provided in the pierced portions of perforated parapet walls for
better appearance. Such types of parapets are called composite parapet walls.
Uses of Parapet Walls
Parapet walls constructed have various uses. Some of them are :
 To provide an aesthetic look to the structure.
 To provide safety for humans when they are on the rooftop and in case of bridges to prevent
vehicles from falling off bridge.
 To hide and prevent the equipment and machinery on the rooftop.
 To prevent the entrance of dust through the air on the rooftop.
 To prevent the falling of debris gathered on the rooftop.
 To prevent high wind loads coming on to the rooftop.
 Perforated parapets can be useful for defence measures in military areas.

10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region+

10 Tala temple on RIGHT

11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region Also ABOVE PIC
12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey) See above right pic

13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey+

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14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana
15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped
Arch.In Indian architecture, gavaksha or chandrashala (kudu in Tamil, also nāsī) are the terms
most often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that
decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and
other buildings. In its original form, the arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault. It
is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large
window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit, "the
most common motif of Hindu temple architecture". Gavākṣha (or gavaksa) is a Sanskrit word
which means "bull's or cow's eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically
radiating the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are
described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world

16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana

 Shikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the
Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A shikhara over
the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and
visible part of a Hindu temple of North India but in South Indian Temples, the superstructure
above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall shape, consisting of
progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is normally straight rather
than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.
In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings, or
water-pot, at its peak

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In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building,
including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only,
which is usually a dome capped with a finial. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the
elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more
prominent features in large temples.
. Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:

 Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each
face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also
sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be
called "heterogeneous".

 Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be
more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
 Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the
top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in
overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the
northern Deccan and West India

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17)Stupi or Kalasha : The Finial (Final) of the Vimana

A kalasha, also spelled kalash or kalasa also called ghat or ghot (Sanskrit: कलश kalaśa; literally
"pitcher, pot"), is a metal (brass, copper, silver or gold) pot with a large base and small mouth,
large enough to hold a coconut.
Sometimes "kalasha" also refers to such a pot filled with water and topped with a coronet
of mango leaves and a coconut. This combination is often used in Hindu rites and depicted
in Hindu iconography. The entire arrangement is called Purna-Kalasha (पूर्णकलश), Purna-
Kumbha (पूर्णकुम्भ), or Purna-ghata (पूर्णघट). Each of these names literally means "full
or complete vessel" when the pot is referred to as the Kalasha (to avoid confusion, this article
will refer to the pot as Kalasha and the entire arrangement as Purna-Kalasha).
Sometimes the Kalasha is filled with coins, grain, gems, gold, or a combination of these items
instead of water. The coronet of 5, 7, or 11 mango leaves is placed such that the tips of the leaves
touch water in the Kalasha. The coconut is sometimes wrapped with a red cloth and red thread;
the top of the coconut (called Shira – literally "head") is kept uncovered. A sacred thread is tied
around the metal pot. The Shira is kept facing the sky.
The Kalasha is viewed as an auspicious object in Jainism. The Kalasha is used as a ceremonial
object as well as a decorative motif in Indian art and architecture. The Kalasha motif was used in
decorating bases and capitals of pillars from the 5th century.
The Purna-Kalasha is considered a symbol of abundance and "source of life" in the Vedas.
Purna-Kumbha is preeminently a Vedic motif, known from the time of Rigveda. It is also called
Soma-Kalasha, Chandra-Kalasha, Indra-Kumbha, Purnaghata, Purna-Virakamsya, Bhadra ghata,
or Mangala ghata. It is referred to as "overflowing full vase" (purno-asya Kalasha) in the Vedas.
[2]

The Kalasha is believed to contain amrita, the elixir of life, and thus is viewed as a symbol of
abundance, wisdom, and immortality. The Kalasha is often seen in Hindu iconography as an

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attribute, in the hands of Hindu deities like the creator god Brahma, the destroyer god Shiva as a
teacher, and the goddess of prosperity Lakshmi.
The Purna-Kalasha is believed to be a symbol of auspiciousness embodying either Ganesha,
remover of obstacles, or his mother Gauri, the goddess of household bounty or Lakshmi. The
Purna-Kalasha is worshipped in all Hindu festivities related to marriage and childbirth, as a
mother goddess or Devi. In this context, the metal pot or Kalasha represents material things: a
container of fertility - the earth and the womb, which nurtures and nourishes life. The mango
leaves associated with Kama, the god of love, symbolize the pleasure aspect of fertility. The
coconut, a cash crop, represents prosperity and power. The water in the pot represents the life-
giving ability of Nature.
Sometimes, a silver or brass face of the Goddess is attached over the coconut of the Purna-
Kalasha. In this form, the Purna-Kalasha symbolizes the Goddess as the manifestation of mother
earth with her water, minerals, and vegetation. This method of Kalash pooja (worship) has come
in for Vishnu in household functions too.
The Purna-Kalasha is also worshipped at Hindu ceremonies like Griha Pravesha (house
warming), child naming, havan (fire-sacrifice), Vaastu dosha rectification, and daily worship.
Other interpretations of the Purna-Kalasha associate with the five elements or the chakras. The
wide base of metal pot represents the element Prithvi (Earth), the expanded centre - Ap (water),
neck of pot - Agni (fire), the opening of the mouth - Vayu (air), and the coconut and mango
leaves - Akasha (aether). In contexts of chakras, the Shira (literally "head") - top of the coconut
symbolizes Sahasrara chakra and the Moola (literally "base") - base of Kalasha -
the Muladhara chakra.
A kalash is placed with due rituals on all important occasions. It is placed near the entrance as a
sign of welcome.

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 CHAPTER VIX
Types of Soil tests for building Temple construction

Ancient Indian thought divides time into four different periods. These durations are
referred to as the Krta; Treta; Dvapara; and Kali.

Temples appeared on the horizon only in the Kali-yuga. During this existing last phase,
temples (as public shrines), began to be built and icons installed. But the gods ceased to come
down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their presence could be felt when the
icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly built. In contrast to the previous periods
when the gods were available to all equally, now it is only the priests, belonging to a traditional
hierarchy of professional worshippers, who are the competent individuals to compel this
presence.

safe haven : From the contemporary point of view, temples act as safe haven where ordinary
mortals like us can feel themselves free from the constant vagaries of everyday existence, and
communicate personally with god. But our age is individualistic if nothing else. Each of us
requires our own conception of the deity based on our individual cultural rooting. In this context
it is interesting to observe that the word ‘temple,’ and ‘contemplate’ both share the same origin
from the Roman word ‘templum,’ which means a sacred enclosure. Indeed, strictly speaking,
where there is no contemplation, there is no temple. It is an irony of our age that this
individualistic contemplative factor, associated with a temple, is taken to be its highest positive
virtue, while according to the fact of legend it is but a limitation which arose due to our
continuous spiritual impoverishment over the ages. We have lost the divine who resided amongst
us (Krta Yuga), which is the same as saying that once man was divine himself.
But this is not to belittle the importance of the temple as a center for spiritual nourishment in our
present context, rather an affirmation of their invaluable significance in providing succour to the
modern man in an environment and manner that suits the typical requirements of the age in
which we exist.

Making of the Temple

The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though any land
may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its sanctification, the
ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: “The gods always play where
groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with pleasure gardens.” Not
surprisingly thus, many of India’s ancient surviving temples can be seen to have been built in
lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to be particularly suitable for building a
residence for the gods.

No matter where it is situated, one essential factor for the existence of a temple is water. Water is
considered a purifying element in all major traditions of the world, and if not available in reality,
it must be present in at least a symbolic representation in the Hindu temple. Water, the purifying,
fertilizing element being present, its current, which is the river of life, can be forded into inner
realization and the pilgrim can cross over to the other shore (metaphysical).

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The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance and
magical fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the ‘type,’ of the soil it
contains. This includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining characteristics is
divided into four categories, which are then further associated with one of the four castes:
10. White Soil: Brahmin
11. - Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste)
12. - Yellow Soil: Vaishya
13. - Black Soil: Shudra
14. Similarly for the smell and taste:
15. Sweet: Brahmin
16. - Sour: Kshatriya
17. - Bitter: Vaishya
18. - Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been
given in life)

The color and taste of the soil determines the “caste” of the temple, i.e., the social group to which
it will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an auspicious site
specifically favourable to himself and his social environment.
After these preliminary investigations, the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled:

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Tilling: When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is entrusted to
the soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm of nature has not
been interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth Goddess herself is
impregnated in a symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura meaning seed and arpana
signifying offering. In this process, a seed is planted at the selected site on an auspicious day and
its germination is observed after a few days. If the growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed
suitable for the temple. The germination of the seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the

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inherent potentialities which lie hidden in Mother Earth, and which by extension are now
transferred to the sacred structure destined to come over it.
Levelling: It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is regarded
as being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind the levelling of
the land. It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild, unruly, and errant
world.

vastu-purusha mandala-Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready
for the drawing of the vastu-purusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple.
The Metaphysical Architecture of the Temple. The basic plan of a Hindu temple is an expression of
sacred geometry where the temple is visualized as a grand mandala. By sacred geometry we
mean a science which has as its purpose the accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in
relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Characteristically, a mandala is a sacred shape
consisting of the intersection of a circle and a square.
The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it.
Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the number four (four
castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for heaven
since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end signifying timelessness and eternity, a
characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by extension the temple) is the meeting
ground of heaven and earth.

These considerations make the actual preparation of the site and laying of the foundation doubly
important. Understandably, the whole process is heavily immersed in rituals right from the
selection of the site to the actual beginning of construction. Indeed, it continues to be a custom in
India that whenever a building is sought to be constructed, the area on which it first comes up is
ceremonially propitiated. The idea being that the extent of the earth necessary for such
construction must be reclaimed from the gods and goblins that own and inhabit that area. This
ritual is known as the ‘pacification of the site.’ There is an interesting legend behind it:
Once when Shiva was engaged in a fierce battle with the demon Andhaka, a drop of sweat fell
from Shiva’s forehead to the ground, accompanied by a loud thunder. This drop transformed into

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a ravenously hungry monster, who attempted to destroy the three worlds. The gods and divine
spirits, however, rushed at once on to him and held him down. When the demon fell on the
ground face downwards, the deities lodged themselves on to the different parts of his body and
pressed him down. It is because of this reason that the recumbent individual came to be known as
‘Vastu,’ which means the lodgement of the gods. He is pictured as lying down inside the
mandala with his arms and legs so folded as to cover the whole area, and his head pushed into
the north-eastern corner of the square. As many as forty-five gods are lodged on his body
directly on the limbs and joints.

This vastu-purusha is the spirit in mother-earth which needs to be pacified and is regarded as a
demon whose permission is necessary before any construction can come up on the site. At the
same time, care is taken to propitiate the deities that hold him down, for it is important that he
should not get up. To facilitate the task of the temple-architect, the vastu-mandala is divided into
square grids with the lodging of the respective deities clearly marked. It also has represented on
it the thirty-two nakshatras, the constellations that the moon passes through on its monthly
course. In an ideal temple, these deities should be situated exactly as delineated in the mandala.
In the central grid of the vastu-mandala sits Brahma, the archetypal creator, endowed with four
faces looking simultaneously in all directions. He is thus conceived as the ever-present
superintending genius of the site. At this exact central point is established the most important
structure of the sacred complex, where the patron deity of the temple is installed. Paradoxically
this area is the most unadorned and least decorated part of the temple, almost as if it is created in
an inverse proportion to its spiritual importance. Referred to as the sanctum sanctorum, it is the
most auspicious region in the whole complex. It has no pillars, windows or ventilators. In
addition to a metaphysical aspect, this shutting off of air and light has a practical side to it too. It
was meant to preserve the icon, which, in olden days, was often made of wood. Also, besides
preventing the ill effects of weathering, the dark interior adds to the mystery of the divine
presence.
Throughout all subsequent developments in temple architecture, however spectacular and
grandiose, this main shrine room remains the small, dark cave that it has been from the
beginning. Indeed it has been postulated (both by archaeology and legend), that the temple
developed from the cave-shrine of the extremely remote past. This is another instance in
Hinduism where the primitive and the modern, along with all the developments in-between, can
be seen to co-exist remarkably and peacefully.

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 Sanctum

Types of Soil tests for building construction works depend on properties of soil. Design of the
foundation is based on soil test report of construction site.
Soil tests for construction of buildings or any structure is the first step in construction planning to
understand the suitability of soil for proposed construction work.

246
Soil which is responsible for allowing the stresses coming from the structure should be well
tested to give excellent performance. If soil shouldn’t tested correctly then the whole building or
structure is damaged or collapsed or leaned like leaning tower of Pisa. So, soil inspection or
testing is the first step to proceed any construction.

Contents: [show]
Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction
Various tests on soil are conducted to decide the quality of soil for building construction. Some
tests are conducted in laboratory and some are in the field. Here we will discuss about the
importance of various soil tests for building construction. The tests on soil are as follows.
1. Moisture content test
2. Atterberg limits tests
3. Specific gravity of soil
4. Dry density of soil
5. Compaction test (Proctor’s test)
Moisture Content Test on Soil
Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building construction. It is
determined by several methods and they are
 Oven drying method
 Calcium carbide method
 Torsion balance method
 Pycnometer method
 Sand bath method
 Radiation method
 Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this method the
soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is
taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water or
moisture content in the soil.

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Specific Gravity Test on Soil
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the water. It is
determined by many methods and they are.
 Density bottle method
 Pycnometer method
 Gas jar method
 Shrinkage limit method
 Measuring flask method
Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods. In Pycnometer
method, Pycnometer is weighed in 4 different cases that is empty weight (M1), empty + dry soil
(M2), empty + water + dry soil (M3) and Pycnometer filled with water (M4) at room
temperature. From these 4 masses specific gravity is determined by below formula.

Dry Density Test on Soil

The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil. Dry
density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.
Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.
Core Cutter Method for Soil Dry Density Testing
In this methods a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to cut the soil in the
ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken out sample is weighed and noted.
Finally water content for that sample is determined and dry density is calculated from the below
relation.

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Sand Replacement Method for Soil Dry Density Testing
In this method also, a hole is created in the ground by excavating soil whose dry density is to be
find. The hole is filled with uniform sand of known dry density. So by dividing the mass of sand
poured into the hole with dry density of sand gives the volume of hole. So we can calculate the
soil dry density from above formula.

Atterberg Limits Test on Soil

To measure the critical water content of a fine grained soil, Atterberg provided 3 limits which
exhibits the properties of fine grained soil at different conditions. The limits are liquid limit,
plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are calculated by individual tests as follows.
Liquid Limit Test on Soil
In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up and
down mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the middle of cup
with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of handle the groove
becomes closed at some point.
Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of soil is
determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and water content of
soil. Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

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Plastic Limit Test on Soil
Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small ball.
Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into threads of
3mm diameter.
If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is more
than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same procedure until
crumbling occurs at 3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of resultant soil which
value is nothing but plastic limit.
In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the voids of soil.
That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in volume of soil if we reduce the
shrinkage limit. It is determined by the below formula for the given soil sample.

Where M1 = initial mass

V1= initial volume
M2= dry mass
V2= volume after drying
Pw = density of water.
Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil
Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil. Compaction of soil is
nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification. The degree of Compaction is
measured in terms of dry density of soil.

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In Proctor’s Compaction Test RIGHT Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on 4.75mm are mixed with certain
proportions.
Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and divide it into 6 – 8
parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the mold as 3layers with 25 blows of
ramming for each layer.
Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the soil from mold and take
the small portion of soil sample at different layers and conduct water content test. from the
values find out the dry density of soil and water content and draw a graph between them and note
down the maximum dry density and optimum water content of the compacted soil sample at
highest point on the curve.
FAQs
What are test conducted in soil before construction?
The important test conducted on soil before building construction are:
1. Moisture content test
2. Atterberg limits tests
3. Specific gravity of soil
4. Dry density of soil
5. Compaction test (Proctor’s test)
What is dry density of soil?
The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil. Dry
density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.

251
Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.
How to determine moisture content of soil?
Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building construction. It is
determined by several methods and they are:
1. Oven drying method
2. Calcium carbide method
3. Torsion balance method
4. Pycnometer method
5. Sand bath method
6. Radiation method
7. Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this method the
soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is
taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water or
moisture content in the soil.

Soil tests required for deep foundation to ensure the bearing capacity of the soil to support the
loads from deep foundation. Deep foundations are those where the depth of foundation is
generally greater than two times of width of footing (D = 2B).
Deep foundations are required due to various reasons. Read here about why deep foundations
are required and types of deep foundations. Types of soil tests for deep foundations are
discussed.
Soil tests required for deep foundations
While the composition and depth of the bearing layer for shallow foundations may vary from one
site to another, most pile foundations in a locally encounter similar deposits.
Since pile capacity based on soil parameters is not as reliable from load tests, as a first step it is
essential to obtain full information on the type, size, length and capacity of piles (including
details of load – settlement graph) generally adopted in the locality.
Correlation of soil characteristics (from soil investigation reports) and corresponding load tests
(from actual projects constructed) is essential to decide the type of soil tests to be performed and
to make a reasonable recommendation for the type, size, length and capacity of piles since most
formulae are empirical.

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Fig.1:soil tests for deep foundation
If information about piles in the locality are not available or reliable, it may be necessary to
drive a test pile and correlate with soil data. Generally, the following tests may be required to
obtain certain required data:
1. Direct shear test
It is conducted to estimated effective friction angle of cohesionless soil. Nonetheless, there are
correlations which are developed to evaluate effective friction angle of cohesionless soil. for
more information about shear strength test of soil click here.

Fig.2:Direct shear test

2. Standard penetration test (SPT)
It is performed to determine the cohesion (and consequently the adhesion) to determine the angle
of friction (and consequently the angle of friction between soil and the pile and also the point of
resistance) for each soil stratum of cohesion less soil of soil.
3. Static cone penetration test (CPT)
This test conducted to determine the cohesion (and subsequently the adhesion) for soft cohesive
soils and to check with SPT result for fine to medium sands. Hence for strata encountering both
cohesive and cohesion less soils, both SPT and CPT tests are required.
4. Vane shear test
it is used to estimated undrained in-situ shear strength of impervious clayey soils.
5. Undrained triaxial shear strength

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It is carried out on undisturbed soil samples (obtained with thin walled tube samplers) to
determine cohesion ( ) and angle of internal friction ( ) for clayey soils. Procedures for
conducting this test is provided by ASTM D 2850-03, 2004.
In case of driven piles proposed for stiff clays, it is necessary to check with the ( ) and ( ) from
re-moulded samples. Drained shear strength parameters are also determined to represent in-situ
condition of soil at end of construction phase. Details of this test procedure can be found in
ASTM D4767-02, 2004.

Fig.3:Triaxial shear test

6. Pressure meter test
It is performed to determine the stress- strain curve of horizontal loading. The equipment is
either inserted into pre-drilled borehole or a self-boring pressure meter is used. Unless the soil is
isotropic, the same value cannot be adopted for the vertical direction. This test is performed
specifically for piles that subjected to lateral loading.
7. Ground water condition and permeability of soil
Ground water condition and soil permeability influence the choice of pile type to be
recommended.
Hence the level at which water in the bore hole remains are noted in the bore logs. Since
permeability of clay is very low, it takes several days for water in the drill hole to rise upto
ground water table.
Ground water samples need to be tested to consider the possible chemical effects on concrete
and the reinforcement. Result of the cone penetration test for the same soil show substantial
scatter. Hence, they need to be checked with supplementary information from other exploration
methods.

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 CHAPTER X
THE CHANDRASHALA
OGEE CONCEPT IN ANCIENT HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE & CONSTRUCTION

Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted from a
relief at Sanchi

SYNOPSIS
Ogee Curves in Hindu Temple architecture is a Gavākṣha (or gavaksa) is a Sanskrit word which
means "bull's or cow's eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating
the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as
providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world.Like the whole of the classic chaitya,
the form originated in the shape of the wooden thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have
survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in stone is at the entrance to the non-
Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves in Bihar.

Ogee is a mathematical term, meaning an inflection point.[ In fluid mechanics, the term is used to
refer to aerodynamic profiles that bear such shapes, e.g., as in the ogee profile of
the Concorde supersonic aircraft. As well, ogee curves are used to minimize water pressure on

255
the downstream face of a dam spillway. In Indian
architecture, gavaksha or chandrashala (kudu in Tamil, also nāsī) are the terms most often used
to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many
examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings.
In its original form, the arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault. It is called a
chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later
forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit, "the most common
motif of Hindu temple
An ogee is the name given to objects, elements, and curves—often seen in architecture and
building trades—that have been variously described as serpentine-, extended S-,or sigmoid-
shaped. Ogees consist of a "double curve", the combination of two semicircular curves
or arcs that, as a result of a point of inflection from concave to convex or vice versa, have ends of
the overall curve that point in opposite directions (and have tangents that are approximately
parallel.

An ogee arch, showing the pair of component blocks on each side that constitute the "double curve" of the
ogee, joined at its peak by a capstone. The midpoint of the two blocks on each side that compose the ogee, the
point at which the overall curve changes direction, is the inflection point referred to in the lead.
A sigmoid function is a mathematical function having a characteristic "S"-shaped curve
or sigmoid curve. A common example of a sigmoid function is the logistic function shown in
the first figure and defined by the formula

256
 An ogee arch, showing the pair of component blocks on
each side that constitute the "double curve" of the ogee, joined at its peak by a capstone. The
midpoint of the two blocks on each side that compose the ogee, the point at which the overall curve
changes direction, is the inflection point referred to in the lead.

Entranceooooo Cave 19, Ajanta

Cave 19 is a fine late-5th century chaitya. The entrance is surmounted by a large chandrashala.
The sculptural program on the outside is obscure, but has to do with Buddha ordaining his
successors.

257
Special cases of the sigmoid function include the Gompertz curve (used in modeling systems that
saturate at large values of x) and the ogee curve (used in the spillway of some dams). Sigmoid
functions have domain of all real numbers, with return (response) value
commonly monotonically increasing but could be decreasing. Sigmoid functions most often
show a return value (y axis) in the range 0 to 1. Another commonly used range is from −1 to 1.
A wide variety of sigmoid functions including the logistic and hyperbolic tangent functions have
been used as the activation function of artificial neurons. Sigmoid curves are also common in
statistics as cumulative distribution functions (which go from 0 to 1), such as the integrals of
the logistic density, the normal density, and Student's t probability density functions. The logistic
sigmoid function is invertible, and its inverse is the logit function.

258
First seen in textiles in the 12th century, the use of ogee elements—in particular, in the design of
arches—has been said to characterise various Gothic and Gothic Revival architectural styles. The
shape has many such uses in architecture from those periods to the present day, including in
the ogee arch in these architectural styles, where two ogees oriented as mirror images compose
the sides of the arch, and in decorative molding designs, where single ogees are common profiles
(see opening image). The term is also used in marine construction. word was sometimes
abbreviated as o-g as early as the 18th century, and in millwork trades associated with building
construction, ogee is still sometimes written similarly (e.g., as O.G.).
The term ogee is used in the naming of some manufactured products (e.g., ogee washers, clocks,
and distillation pots), and is used with similar or related meanings in mathematics and fluid
mechanics,] as well as in the plastic surgery-specialisation of medicine.

Gothic ogee arch from the 1300s, over a tomb effigy in recess, in St. Mary the Virgin,
Silchester, in the United Kingdom
In architecture, the principal use of the term is to describe an arch composed of two ogees,
mirrored left-to-right and meeting at an apex. First seen in textiles in the 1100s CE, the use of
ogee elements, and in particular in the design of arches, has been said to characterise Venetian

259
Gothic and Gothic Revival architectural styles. Ogee windows and arches were introduced to
European cities from the Middle East, probably via Venetian Gothic architecture.[ In particular,
the ogee characterises Gothic architecture, especially in late Gothic decorative elements of the
14th and 15th century—styles called Flamboyant in France, and Decorated in England. In these,
the usual pointed lancet arch with a single curve to each side is supplemented by ogee arches,
especially in windows. Ogee arches were also a feature of English Gothic architecture in the later
thirteenth century.
Moulding: A building's surface detailing, inside and outside, often includes decorative
moulding, and these often contain ogee-shaped profiles—consisting (from low to high) of
a concave arc flowing into a convex arc, with vertical ends; if the lower curve is convex and
higher one concave, this is known as a Roman ogee, although frequently the terms are used
interchangeably and for a variety of other shapes. Alternative names for such a true
Roman ogee moulding include cyma reversa and talon.

sa and talon
The ogee curve is an analogue of a "cyma curve", the difference being that a cyma, or "cyma
recta", has horizontal rather than vertical ends. The cyma reversa form occurs in antiquity. For
example, in ancient Persia, the Tomb of Cyrus featured the cyma reversa. The cyma reversa is
also evident in ancient Greek architecture, and takes its name from the cymatium. ogee and
Roman ogee profiles are used in decorative moulding, often framed between mouldings with a
square section. As such, it is part of the standard classical decorative vocabulary, adopted from
architrave and cornice mouldings of the Ionic order and Corinthian order.

260
An unorthodox ogee arch in Kilfane Church, Ireland (13th century)
Ogees are also often used in building interiors, in trim carpentry, for capping
a baseboard or plinth elements, as a crown moulding trim piece where a wall meets a ceiling, and
in similar fashion, at the tops of pieces of case furniture.In aesthetic facial surgery, the term is
used to describe the malar or cheekbone prominence transitioning into the mid-cheek
hollow. The aim of a mid-face rejuvenation is to restore the ogee curve and enhance the
cheekbones, common parts of routine facelift surgery.
Manufactured objects with the ogee description
Ogee is the name given to bubble-shaped chambers of pot stills that connects the swan neck to
the still pot, in distillation apparatus, that allow distillate to expand, condense, and fall back into
the still pot.
"Ogee washers" are heavy washers used in fasteners that have a large load-bearing surface; they
are used in marine timber construction to prevent bolt heads or nuts from sinking into the face of
timbers.[ The term ogee is used to describe the ogee shape giving rise to radial symmetry around
the centre of the washer. Due to the size and shape of such washers, they are generally
manufactured as a cast iron product (in accordance with ASTM A47 or A48)
"Ogee clocks" were a common type of weight-driven 19th-century pendulum clock presented in
a simplified Gothic style, with the original design attributed to Chauncey Jerome. Ogee clocks
were typically made in the United States, as mantelpieces or to mount to a wall bracket, ] and are
one of the most commonly encountered varieties of American antique clocks. The overall design
was rectangular, with framing by moulding with an ogee-profile surrounding a central glass door
with a painted scene below the clock face, a door that protected the clock face and
pendulum. Weights supported by pulleys fell inside the ogee moulding and so were hidden from
view.

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Ogee Curves in Hindu Temple architecture is a Gavākṣha (or gavaksa) is a Sanskrit word which
means "bull's or cow's eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating
the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as
providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world.Like the whole of the classic chaitya,
the form originated in the shape of the wooden thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have
survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in stone is at the entrance to the non-
Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves in Bihar.
The "chaitya arch" around the large window above the entrance frequently appears repeated as a
small motif in decoration, and evolved versions continue into Hindu decoration, long after actual
chaityas had ceased to be built. In these cases it can become an elaborate cartouche-like frame,
spreading rather wide, around a circular or semi-circular medallion, which may contain a
sculpture of a figure or head. An early stage is shown in the entrance to Cave 9 at the Ajanta
Caves, where the chaitya arch window frame is repeated several times as a decorative motif.
Here, and in many similar early examples, the interior of the arch in the motif contains low
relief lattice imitating receding roof timbers (purlins).

The city of Kusinagara in the War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.

The arched gable-end form seen at the Lomas Rishi Cave and other sites appears as a feature of
both sacred and secular buildings represented in reliefs from early Buddhist sites in India, and
was evidently widely used for roofs made from plant materials in ancient Indian architecture.
Simple versions of similar structures remain in use today by the Toda people of the Nilgiri Hills
The rock-cut Lomas Rishi Cave was excavated during the reign of Ashoka in the Maurya
Empire in the 3rd century BC, for the Ajivikas, a non-Buddhist religious and philosophical group
of the period. A band below the arch contains a lattice in relief, presumably representing the
ceiling of a thatched roof. Below that is a curved relief of a line of elephants. The entrance leads
into the side of the hall, so unlike most later window frame examples, the arch bears no great

262
relationship to the space it leads into. The immediately neighbouring cave in the same rock face
has a plain undecorated recess at the entrance, which originally may have held a porch of similar
design in plant materials.

Piled-
up gavakshas at Osian, Jodhpur
Early rock-cut chaitya halls use the same ogee shape for the main window needed to illuminate
the interior, and often also have small relief window motifs as decoration. In these the inside of
the arch has a series of square-ended projections representing the joists, and inside that a curving
lattice in low relief that represents the receding roof timbers of the inside of a notional building.
At the bottom, a small area, more or less semi-circular, represents the far wall of the structure,
and may be plain (e.g. Bhaja Caves over side galleries), show a different lattice pattern
(e.g. Bhaja Caves main front), Pandavleni Caves cave 18, above), or a decorative motif (e.g.
Cave 9, Ajanta, Pandavleni Caves cave 18, over doorway). Often the areas around these window
or gable motifs have bands of latticework, apparently representing lattice railings, similar to
those shown edging the balconies and loggias of the fort-palace in the relief of Kusinagara in
the War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi. This is especially the case at
the Bedse Caves, in an early example of what James Fergusson noted in the nineteenth century:
"Everywhere ... in India architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings".
At the entrance to Cave 19 at Ajanta, four horizontal zones of the decoration use repeated
"chaitya arch" motifs on an otherwise plain band (two on the projecting porch, and two above).

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There is a head inside each arch. Early examples include Ellora Caves 10, Ajanta Caves 9 and 19
and Varaha Cave Temple at Mamallapuram.

A building's surface detailing, inside and outside, often includes decorative moulding, and these
often contain ogee-shaped profiles—consisting (from low to high) of a concave arc flowing into
a convex arc, with vertical ends; if the lower curve is convex and higher one concave, this is
known as a Roman ogee, although frequently the terms are used interchangeably and for a
variety of other shapes. Alternative names for such a true Roman ogee moulding include cyma
reversa and talon.
The ogee curve is an analogue of a "cyma curve", the difference being that a cyma, or "cyma
recta", has horizontal rather than vertical ends. The cyma reversa form occurs in antiquity. For
example, in ancient Persia, the Tomb of Cyrus featured the cyma reversa.[8] The cyma reversa is
also evident in ancient Greek architecture, and takes its name from the cymatium. The ogee and
Roman ogee profiles are used in decorative moulding, often framed between mouldings with a
square section. As such, it is part of the standard classical decorative vocabulary, adopted from
architrave and cornice mouldings of the Ionic order and Corinthian order.
Ogees are also often used in building interiors, in trim carpentry, for capping
a baseboard or plinth elements, as a crown moulding trim piece where a wall meets a ceiling, and
in similar fashion, at the tops of pieces of case furniture

264
 Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted
from this relief at Sanchi.

By around 650, the time of the last rock-cut chaitya hall, Cave 10 at Ellora, the window on the
facade has developed considerably. The main window is smaller, and now bears no relation to
the roof inside (which still has the traditional ribs). It has only two of the traditional projections
imitating purlin beam-ends, and a wide decorative frame that spreads over several times the
width of the actual window opening. Two doors to the sides have pediments with "split and
superimposed" blind gavakshas, also with wide frames. This was to be the style of gavaksha that
had already been widely adopted for the decoration of Hindu and Jain temples, and is seen in
simplified form in the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, and the Hindu Dashavatara
Temple, Deogarh.
Also in the 7th century, the sukanasa developed. This is a very large developed gavaksha motif
fixed on the outside of the temple tower over its entrance, normally standing vertical, although

the tower slopes inwards.

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By the end of the 7th century, and perhaps earlier, the entire faces of large shikhara towers or
other surfaces could be taken up by grids of interlocking gavaksha motifs, often called "gavaksha
mesh" or honeycomb.[15] Early examples include the Buddhist shikhara tower at the Mahabodhi
Temple, Bodh Gaya, where the motifs cover most of the surface but do not actually interlock.
This is of the 6th century at the latest, but perhaps restoring a design of as early as the 2nd or 3rd
century.[16] Cave 15 at Ellora, complete by 730 if not before, and perhaps begun as a Buddhist
excavation, may be one of the earliest examples of the full style. The motif spread to South India,
for example the 7th and 8th century temples at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
Gop Temple in Gujarat, probably from the 6th century, is the largest and finest of a group of
early temples in a distinct local style. The bare castle-like appearance of the central square tower
today probably does not reflect the original design, as the upper parts of the structure around it
are missing. Above the plain walls the sloping top includes three large gavakshas on each face,
two below and one above, which are unusual in actually being open, rather than in shallow relief,
like almost all later gavakshas. Originally statues stood behind them, of which very little now
remains.
Gavakshas are prominent in some temples of the 8th century group on the Dieng plateau in
central Java, among the earliest monumental Hindu temples in modern Indonesia.
nāsī
Adam Hardy distinguishes between the gavaksha, which he largely restricts to the Nagara
architecture of the north, and its cousin in the Dravidian architecture of the south, the nāsī
("kudu" in Tamil). He allows an early period of "gradual differentiation" as the nāsī evolves from
the gavaksha, the first to appear. In a detailed analysis of the parts of the motif, he points to
several differences of form. Among other characteristics of the nāsī, the motif has no frame at the
base, the interior of the window is often blank (perhaps originally painted), and there is often
a kirtimukha head at the top of the motif. In general, the form is less linear, and more heavily
ornamented.

Pa
norama of Barabar hill, with entrances to Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves.

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05 Cave at Aanta

Interior of a rock-cut chaitya hall, Bhaja Caves, the ribs in wood

267
268
REFERENCE:

Indorf, Pinna. “Interpreting the Hindu Temple Form: A Model Based on Its Conceptualization as a
Formal Expression of Measured Movement.” Artibus Asiae, vol. 64, no. 2, 2004, pp. 177–211. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/3250184. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.

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 CHAPTER XI
Seismic Activity and Ancient Hindu Temple Design &
Construction
More than 400,000 buildings collapsed in the magnitude-8.1 earthquake that struck central Nepal
on April 25, 2019 and at least 14 historic buildings have been destroyed or severely damaged, the
Nepal government said. he valuable ancient buildings in Nepal must be rebuilt and made quake-
resistant to withstand seismic waves after hundreds of years of culture and history were shattered
into pieces by a massive earthquake, a Nepalese archaeologist said on Sunday.

New technology which include concrete, cement and iron beams. make monuments stronger but
also make them earthquake proof

Vatsala Durga

The stone temple of Vatsala Durga, also in Bhaktapur was also damaged. The temple was built
by King Jagat Prakash Malla in either 1672 or 1727, according to the Lonely Planet travel
guide.Nepal may be earthquake prone but that is a rare phenomena in India hence the ancient
structures like Temples, some gigantic have been standing for centuries. These earthquakes have
always been part of Kathmandu valley or Nepal because of the seismological zone they live in
and there is a culture of the living heritage where these families that have built these monuments

270
keep on rebuilding it. The question is did the Hindu temples built over North and South India
have any precautionary structural element to prevent seismic damage?

Design and construction are intimately related. To achieve a good workmanship, detailing of
the members and their connections should be as simple as possible. As any construction in
general, earthquake construction is a process that consists of the building, retrofitting or
assembling of infrastructure given the construction materials available.
Earthquake construction means implementation of seismic design to enable building and non-
building structures to live through the anticipated earthquake exposure up to the expectations and
in compliance with the applicable building codes of those times if any..
The destabilizing action of an earthquake on constructions may be direct (seismic motion of the
ground) or indirect (earthquake-induced landslides, soil liquefaction and waves of tsunami).A
structure might have all the appearances of stability, yet offer nothing but danger when an
earthquake occurs. The crucial fact is that, for safety, earthquake-resistant construction
techniques are as important as quality control and using correct materials. To minimize
possible losses, construction process should be organized with keeping in mind that earthquake
may strike any time prior to the end of construction.
Each construction project requires a qualified team of professionals who understand the basic
features of seismic performance of different structures as well as construction management.

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Seismic vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in
building and non-building structures. All seismic vibration control devices may be classified
as passive, active or hybrid where:

 passive control devices have no feedback capability between them, structural elements and
the ground;
 active control devices incorporate real-time recording instrumentation on the ground
integrated with earthquake input processing equipment and actuators within the structure;
 hybrid control devices have combined features of active and passive control systems.
When ground seismic waves reach up and start to penetrate a base of a building, their energy
flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90%. However, the
remaining portions of the incident waves during a major earthquake still bear a huge devastating
potential.
After the seismic waves enter a superstructure, there are a number of ways to control them in
order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for
instance:

 to dissipate the wave energy inside a superstructure with properly engineered dampers;
 to disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies;
 to absorb the resonant portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of so-
called mass dampers.

Mausoleum of Cyrus, the oldest base-isolated structure in the world

In ancient Greece and Persia, a new technique developed where a different material, like
ceramic and clay, was injected between the ground and the foundation so that when the ground
shook one layer slid over the other and this minimized damage caused by the shaking. This is
known as base isolation, and it is one of the most powerful means of protecting a structure
against earthquakes today. In modern buildings, structural engineers use rubber bearings, ball
bearings, and spring systems to isolate the structure from the shaking ground. As far back as
559–530 BC base isolation was used in the Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, the capital of the
Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great - modern-day Iran. Despite having ruled over a vast
empire that stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River, the Mausoleum of Cyrus

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the Great is extremely simple and modest. The tomb is roughly cubic in shape measuring a little
more than 6 meters by 5 meters. A small doorway leads into the cella. The roof is triangular. The
chamber stands on top of a pyramidal base with six large steps. Everything is made of large
blocks of stone.

Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned (passive), as AMD
for the active, and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers, have been studied and installed in high-
rise buildings, predominantly in Japan, for a quarter of a century.
However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into
the superstructure known as seismic or base isolation.
For this, some pads are inserted into or under all major load-carrying elements in the base of the
building which should substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on a
shaking ground.
The first evidence of earthquake protection by using the principle of base isolation was
discovered in Pasargadae, a city in ancient Persia, now Iran, and dates back to the 6th century
BCE. Below, there are some samples of seismic vibration control technologies of
today.Shinbashira : An example in Japan during Temple Construction is the use of
Shinbashira which refers to a central pillar at the core of a pagoda or similar structure. The
shinbashira has long been thought to be the key to the Japanese pagoda’s exceptional
earthquake resistance, when newer concrete buildings may collapse.

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Seismic design requirements: These depend on the type of the structure, locality of the project
and its authorities which stipulate applicable seismic design codes and criteria. To the designed
structure itself, seismic design requirements may include a ground stabilization underneath the
structure: sometimes, heavily shaken ground breaks up which leads to collapse of the structure
sitting upon it. The following topics should be of primary concerns: liquefaction; dynamic lateral
earth pressures on retaining walls; seismic slope stability; earthquake-induced settlement.

Today Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and

analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to
make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to
construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or
collapse in a major earthquake. Earthquake engineering is the scientific field concerned with
protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by
limiting the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels. Traditionally, it has been
narrowly defined as the study of the behavior of structures and geo-structures subject to seismic
loading; it is considered as a subset of structural engineering, geotechnical
engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, applied physics, etc. However, the
tremendous costs experienced in recent earthquakes have led to an expansion of its scope to
encompass disciplines from the wider field of civil engineering, mechanical engineering, nuclear
engineering, and from the social sciences, especially sociology, political science, economics,
and finance
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:
 Foresee the potential consequences of strong earthquakes on urban areas and civil
infrastructure.
 Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the
expectations and in compliance with building codes.
A properly engineered structure does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It
has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level
of damage.

Earthquake or seismic performance defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions,
such as its safety and serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is
normally considered safe if it does not endanger the lives and well-being of those in or around it
by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable if it is able to
fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.
Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume
that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage
but without globally collapsing. On the other hand, it should remain operational for more
frequent, but less severe seismic events.
For example: The preliminary study of 2nd- 3rd century CE structures excavated in Gujarat's
Vadnagar has revealed that people there might have known about earthquake resistant
techniques, experts said Sunday. Experts said no cracks or stress were found in these structures
despite the area, some 100 kilometres from here, being prone to earthquakes, though they added
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the observations need further corroboration.These are heavy brick structures with heavy walls.
The area is prone to earthquakes, so it is quite likely people living way back in the 2nd and 3rd
centuries devised this construction method of putting some gap and maybe wood in between to
act as a squeeze.The houses are mostly structures that date back to the 2nd-3rd centuries and
continue till modern times, as modern settlements on top of the mound show the same structure.
They range from different cultural periods, till modern times.
All the structures, comprising religious, residential and storage, are heavy, and it shows the
affluence of the settlement.
The method is particularly observed in structures which have thick bricks walls. Harappan
structures must also be observed in the same light as they too were heavy structures and most of
the techniques were passed down from the Harappan times.

The Hindu kings built many temples at different places during their long reign, but seismic
occurances didn’t generate any deformation and destruction in the areas. However, a pair of
researchers from the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology used the damaged temples to better
understand the range and extent of damage caused by a quake

by analyzing broken bricks, cracked walls and deformed doorsteps in the temples in Nepal, then
comparing that data with historical accounts of natural disasters, researchers have inked the
earthquakes with damage in the ancient structures.They were able to tell the difference between
deformation done by earthquakes and that incurred through old age. The tremors created damage
with consistent patterns, like shear marks, that were seen on multiple pillars and walls. The
damage in the unaffected temples they examined did not have similar patterns.

They concluded that the 1905 Kangra earthquake damaged the Bharmour temples, but left the
Chamba temples untouched. They also found that the 1555 Kashmir earthquake shook the
temples in Chamba, but did not affect the ones in Bharmour.

Simple geometric form : The characteristic configuration, simple geometric form of the Indian
temple has increased structural strength against earthquake movements. Thoughtfully
conceived design and constructional practices, which were executed with an extraordinary
perfection (5), resulted in the creation of these everlasting, structurally sound structure, which
have proved earthquake resistant to a considerable extent. The architectural heritage of India is
full of possibilities which can provide the basis of inspiration for future requirements, if we can
derive from them the fundamental aesthetical values constructional techniques in building
design which may sometimes be valid in the very changed circumstances of today.1

“The 22nd chapter of Bramha Samhita, which contains 107 chapters on science and technology,
describes earthquakes (Bhukamp) and various aspects with reference to earthquakes resistance
of the buildings (1). Indian temples, which were invariably built in accordance with these
norms, are the living evidences of structural efficiency and technological aspects of the Indian
craftsman and master builders (Sthapati).
The concepts underlying Indian architecture can be traced back to the worldview articulated in
the Vedas and the metaphysics of the Upanishads (2). The earth on which the
temple is built must be consecrated, the water tested, and the consistency of soil

275
examined (6). The chief factor that gives these temples a considerable degree of earthquake
resistance is usually their configuration, because they bring a great deal of material down to the
ground by regular and direct routes, for example the simple and structurally logical
configuration of a Dravida Temple particularly of the main structure (Vimana).

The square building termed as Rekha Deul consists of cubic base bada and the tower proper the
Chapra. The assembly hall (Jagmohan) has a square ground plan, the base (Bada) and the
terraced roof above in the form of a false vaulting (Pida). The tower terminates in a circular
plate upon which rests the, a fruit like finial (Amalaka). All together compose a pyramidal
1
shape, which has an intrinsic advantage that its mass reduces continuously with height.”

MATERIALS USED IN TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION

Rubble: In prehistoric and early historic times rubble, naturally fragmented or deliberately
chipped rock of no specific shape, was the most frequent building material.
Stones: It possesses good resistance against abrasion. It is quite strong and durable building
material.
Wood: Another building material was wood, from both coniferous and deciduous trees,
especially poplar; for supports and roof construction in the traditional architecture of India.
Mud: Frequent building material in Indian cultural areas which was available everywhere. It is
used for plastering and even as a cooling material.

TECHNIQUES USED
Operating on Rocks: The stones were split using wooden wedges and water to create thermal
expansion during the day and then iron tools were used to chip and form the stones into blocks.
Method of Lifting Stones through the Ramp:

Always
top level of Ramp will match with the height of Temple Structure. Stones to be lifted will be

276
shifted to the plane area near the Ramp by using the Traditional Old technology used by Khalaasi
Team. Quarrying Granites: cut a series of pockets along the surface of the stone, and filling them
with wood, watering the woods regularly. As a result, wood swells and makes a crack along the
holes. Means of transportation: (Animals) castrated bull, dogs, elephants, horses, donkeys and
other cattle along with man power.

THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Trabeated System: In the trabeated system, the various
arrangements between vertical elements (pillars and pilasters) and horizontal elements (cross
beams and lintels) are used to provide the stability to the system. The roofing was done by laying
horizontally the slabs of stone from one supporting beams or walls to another.

Corbelling System: Each horizontal course is constructed in such a way that stone or bricks in
each layer are projected out to bridge the gap between the two walls. It was primarily used to
create interiors of the temple and stone shells of super structure above the sanctuary

THE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

1. The available information of temple construction was collected from stone slabs, metal plates,
palm leaves and manuscripts.
2. It started with the selection of team headed by chief architect
3. The construction team consisted of four, Sthapati -Main architect Sutragrahin who did the
work assigned by sthapati,Taksaka who did the carving and cutting of stone, Vardhakin is the
mason.
4. The first stage was the planning of the temple, The second stage was the craving of different
parts of the temples.
5. The third and the final stage consisted of assembling of the parts of temple which consisted of
the actual construction of the temple.
6. The tools required such as hammers, chisel was locally made and sharpened regularly.

STRUCTURAL PLAN AND EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE: Symmetrical forms are

always preferred from earthquake resistance as asymmetrical forms produces eccentricity
between the centre of mass and centre of rigidity which results in the torsion and tends to stress
the concentration. The ground story has dual purpose as apart from carrying its own lateral loads
it also carries the shear force of the upper floors which is similar to the downward building of
vertical gravity loads.

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 The Jain temples at Mont Abu are one of the excellent examples of roof construction with a
high degree of structural strength coupled with endeavoring aesthetical appeal. In the
construction of the low domes of the dancing pavilions they have reached the limits of what
was statically possible in the construction with corbelling courses. The vaulting with tiers of
concentric rings supported only by columns rises above an octagon consisting of architraves.
Here the joints through frictional resistance absorb a large part of the horizontal thrust. Spacious
pilastered halls frequently surround the low-corbelled domes so that the eight columns below the
octagonal architrave should not have to bear the thrust alone. (Fig-5 demonstrates the placing of stone
1
in corbelled roof).

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This pillar at the Lakshi Narayan temple in Chamba, India, was damaged most likely during the 1555 Kashmir
earthquake.Credit...Mayank Joshi

Ttilted pillars, slanted rooftops and warped stone floors. To the average visitor these may seem
like wear and tear from centuries of aging, but to archaeoseismologists they are telltale signs of
massive earthquakes that once devastated the region. Considering the past seismicity of the area
and its current hazard the efficiency strengthening proposals, may compose by two kinds of steel
ties. The application of steel ties is recommended for the mitigation of the seismic vulnerability
in some Buddhist temple as they correspond to a compatible and adequate strengthening
technique._______________________________________________________

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE AND SEISMIC DESIGN WITH REFERENCE TO INDIAN TEMPLE

ARCHITECTURE,Vasudha A. GOKHALE,13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.August 1-6, 2004-Paper No. 2819

Ram Mandir designed to withstand earthquake of magnitude 10 and last for a span
of 1,000 years

The decades-long wait for the construction of a grand Ram Temple in Ayodhya, believed to be
the birthplace of Hindu deity Lord Ram, is all set to end on Wednesday, August 5, 2020.

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New Delhi | Jagran News Desk: The decades-long wait for the construction of a grand Ram
Temple in Ayodhya, believed to be the birthplace of Hindu deity Lord Ram, is all set to end on
Wednesday, August 5, 2020. Prime Minister Narendra Modi will lay the foundation stone of the
Ram Temple in a mega 'bhoomi pujan' or foundation stone laying ceremony.
The Ram Temple in Ayodhya will be a unique piece of architecture in several ways. The temple
has been designed to withstand an earthquake of magnitude 10 and will have a life span of 1,000
years.
Speaking to Dainik Jagran, Ashish Sompura, the architect of Ram Temple said that the proposed
temple will be built in 'Nagar Shaili', one of the three main styles of North Indian Hindu
architecture. Most of the temples in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi, Punjab and
Himachal Pradesh are built in 'Nagar Shaili'.

Ram Temple to be built in Nagara architecture

The Ram Temple will have a relatively smaller entrance and big abode keeping the North Indian
styles of Nagara architecture. In South Indian temples, they have a big entrance and small abode
in line with the Dravidian architecture.
Sompura said that to ensure a longer lifespan of the temple, the soil below 200 feet of the ground
will be tested and depth of base will be decided according to the soil test results. Also, more than
10,000 devotees will be able to have darshan of Lord Ram together.

Sandstone used in Delhi's Akshardham Temple will be used

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In the anticipation of the temple, the supporters of Ram Temple have been cutting and storing
stone for the temple for years. However, several questions are now being raised about their
quality. Speaking about that, the architect of the Ram Temple said that only the stones which are
carved in the workshop will be used.
The sandstones for the construction of Ram Temple have been brought from Rajasthan, which is
the best quality of stone in its category. Delhi's famous Akshardham Temple has also been built
by the same sandstones.

The close-up view at the Tiber Pagoda, Author: Zhangzhugang, CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0

Chinese craftsmen invented a unique way of interlocking wooden brackets in the frameworks.
This type of configuration is called dougong and it has a form of a floating raft foundation on
which the building figuratively floats. The dougong layer is the main feature that reduces
shearing force and damage to the upper parts of the building. They also built the frameworks to
be larger at the bottom and smaller at the top, which serves to increase stability, as do the
elegant, large rooftops. All of these techniques combined to make the traditional wooden
buildings resistant to extensive upheaval over the centuries.
https://www.wallswithstories.com/ancient/how-ancient-chinese-craftsmen-developed-the-
technique-of-earthquake-resistant-architecture.html

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 CHAPTER XIII
The Role of Hindu Temple Tanks

Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in India's temple
architecture, especially in western India where dry and monsoon seasons alternate. Temple
tank design became an art form in itself. An example of the art of tank design is the large,
geometrically spectacular Stepped Tank at the Royal Center at the ruins of Vijayanagara,
the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, surrounding the modern town of Hampi. It is lined
with green diorite and has no drain. It was filled by aqueduct. Rapid urbanisation has
ensured that water bodies in the city have all but vanished. While the city had copious
rainfall in 2015 to quench the thirst of the residents for several years, the encroachments
and poor maintenance of water bodies and temple tanks brought us to a water shortage
situation within a few years, said historian Chithra Madhavan.
'The Role of Temple Tanks in South India's water management' organised by Smithsonian
Institution and Water Matters held in the Chennai the participants bemoaned the undoing
of the wisdom and hardwork of the elders, who had constructed hundreds of temple tanks.
Today garbage blocks the inlets, and the tanks.

Temple tanks as an ancient technology were not used to collect water

for reuse, but to recharge the aquifer, to later be extracted through personal
wells. These tanks served as a barometer of the city’s underground resource,
making its fluctuating level visible. Today this system has been forgotten as

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 the city grows with modern infrastructure, leading to interrelated disasters of
floods, droughts and pollution. By the means of diverse tactics and green-
blue strategies, the temple tanks will be restored to its original purpose as
essential points of water recharge in the city.
Primary Function
 Collects water during monsoon season
 Recharges water to the aquifer
Added Benefits
 Social and religious uses
 Increased biodiversity (aquatic animals and along green buffer)
 Reduces overheating
 Carbon sequestration
 Improved urban quality
 Communicates urban water dynamics while connecting to heritage

The tanks are used for ritual cleansing and during rites of consecration. The water in the tank is
deemed to be sacred water from the Ganges River.

In India, a stepwell is a deep masonry well with steps going down to the water level in the
well. It is called a vav in west India and a baoli in north India. Some were built by kings and
were richly ornamented.[6] They often were built by nobility, some being for secular use from
which anyone could obtain water. Temple tanks are wells or reservoirs built as part of the
temple complex near Indian temples. They are called pushkarini, kalyani, kunda, sarovara, tirtha,
talab, pukhuri, etc. in different languages and regions of India. Some tanks are said to cure
various diseases and maladies when bathed in. It is possible that these are cultural remnants of
structures such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro or Dholavira. which was part of the Indus
Valley Civilization. Some are stepwells with many steps at the sides.

THE AQUEDUCTS AND KALYANIS

Photo
courtesy: Anuradha Shankar

One of the most impressive things about Hampi the city of temples in India is town planning.
Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is
a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in east-central Karnataka, India. It is a pilgrimage centre
of the Hindu religion.
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Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.[ Chronicles left by
Persian and European travellers, particularly the Portuguese, say that Hampi was a prosperous,
wealthy and grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with numerous temples, farms and trading
markets. By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second-largest medieval-era city
after Beijing, and probably India's richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and
Portugal. The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates; its capital
was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained
in ruins.
Located in Karnataka near the modern-era city of Hosapete, Hampi's ruins are spread over 4,100
hectares (16 sq mi) and it has been described by UNESCO as an "austere, grandiose site" of
more than 1,600 surviving remains of the last great Hindu kingdom in South India that includes
"forts, riverside features, royal and sacred complexes, temples, shrines, pillared halls, mandapas,
memorial structures, water structures and others"

Hampi predates the Vijayanagara Empire; there is evidence of Ashokan epigraphy, and it is
mentioned in the Ramayana and the Puranas of Hinduism as Pampaa Devi Tirtha Kshetra.
Hampi continues to be an important religious centre, housing the Virupaksha Temple, an
active Adi Shankara-linked monastery and various monuments belonging to the old cit
The entire city was planned, not in bits, as it is today, but as a whole. Whether it is temples or
palaces, markets or houses, it has been meticulously planned and executed. Among these, the one
aspect that pops out is the water supply. Hampi is located on the banks of Tungabhadra, which,
even then, was a perennial river. There must have been no scarcity of water. Yet, there are
aqueducts and tanks all over the place, so that the water came to the city, and the people didn’t
have to go to the river for their basic needs! Most of the aqueduct is now in ruins, but portions
remain, and are an impressive sight, made of stone, and connecting the major tanks with the
river. You can see one such restored aqueduct in the Mahanavami Dibba complex. Nearby, in the
same complex, is one of the most impressive Kalyani, or Temple Tank. There are tanks at every
temple, in every complex here, but this one is special. It lay buried under the ground till the
archaeologists uncovering the aqueducts chanced upon it. This stepped tank is surprisingly, and
beautifully symmetrical, and is nothing like the temple tanks seen in the region. It does, however,
resemble the stepped wells of northern India, and it is believed that this is the earliest example of
pre-fabricated work in India. The stones were brought from elsewhere, and the tank was
assembled here! It was no mean feat, especially a thousand years ago!! The importance given to
the water and water management system are a glowing example of the efficiency of the
Vijayanagar Empire, and the importance it gave to its citizens.

The Square Water Pavilion, also called the Queen's Bath, is in the south-east of the royal
centre. It has a pavilion, a water basin and a method of moving fresh water to it and taking away
wash water and overflows. The basin is enclosed within an ornate, pillared, vaulted bay. Nearby
are ruins of the aqueduct. The modern name of this building, the Queen's bath, is probably a
misnomer because this was a public bath for men and travellers. The building's interior arches
show influence of the Indo-Islamic style, reflecting an era in which Hindu and Muslim arts
influenced each other in India.

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The Vijayanagara empire built an extensive water infrastructure, some examples of which—
including the Manmatha tank near Virupaksha temple, which is dated to about the 9th century—
predates the Vijayanagara. According to an inscription found there, the Manmatha tank was
upgraded and a Durga shrine added in 1199 CE. The inclusion of artwork at the tank, such as a
warrior fighting a lion, is dated to the 13th century, when Hoysalas frequented Hampi.

A stepped square water tank. ABOVE

Harihar Nadi READ

BELOW

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The Hampi monuments include aqueducts to carry water to tanks and other parts of the city, as
well as drains and channels to remove water overflow. For example, excavations in the 1980s
near the Mahanavami platform in the urban core revealed a large, square-stepped tank that was
fed by an aqueduct. The tanks were public utilities; some were perhaps used for royal
ceremonies.
Archaeological excavations in 1990 revealed twenty-three wells and cisterns in the Hampi-
Vijayanagara metropolis. Of these, thirteen were found outside the city walls in the suburbs, and
ten inside. Of these were twelve at roadsides, eight near temples, ten in residential areas and two
were used for irrigation within the urban core. More water structures were found in Daroji valley
for agriculture. According to archaeologists Kathleen Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, the Hampi
water infrastructure was for the use of travellers, rituals, domestic use and irrigation.
Fountains and community kitchen
Several major temples in Hampi have an embedded kitchen and 100-or-more-pillared feeding
halls. Hampi also had a dedicated public Bhojana shala (house of food) where
numerous thali (dish) were carved in series in a rock on both sides of a water channel. One
example is found near an octagonal fountain in the south of the royal centre; according to
epigraphical sources, this Hampi bhojan shala was a utada kaluve or "canal connected with
eating

Haridra Nadhi
Haridra Nadhi, tank of the Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi, is one of the largest temple
tanks in India. It's in Mannargudi, Thiruvarur District of Tamil Nadu.The area of the temple tank
is 23 acres (93,000 m2). It is also called Daughter of Kaveri river.Kalyani, also
called pushkarni, are ancient Hindu stepped bathing wells.
These wells were typically built near Hindu temples to accommodate bathing and cleansing
activities before prayer. They are also used for immersion of Ganesha idols during Ganesha
Chaturthi.

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Amritsar - the pond of nectar
The holy city of Amritsar and the Golden temple was built around a pond ehich is full of tales
around water.
Share4

The holy sarovar around the Golden Temple

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“PAWAN GURU, pani pita, mata dharti mahat” (air is teacher, water is father and earth our
mother) - thus goes the closing line of the Japji Sahib given by the founder of Sikhism, Guru
Nanak Dev. It holds special significance for Amritsar, the holy city, which boasts of the
Harmandar Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple). The city has been named after the water
body surrounding the temple. 'Amrit' means the nectar of immortality and 'sar' or 'sarovar' means
pond - hence the name.
The city was founded by Guru Raam Das, the fourth spiritual master of the Sikhs, who also
ordered the excavation of the pond. His son and successor Guru Arjan Dev completed this work.
It is said that water from the river Ganga was added to the sarovar. The belief is that whoever
takes a dip there, gets rid of their bad karma. While the pond was earlier dependent on rainwater,
its supply comes from the Upper Bari Doab canal of the Ravi river via the Jethuwal distributory
today.
Harmandar Sahib became popular as 'Golden Temple' when Maharaja Ranjit Singh got its upper
floors covered with gold plated copper sheets in the 1830s. The regilding was done again in 1999
with the gold and money donated by devotees from all over the world. However, due to
increasing air pollution around the shrine, restoration work has to be done every year to maintain
the sheen.

"Nanak naam jahaz hai chade so utre paar" (Having faith in Nanak will take you out of troubled
waters.) Harmandar Sahib is a true symbol of secularism – its four entrance doors signify that
God exists everywhere. This openness is also reflected in the form of devotees from all religions
who not only pay obeisance at the temple but also undertake daily karsewa (voluntary work).

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RIGHT The Harmandar Sahib complex has four drinking water stalls manned by volunteers.
They call upon the pilgrims to quench their thirst, offer them water dishes and clean the used
utensils. The amount consumed daily ranges from 75,000 litres on normal days to 3,00,000 litres
on special occasions. The water for these stalls is supplied by three deep bore wells.

Chheharta Sahib, another Sikh temple located along a sarovar, is located around 7 km from
Amritsar. The gurdwara and the town surrounding it is named after the Persian wheel with six
belts (chheh means six and harta means belt). This was installed in 1595 on the order of Guru
Arjan Dev, the fifth spiritual master of the Sikhs. It was here that Guru Arjan Dev heard the news
about birth of his son and successor Guru Hargobind and decided to celebrate it with the
excavation of a well, which could meet the drinking and irrigation needs of the locals.

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Contrary to the practice of having a Persian wheel with just one belt, six belts were installed in
this to draw more water at a time. This ensured substantial water supply for cultivation. Today, a
whole town has risen around the well taking over the fields. A glass enclosure has been placed
around the well and devotees pay obeisance here. The well's water, which is believed to have
curative properties, is now diverted towards the tank where visitors can take a dip.

The Durgiana Temple, located in the heart of Amritsar, is another religious shrine surrounded by
water. Dedicated to Goddess Durga, the foundation stone of this temple was laid by Pandit
Madan Mohan Malviya in 1924 on the day of Ganga Dashmi. The main shrine is built on the
pattern of the Golden Temple - the upper portion is gold plated and a pool of water surrounds t
on all sides. This pool also gets its water supply from the Upper Bari Doab canal of the river
Ravi.

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Various temples, big and small, dedicated to different Hindu deities are located around the pool.
It is believed that Luv and Kush, the sons of Lord Ram, spent their childhood along with their
mother Sita at the ashram of Maharishi Balmiki in this area. When Luv and Kush detained the
horse from the Ashwamedh Yagya of Lord Ram, they were challenged to war by his brothers
Lakshman, Bharat and Shatrughan, all of whom fell unconscious during the fight. Later, they
were brought back to consciousness with the help of amrit (nectar of immortality) some of which
fell on the soil, which also justifies the name 'Amritsar'.

Whatever the truth behind such narratives, the Amritsar of today is a thriving symbol of
spirituality and unwavering relationship with life-giving water.

Stepped ponds are very similar to stepwells in terms of purpose. Generally, stepped ponds
accompany nearby temples while stepwells are more isolated. Stepwells are dark and barely
visible from the surface, while stepped ponds are illuminated by the light from the sun. Stepwells
are quite linear in design compared to the rectangular shape of stepped ponds.

Shravanabelagola stepped pond, Karnataka

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Stepwells are wells or ponds in which the water is reached by descending a set of steps to the
water level. They may be multi-storied with a bullock turning a water wheel to raise the well
water to the first or second floor. They are most common in western India and are also found in
the other more arid regions of the Indian subcontinent, extending into Pakistan. The construction
of stepwells is mainly utilitarian, though they may include embellishments of architectural
significance, and be temple tanks.
Stepwells are examples of the many types of storage and irrigation tanks that were developed in
India, mainly to cope with seasonal fluctuations in water availability. A basic difference between
stepwells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the other, is that stepwells make it easier for
people to reach the groundwater and to maintain and manage the well.
The builders dug deep trenches into the earth for dependable, year-round groundwater. They
lined the walls of these trenches with blocks of stone, without mortar, and created stairs leading
down to the water.[1] The majority of surviving stepwells originally served a leisure purpose as
well as providing water. This was because the base of the well provided relief from the daytime
heat, and this was increased if the well was covered. Stepwells also served as a place for social
gatherings and religious ceremonies. Usually, women were more associated with these wells
because they were the ones who collected the water. Also, it was they who prayed and offered
gifts to the goddess of the well for her blessings. This led to the building of some significant
ornamental and architectural features, often associated with dwellings and in urban areas. It also
ensured their survival as monuments.
Stepwells usually consist of two parts: a vertical shaft from which water is drawn and the
surrounding inclined subterranean passageways, chambers and steps which provide access to the
well. The galleries and chambers surrounding these wells were often carved profusely with
elaborate detail and became cool, quiet retreats during the hot summers.
A number of distinct names, sometimes local, exist for stepwells. In Hindi-speaking regions,
they include names based on baudi (including bawdi
(Rajasthani: बावड़ी), bawri, baoli, bavadi, and bavdi). In Gujarati and Marwari language,
they are usually called vav or vaav (Gujarati: વાવ). Other names include kalyani or
pushkarani (Kannada), baoli (Hindi: बावली) and barav (Marathi: बारव).

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 Agrasen Ki
Baoli in New Delhi, rebuilt in the 14th century
The stepwell may have originated to ensure water during periods of drought. The earliest
archaeological evidence of wells provided with steps to reach them is found at Dholavira while
the site also has water tanks or reservoirs which are also provided with flights of steps. Mohenjo
Daro's great bath is also provided with steps on opposite directions. Ashokan
inscriptions mention construction of step wells along major indian roads at a distance of every
8 kos for the convenience of travellers, but Ashoka states that it was a well established practice
which predated him and was done by former kings as well..
King Devanampriya Priyadarsin speaks thus. On the roads banyan-trees were caused to be
planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves
were caused to be planted. And (at intervals) of eight kos wells were caused to be dug by me,
and flights of steps (for descending into the water) were caused to be built. Numerous drinking-
places were caused to be established by me, here and there, for the enjoyment of cattle and men.
[But] this so-called enjoyment (is) [of little consequence]. For with various comforts have the
people been blessed both by former kings and by myself. But by me this has been done for the
following purpose: that they might conform to that practice of morality.

— Ashokan Pillar Edict No 7

The first rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 AD. The earliest example of a bath-like
pond reached by steps is found at Uperkot caves in Junagadh. These caves are dated to the 4th
century. Navghan Kuvo, a well with the circular staircase in the vicinity, is another example. It

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was possibly built in Western Satrap (200-400 AD) or Maitraka (600-700 AD) period, though
some place it as late as the 11th century. The nearby Adi Kadi ni Vav was constructed either in
the second half of the 10th century or the 15th century.
The stepwells at Dhank in Rajkot district are dated to 550-625 AD. The stepped ponds
at Bhinmal (850-950 AD) are followed by it. The stepwells were constructed in the southwestern
region of Gujarat around 600 AD; from there they spread north to Rajasthan and subsequently to
the north and west India. Initially used as an art form by Hindus, the construction of these
stepwells hit its peak during Muslim rule from the 11th to 16th century.
One of the earliest existing example of stepwells was built in the 11th century in Gujarat,
the Mata Bhavani's Stepwell. A long flight of steps leads to the water below a sequence of multi-
story open pavilions positioned along the east/west axis. The elaborate ornamentation of the
columns, brackets and beams are a prime example of how stepwells were used as a form of art.[5]
The Mughal emperors did not disrupt the culture that was practiced in these stepwells and
encouraged the building of stepwells. The authorities during the British Raj found the hygiene of
the stepwells less than desirable and installed pipe and pump systems to replace their purpose. [5]
The stepwell ensures the availability of water during periods of drought. The stepwells had
social, cultural and religious significance.These stepwells were proven to be well-built sturdy
structures, after withstanding earthquakes.
Details: Many stepwells have ornamentation and details as elaborate as those of Hindu temples.
Proportions in relationship to the human body were used in their design, as they were in many
other structures in Indian architecture.
A number of surviving stepwells can be found across India, including
in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and North Karnataka (Karnataka).
In 2016 a collaborative mapping project, Stepwell Atlas, started to map GPS coordinates and
collate information on stepwells, mapping over 2800 stepwells in India. Another project mapped
the location of over 900 stepwells in Maharashtra.
In his book Delhi Heritage: Top 10 Baolis, Vikramjit Singh Rooprai mentions that Delhi alone
has 32 stepwells.[10] Out of these, 16 are lost, but their locations can be traced. Of the remaining
16, only 14 are accessible to public and the water level in these keeps varying, while three are
now permanently dry.
Significant stepwells include:

 Agrasen ki Baoli, New Delhi

 Rajon ki baoli, New Delhi
 Chand Baori in Abhaneri near Jaipur, Rajasthan
 Rani ki vav at Patan, Gujarat
 Adalaj ni Vav at Adalaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat
 Dada Harir Stepwell, Ahmedbad
 Navghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi vav, Uparkot Fort, Junagadh
 Toor Ji Ki Baori, Jodhpur
 Birkha Bawari, Jodhpur
 Shahi Baoli, Lucknow

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 Raniji ki Baori in Bundi, Rajasthan; Bundi has over 60 baolis in and around the town.
 Panna Meena ka Kund, Amer, India
 Udoji ki Baori, Mandholi, Rajasthan
 Kalyani, Hulikere
 Bhoga Nandeeshwara Temple, Karnataka
 Sree Peralassery Temple, Kerala[11]
 Gokuleshwar Temple, Parbhani, Maharashtra
 Pingleshwar Temple, Parbhani, Maharashtra
 Nagnath Temple, Parbhani, Maharashtra
Stepwells from Mughal periods still exist in Pakistan. Some are in preserved conditions while
others are not.

 Rohtas Fort, near Jhelum

 Wan Bhachran, near Mianwali
 Losar Baoli, near Islamabad
 Losar Baoli, Sher Shah Park Wah Cantt
 Makli Baoli, near Thatta

Candi Tikus, a 14th century bathing place and step well in Majapahit empire capital
city, Trowulan Archaeological Park, East Java, Indonesia
Architectural Influences of the Hindu temples: Stepwells influenced many other structures in
Indian architecture, especially those that incorporate water into their design. For example,

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the Aram Bagh in Agra was the first Mughal garden in India. It was designed by the Mughal
emperor Babur and reflected his notion of paradise not only through water and landscaping but
also through symmetry by including a reflecting pool in the design. He was inspired by stepwells
and felt that one would complement the garden of his palace. Many other Mughal gardens
include reflecting pools to enhance the landscape or serving as an elegant entrance. Other notable
gardens in India which incorporate water into their design include:

 Humayun's Tomb, Nizamuddin East, Delhi

 Taj Mahal, Agra
 Mehtab Bagh, Agra
 Safdarjung's Tomb
 Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar), Jammu and Kashmir
 Nishat Gardens, Jammu and Kashmir
 Yadvindra Gardens, Pinjore
 Khusro Bagh, Allahabad
 Roshanara Bagh
Stepwells are wells or ponds in which the water is reached by descending a set of steps to the
water level. ... A basic difference between stepwells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the
other, is that stepwells make it easier for people to reach the groundwater and to maintain and
manage the well. baoli, baori, vav

Learn about the history and architecture of India's disappearing stepwells

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Stepwells are spectacular subterranean edifices “like skyscrapers sunk into the earth,”
explains Victoria Lautman in the video Subterranean Ghosts: India's Disappearing
Stepwells (2013), produced and edited by Matthew Cunningham. Stepwell, Gujarati vav,
Hindi baoli or baori, subterranean edifice and water source, an architectural form that was long
popular throughout India but particularly in arid regions of the Indian subcontinent. For
centuries, stepwells—which incorporated a cylinder well that extended down to the water table
—provided water for drinking, washing, bathing, and the irrigation of crops. They also served as
cool sanctuaries for caravans, pilgrims, and other travelers during the heat of day or overnight.
Commissioned by royal, wealthy, or powerful patrons, they were complex engineering feats and
stunning examples of both Hindu and Islamic architecture.

Agrasen ki Baoli, Delhi, India.

Stepwells were excavated several stories underground in order to reach the water table, the level
at which the soil or rock is always saturated with water. Stylistically varied, they incorporated
flights of stairs leading from the ground level down to the water, and many in what is now the
western state of Gujarat also functioned as Hindu temples that featured column-supported shade
pavilions and elaborate stone carvings. Islamic versions had more-sedate adornment and often
incorporated arched side-niches. Both architectural types had cylinder wells where water-
gathering pulley systems were sometimes employed.

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Rudabai Vav, Adalaj, Gujarat, India.

Of the thousands of stepwells that proliferated throughout India, most were abandoned as a result
of modernization and falling water tables. Local communities neglected their upkeep, thus
allowing them to silt up, fill with garbage, or generally crumble into ruin. During the period of
British rule (1858–1947), many stepwells were destroyed after they had been deemed unhygienic
breeding grounds for disease. Present-day India’s water crisis, however, has renewed interest in
stepwells, and the government has begun to preserve some of them.

Ahmadabad: Dada Harir Vav

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Origins And Major Sites

Rudimentary stepwells first appeared in India in the 3rd century CE, born of necessity in
a capricious monsoonal climate zone that is bone-dry for much of the year yet drenched by
torrential rains for many weeks. It was essential to guarantee a year-round water supply for
human needs, particularly in the arid regions of northwestern India where the water table could
be inconveniently buried 10 stories underground. Over the centuries, stepwell design evolved
into astoundingly complex structures.

Rudabai Vav, Adalaj, Gujarat, India.

Construction of a stepwell typically involved not just boring a deep hole from which water could
be drawn but the careful placement of a wide, stone-lined, sloping excavation that, once a long
staircase and side ledges had been embedded, allowed access to the ever-fluctuating level of the
water, which flowed through an opening in the well cylinder. In dry seasons the steps—which
could number more than a hundred—had to be negotiated to reach the bottom story. During the
rainy season, however, a parallel function kicked in, and the trench was transformed into a large
cistern that filled to capacity and submerged the steps sometimes to the surface of the land. That
ingenious system for water preservation continued for a millennium.

In many wells—particularly those in what is now Gujarat—each successive level was punctuated
by covered pavilions, which were accessed by ledges as the water level rose and which provided
vital shade while buttressing the walls against intense pressure. Many stepwells gradually

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narrowed from the surface to the lowest tier underground, where the temperature was
refreshingly cool. By building underground rather than above, a sort of reverse architecture was
created, and, since many stepwells have little presence above the surface other than a low
masonry wall, a sudden encounter with one of those vertiginous man-made chasms could
generate a sense of both surprise and total dislocation once inside, where the telescoping views,
towering pavilions, and powerful play of light and shadow could be equally disorienting.

Neemrana Baoli, Neemrana, Rajasthan, India.

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Scholars have estimated that by the 19th century several thousand stepwells in varying degrees
of grandeur had been built throughout India—in cities, villages, and eventually in private
gardens, where they were known as “retreat wells.” Stepwells also proliferated along crucial
remote trade routes, where travelers and pilgrims could park their animals and take shelter in
covered arcades. They were the ultimate public monuments, available to both genders and every
religion—seemingly anyone at all but for the lowest-caste Hindu. It was considered extremely
meritorious to commission a stepwell, an earthbound bastion against eternity, and it is believed
that one-fourth of those wealthy or powerful philanthropists were female. Considering that
fetching water was (and still is) a task assigned to women, the stepwells would have provided a
reprieve in otherwise regimented lives, and gathering down in the village stepwell was surely an
important social activity.

Stepwells are categorized by their scale, layout, materials, and shape: they can be rectangular,
circular, or even L-shaped; they can be built from masonry, rubble, or brick; and they can have
as many as four separate entrances. No two stepwells are identical, and each—whether it is
simple and utilitarian or complex and ornamented—has a unique character. Much depends on
where, when, and by whom they were commissioned.

Ahmadabad: Mata Bhavani Vav, a stepwell in Ahmadabad, Gujarat state, India.

Hindu structures functioned as bona fide subterranean temples, replete with carved images of the
male and female deities to whom the stepwells were dedicated. Those sculptures formed a
spiritual backdrop for ritual bathing, prayers, and offerings that played an important role in many
Hindu stepwells, and, despite a lack of accessible groundwater, a number continue today as

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active temples—e.g., the 11th-century Mata Bhavani Vav in Ahmadabad (Ahmedabad; east-
central Gujarat).

Nowhere was there a more-elaborate backdrop for worship planned than at India’s best-known
stepwell, the Rani ki Vav (“Queen’s Stepwell”) in Patan (northern Gujarat), commissioned by
Queen Udayamati about 1060 to commemorate her deceased spouse. Its enormous scale—210
feet (64 metres) long and 65 feet (20 metres) wide—probably contributed to the disastrous
flooding that buried the almost-finished stepwell for nearly a thousand years under sand and
mud. The builders of the structure realized that they were attempting something risky and added
extra buttressing and massive support walls but to no avail. In the 1980s the excavation and
restoration of the Rani ki Vav were completed, but by then the long-exposed columns on the first
tier had been hauled off to build the nearby 18th-century Bahadur Singh ki Vav (now completely
surrounded by homes). The Rani ki Vav was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in
2014.

stepwell: stairs

View of the flights of stairs leading into the Rani ki Vav (“Queen's Stepwell”), Patan, Gujarat, India,
designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2014.

Architectural elements in the Rani ki Vav (“Queen's Stepwell”), Patan, Gujarat, India, designated a
UNESCO World Heritage site in 2014.Victoria S. Lautman (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Once Muslim rulers began to dominate in India, starting about the late 12th century, stepwells
shifted in their design both structurally and decoratively. Whereas Hindu builders used trabeated
(post-and-lintel) construction with corbel domes, Muslims introduced the arch and the
“true” dome. Hindu artists carved sculptures and friezes packed with deities, humans, and
animals, but Islam forbade depictions of any creatures at all. When the two traditions collided for
a brief period in Gujarat about 1500, a pair of brilliant offspring resulted close to the new capital

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of Ahmadabad—the Rudabai Vav and the Dada Harir Vav. Both are five stories deep with
octagonal subterranean pools, each commissioned by a female patron. Although the Rudabai Vav
boasts three separate entrances (a rarity), it and the Dada Harir Vav are conceptual cousins, built
virtually simultaneously just 12 miles (19 km) from one another and commissioned under
Islamic authority using Hindu artisans. Each is elaborately decorated but with a notable absence
of deities and human figures. Compared with other, more-sombre Islamic-commissioned
stepwells, those two examples are flamboyant.

Bahadur Singh ki Vav, Patan, Gujarat, India.Victoria S. Lautman (A Britannica Publishing

Partner)

Current State And Future

By the early 21st century, only a handful of stepwells had remained in relatively decent
condition, particularly those where tourists were likely to visit. For most structures, however, the
prevailing condition was deplorable for a host of reasons. For one, the stepwells that had been
deemed unhygienic havens for parasites and disease by the British rulers of India consequently
were barricaded, filled in, or otherwise destroyed. Also, modern substitutes, such as village taps,
plumbing, and water tanks, eliminated the physical need for stepwells, if not the social and
spiritual aspects. As obsolescence set in, stepwells were ignored by their communities, often
becoming garbage dumps and latrines, or were repurposed as storage areas, mined for their
stone, or just left to decay. Depletion of groundwater from unregulated pumping caused many of
the wells to dry up, and, when water was present, it generally was fouled by garbage or was
overgrown with vegetation from lack of attention, even when temple wells were still being
actively used. Stagnant water was the least of it. Anyone with phobias involving fear of snakes,
bats, bugs, heights, depths, darkness, or filth would find many stepwells challenging. The

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unusual 16th-century Bhamaria retreat well near Mehmadabad (Mahemdavad) housed a colony
of extremely vocal bats. The extraordinary 13th-century Vikia Vav on a former caravan route
near Ghumli was on the verge of total collapse. Stairs were unstable and treacherous.

A stepwell littered with trash in Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.

stepwell Gandhak ki Baoli, Delhi, India.Victoria S. Lautman (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

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Grim as the deteriorating stepwells may seem, the growing urgency for water conservation has
spearheaded some present-day efforts to de-silt and reactivate a few wells in Delhi and Gujarat in
the hopes that they might once again serve to collect and store water. Meanwhile, a number of
contemporary architects, in particular Charles Correa, have taken inspiration from stepwells—
along with other stepped water structures (e.g., ponds and tanks that are frequently mistaken for
stepwells)—and may help ignite more interest in and appreciation for those remarkable but
disappearing structures.

List of large Temple tanks

Area
Area
Name acre Location &Notes
hectare
s

1 Haridra Nadhi 23 9.3 Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu, India

The Rajagopalaswamy temple is

a Vaishnavite shrine located in the town
of Mannargudi, India. The Haridra Nadhi tank at
the entrance of the shrine where rain water is
collected. The temple complex, comprising
16 gopurams, 7 prakarams(outer courtyard), 24
shrines, seven mandapams and nine

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 Area
Area
Name acre Location &Notes
hectare
s

sacred theerthams was the work was

constructed by Kulothunga Chola I and later,
renovated by the Later Cholas and
the Thanjavur Nayaks. and This is the First
Largest Temple Tank in Tamilnadu.

Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

This is the location where the king Thirumalai

Madurai
2 16.2 6.6 Naicker excavated the soil to fabricate the
Teppakulam
bricks required for constructing his palace,
Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal. The pit that was
thus formed is seen as tank now.

Tiruvarur, Tamil Nadu, India

The ancient Sri Thyagaraja temple

at Tiruvarur is dedicated to
Kamalalayam
3 16 6.5 the Somaskanda aspect of Shiva. The
Temple Tank
Kamalalayam temple tank covers around 16
acres is one of the largest in the country.
The temple chariot is the largest of its kind in
Tamil Nadu.

Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India

The Tank is located in the heart

of Kumbakonam town. This tank covers an area
of 6.2 acres and is not a perfect rectangle. The
Mahamaham tank is Surrounded by 16 small Mandapams and
4 tank, 6.2 2.5 a "Nava Kannika Temple"(Nine rivers) in the
Kumbakonam Eastern Side. All the rivers of India are said to
meet at the tank on Mahamaham festival day
that happens once in 12 years. A purificatory
bath at this tank on the day is considered equal
to the combined dips in all the holy rivers
of India.

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 Area
Area
Name acre Location &Notes
hectare
s

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Kapaleeshwarar Temple is temple of Shiva

located in Mylapore, which is in the Indian state
of Tamil Nadu. The temple is of
typical Dravidian architectural style, with
Kapaleswarar
5 7.5 3.0 the gopuram overpowering the street on which
Temple Tank
the temple sits. This temple is also a testimonial
for the vishwakarmas sthapathis. There are two
entrances to the temple marked by
the gopuram on either side. The
east gopuram is about 40 m high, while the
smaller western gopuram faces the sacred tank.

Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India

Teppakulam is a locality situated almost at the

centre of the Indian city of Tiruchirappalli. The
Trichy historic Rockfort is situated nearby. The Rock
6 5 2.0
Teppakulam Fort temple stands 83m tall perched atop the
rock. The smooth rock was first cut by the
Pallavas but it was the Nayaks of Madurai who
completed both the temples under
the Vijayanagara empire

Tirukannapuram, Tamil Nadu, India|

The temple tank is right in front of Neela Megha

Perumal Temple or Sowriraja Perumal Temple,
Tirukkanapuram a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord
7 4.5 1.8
Temple Tank Vishnu located Tirukannapuram, Tamil
Nadu, India on the Kumbakonam-
Tiruvarur highway. It is one of the "Divya
Desams", the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by
the 12 poet saints, or Alwars.

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 CHAPTER XII
Sthala Vrikshams
Wood and Temples in Hinduism
There is a deep relationship between trees and spiritual life
in India. The association between many different kinds of
trees, plants and flowers with religious practice is a deep
and significant one. It is based in a thought system that
recognizes that every living thing—including every plant
and tree—is an individual personality.

Sthala Vrikshams (sacred plants for each temple) in Temples indicate the importance given for
plants and trees in those days. Every temple has one plant or tree as sthala vriksham. While these
are protected in some temples, they are not seen in some. The need to know about them and
protect them and what plant or tree a temple had as sthala,. Hinduism, which also arose from the
ancient Vedic religion, also placed marked value upon trees (and plants, in general). With
regards to the philosophical outlook on plant life, in contrast with Buddhism, there is a clearer
and prevailing view of plants being taken into moral consideration. Granted, it must be stressed,
prior to further explanation, that Hinduism itself has at least six different offshoots that have
distinct differences between one another, and therefore it is the core texts that are generally
referred to (Hall, 2011). This clearer view on plant life is because Hinduism generally considers
all beings as being connected via Brahman, and as a consequence plants possess consciousness
and are therefore sentient (Framarin, 2014b), and trees are even self aware according to the
Yogavasistha (Hall, 2011). Consequently, plants are part of the cycle of death and rebirth, known
as samsara. Whether this is sentience in the human sense, or simply because plants are alive, is
however questioned by in another text by Framarin (2014a). However, one can observe how
trees, in particular, were considered to be able to experience happiness and sorrow, as detailed in
the ancient Puranas (Dwivedi, 1990).
Regardless of exact outlook, the fact that Hinduism recognises plants as at least living beings has
implications towards their attitude towards plants, which is one of non-violence. Despite this, in
the case of whether a plant must be sacrificed to save a human, it is considered that humans have
greater moral standing, by virtue of their heightened sentience and their mobility (Hall, 2011).

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This outlook may however only be more recent, as more historic Hindu texts suggest that all life
is of equal sanctity and must be safeguarded (unless there is adequate justification to do
otherwise), because only God has dominion over all life (Dwivedi, 1990). In light of the
aforementioned, it is of little surprise that conservation issues are becoming more pertinent
within Hindu cultures, and particularly within the middle-upper class societies that can afford to
care (Tomalin, 2004). With specific reference to trees, it is not surprising that it is the
religiously- and economically- important trees that are most actively associated with the religion
and culture. To begin, it is however necessary to recognise that Hindus consider all trees to have
a tree deity, which can be worshipped and provided with offerings including water and sacred
threads. These tree deities do lead trees to adopt a position of significant religious importance
(Dwivedi, 1990), though nonetheless, some trees will hold particularly acute religious
importance; and notably those that have direct associations with principal deities. For example,
Shitala (the goddess of poxes) is considered to reside within a neem tree (Azadirachta indica) –
perhaps because neem has been used to treat an array of poxes and other illnesses for many
centuries (Edwardes, 1922; Norten & Pütz, 2000) – and as a result the neem tree is considered
sacred (Hall, 2011). The medicinal god Dhanvantari also has associations with the tree. In fact,
the neem may even be of divine origin, as the Hindu demigod Garuda was thought to have
spilled a few drops of the elixir of immortality onto the tree, on his way to Heaven with the elixir
(Puri, 1999). Neem leaves may also be used to ward off evil spirits, immediately after childbirth
(Edwardes, 1922).
The goddess of fortune and prosperity, Lakshmi, is also found to reside within a tree – the sacred
fig, or pipal (Ficus religiosa) (Hall, 2011). In fact, the three principal gods in Hinduism, Brahma,
Shiva, and Vishu, all have associations with the pipal, and is subsequently worshipped every
Saturday during the fifth Hindu month of Shraavana (de Cleene & Lejeune, 1999; Edwardes,
1922), and perhaps even every morning throughout the year (Chandrakanth & Romm, 1991).
The gular (Ficus racemosa) also has associations to all three of these gods: the roots Brahma, the
bark Vishnu, and the branches Shiva (Krishna & Amirthalingam, 2009). Vishu is also associated
with the banyan (Ficus benghalensis) and sometimes wholly portrayed as the gular (Ficus
racemosa) (Chandrakanth & Romm, 1991), whilst Shiva has associations with the bel (Aegle
marmelos), where leaves are used to worship Shiva, in order to gain redemption from a sinful act
(Jagetia et al., 2005; Niroula & Singh, 2015), and also maulsari (Mimusops elengi).
Rudra, who pre-dated Shiva and was a storm god, and who is now seen as perhaps
interchangeable with Shiva, is also linked with the rudraksha tree (Elaeocarpus ganitrus). For
this reason, those who worship Shiva will often adorn themselves with rosaries made with seeds
of the rudraksha tree, during meditation (Chandrakanth & Romm, 1991; Garg et al., 2013;
Naresh et al., 2013). Temples dedicated to Shiva will also be surrounded by five species of
sacred tree, as detailed in the Puranas: the amala (Phyllanthus emblica), banyan (Ficus
benghalensis), bel (Aegle marmelos), neem (Azadirachta indica), and pipal (Ficus religiosa)
(Haberman, 2013). The avatar Dattatreya, who is considered to comprise all three gods Brahma,
Shiva, and Vishu, is associated with the gular (Ficus racemosa), and this is not surprising as all
three deities, individually, have links with this tree (Chandrakanth & Romm, 1991).
Krishna, another important Hindu deity, has many associations with the kadam (Neolamarckia
cadamba), and was, for example, understood to have greatly enjoyed its presence (Haberman,
2013). It is also a tree that Krisha grew up around, and into where he climbed after stealing the
clothes of some very beautiful cowherd girls (Krishna & Amirthalingam, 2009). The banyan
(Ficus benghalensis) was also said to have been linked to Krishna, by virtue of the fact it was the

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tree that was said to have saved his life during the world flood (Altman, 2000). Such
aforementioned trees may also themselves be worshipped, for the god(s) that they represent (as
the gods, according to the Puranas, could adopt the form of a tree), and this would be the case in
particular when in rural and forested areas of India. In these instances, the trees may even have
been caged, so to protect them from damage (Haberman, 2013).
Persisting with the religious aspects of trees within Hinduism, one can also observe how the
planting of trees – particularly groves – is a highly important act worthy of marked religious
merit (Coward, 2003; Edwardes, 1922; Haberman, 2013). At times, these groves may be planted
in patterns that accord to the cosmic alignment of the stars, planets, and the Zodiac, as
understood in Hinduism; as may temple forests, which frequent the Indian landscape serve
multiple spiritual and religious purposes (Chandrakanth & Romm, 1991; Chandrakanth et al.,
1990). These groves may also be more simple plantations, as is the case in eastern Kumaun,
where the deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara) has been abundantly planted beyond its natural range
(Guha, 2000). Established groves within forests, such those of mangrove (Rhiziophora spp.) in
Bangladesh, are also a site for prayer once per year, for Hindus of the lower castes (Khan et al.,
2008). Where these sacred groves have been assumed from pre-dating cultures, unlike with
Christianity, and to a slightly lesser degree Islam, their spiritual importance is conserved and the
groves remain as places of worship (Ormsby & Bhagwat, 2010).
Trees may also be formally married to one another, in some instances. In fact, the creation of
groves and the marriage of the trees within the groves to one another (some years later) is
considered a particularly important custom within the Hindu religion, and cases of individual
mango trees (Mangifera indica) being married to individual tamarind trees (Tamarindus indica)
are documented (Edwardes, 1922). Neem (Azadirachta indica) and pipal (Ficus religiosa) trees
may also be planted so close together that they essentially grow ‘as one’. This ‘marriage’ of the
two tree species is considered to represent the bonding of male (pipal) and female (neem), and if
the unified trees are circumambulated after bath in the morning then they are said to cure sterility
(Chandrakanth et al., 1990; Haberman, 2013). In some cases, these marriage ceremonies are
incredibly grand (and thus expensive), such as when a neem and pipal tree were married in the
Indian town of Palakkad – the neem was four years younger than the pipal, and was adorned with
traditional wedding items. In this case, a Hindu priest was employed to undertake the ceremony,
whilst an astrologer was employed to select the correct (appropriate) date (Haberman, 2013).
Trees are revered in Indian culture for their many fine attributes such as medicinal benefits,
providing food, helping moderate ambient temperatures, giving shade, recharging groundwater,
all these things being essential to the existence of human beings, animals, insects, birds and
microorganism that thrive on the benevolence of trees. Here are a few trees that have attained
more than a special place in Indian especially Hindu culture, tradition and mythology.
A variety of tree species have also historically been worshipped by individual tribes of the Hindu
religion, across India. Specific tribes will attribute a specific group of tree species to their
ancestry, including the banyan (Ficus benghalensis), kadam (Neolamarckia cadamba), mango
(Mangifera indica), and shami (Prosopis cineraria), and the marriage of individual tribe
members to those of different tribes can only occur if the two tribes do not share ancestral tree
species (Edwardes, 1922). The trees sacred to the tribes will also usually not be cut down or
damaged, and instead revered and protected.
The theme of trees and marriage in fact extends even further, when it can occur between a man
(or woman) and a particular tree (of the opposite gender) (Haberman, 2013). This is usually a
practice that occurs after an individual has been married twice already, as a third marriage is seen

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as inauspicious (and is also illegal in the Punjab). Therefore, instead of marrying a human for the
third time, a Punjabi individual is married to a babel tree (Vachellia nilotica), and afterwards
married to another human (for the fourth marriage). In the city of Chennai, a similar custom can
be observed, and instead an individual is married to a serut tree (Streblus asper), that is then
unfortunately felled, paving the way for a fourth marriage (Edwardes, 1922; Haberman, 2013).
Hindu brides may also, prior to marriage, assuming they were born under “inauspicious planets”,
be married to a tree (which rids her of any ill-omens that may harm her husband), and then to the
groom. Conversely, if a groom is found to have been born under very well-aligned planets, the
marriage between him and his bride is sometimes compared to the bride marrying a fig tree
(Ficus religiosa). The general idea behind why this marriage between a woman and a tree occurs
may be, again according to Edwardes (1922), to “avert the curse of widowhood”, because the
tree (groom) is always alive (hopefully!). It may also be to pass-off any bad luck onto the tree,
which is, of course, not necessarily that good for the tree! On a more philosophical level, it also
keeps alive man’s kinship with nature, which is important within Hinduism (Haberman, 2013).
Hindu women, each year, will also fast and worship both the goddess Savitri and the banyan tree
(Ficus benghalensis), in order to ensure their husband and sons have long and married lives
(Wadley, 1980).

This pipal tree was married to a woman, and has been suitably ‘dressed’ for the occasion.
On a more cultural level, numerous traditions can be observed with regards to the consumption
or utilisation of certain trees, in accordance with particular calendar months. For example, in
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 West Bengal, certain Hindu tribes do not consume fruits of the genus Zizyphus until after
January’s full moon, nor do they eat mango (Mangifera indica) until after the Baruni ceremony
in late March, or the fruits of the drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) until after the Charak festival
in April. Other tribes refrain from harvesting the sal (Shorea robusta) until after the Salui festival
in March to April, and the fruits of the karam (Haldina cordifolia) until after the Karam festival
in August to September (Deb & Malhotra, 2001). It is most likely that these harvesting
limitations are due to economic reasons, so that the trees are not adversely impacted prior to the
time in which they provide the most value. Within other Hindu rituals and customs, there is also
the overt declaration that trees that have been struck by lightning, display dieback in the
periphery of the crown, contain many bird nests, or grow upon a sacred site, are unfit for use in
the timber trade to make bedsteads, as they are wholly certain to bring ill health – and possibly
death – to an individual (Edwardes, 1922).
On a symbolic level, within the Bhagavad Gita, which is a Hindu text, the upside-down tree
mentioned by Krishna also has importance within the religion (Arapura, 1975). This tree’s roots
are up in the skies, whilst its foliage is down upon the earth, and this is said to symbolise man’s
origins (or roots) from divinity and consciousness (de Cleene & Lejeune, 1999). The suspended
roots displays these origins of man, whilst the branches upon the earth detail the workings of the
mind, which is vastly complex in composition and function. The leaves, which are attached to
the branches, symbolise emotions and thoughts that man will experience, and their temporary
nature, as these leaves are eventually shed and re-grown. However, these leaves also need the
water and nutrients from the roots, which connects man back to divinity and consciousness (the
roots in the sky – the spiritual world), from where the mind should be based and build from, in
spite of the temptation to base conscious existence upon emotion and the material world (the
leaves) (Prabhupada, 1989). https://arboriculture.wordpress.com/2016/11/05/trees-and-religion-
hinduism/

A pipal and neem tree that have been married to one another.

Top 15 Religious Plants of India

 Peepal. Peepal tree is one of the most worshipped tree of India and is also popularly known as
the Bodhi tree. ...
 Banyan. Banyan tree is generally said to be the humble abode of Krishna. ...
 Bael. Bael is a very sacred tree of India and is associated with the almighty Lord Shiva. ...
 Mango. ...

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 Neem. ...
 Banana. ...
 Coconut. ...
 Sandalwood.
A Brief Guide to The Sacred Trees of India: WRITTEN BY JYOTI JENNINGS ROTH

Bodhi Tree located in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, under which Siddhartha Gautama, the
spiritual teacher later known as Buddha, is said to have attained enlightenment.

Bael: A Medicinal Tree: The bael is a slender, aromatic tree that bears a sweet, yellow-green
fruit. It is a very medicinal plant as well as a sacred tree. All parts of it are used for different
healing purposes—the roots, leaves, and fruits—and it has proven effective in combatting many
different kinds of bacteria. It is known as “Sivadruma” by the Hindus, and the leaves are often
offered to Lord Shiva, who is known to be particularly pleased by this tree. Baels have trifoliate
leaves, i.e. a leaf structure of three, and this is sometimes thought to symbolize Siva’s trident or
the Trimūrti (described above) as well. All parts of Bael tree are used for different healing
purposes.Ashoka: A Guard Against GriefThis is a small evergreen tree, with dark green leaves
and fragrant orange-yellow to deep red flowers. The name of this tree means “without grief” or
“one who gives no grief.” Water in which the ashoka flowers have been washed is used as a
protective and healing draught against sorrow. It is representative of Kama Deva or the God of
Love in the Hindu faith, and thus it is also associated with fertility. In fact, the bark of the tree is
used as a remedy for reproductive disorders and to restore fertility. It is also thought that Lord
Buddha was himself born under an ashoka tree and so it is often planted in Buddhist monasteries.

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Ashoka tree LEFT Bael to the right
Coconut: Ceremonial Food:
The classic appearance of the coconut palm, with its slender trunk, large
fan-like leaves, and round hard-shelled fruit, is beloved as a symbol of
exotic beaches and tropical forests. In India, however, coconut trees are
used for all kinds of religious purposes, mainly utilizing the coconut fruits
in puja (religious ceremonies) and all kinds of traditional food
preparations. Some say that the fruit represents Lord Shiva, with the three
black marks on coconuts depicting his eyes. Around the world, the
coconut fruit is well regarded for its distinctive flavor, nutritional benefits
and even medicinal value, possessing anti-bacterial properties.

Coconut used in puja ceremony. In India, the mango is commonly seen as a symbol of love
and fertility.

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Mango: Icon of Love and Fertility-Mangos can grow exceedingly tall,
over 100 feet, and can live hundreds of years. When mature, these trees
have dark green leaves and put out small white, sweet-smelling flowers,
which eventually ripen into the famous luscious fruit. In India, the mango
is commonly seen as a symbol of love and fertility and is used in religious
and social ceremonies accordingly. The mango leaves are often strung in a
garland and hung over the entrance of a dwelling to mark an auspicious
occasion. The Buddhists revere the mango for it is believed that Lord
Buddha created a huge mango tree in Shravasti, an Indian district, from a
seed. The mellow, sweet flesh of mangos is very popular everywhere for
its delicious flavor.

Banana: The Resourceful Tree: Their huge lush green leaves make it
clear that bananas thrive in a very rainforest-like environment. The leaves,
fruits and flowers of this tree are all utilized in Indian religious
ceremonies. For example, the fruit is offered to various gods and
goddesses, especially Lord Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi, the Goddess of
Fortune. Banana leaves are used as plates to distribute blessed and offered
food, called prasadam. Those of the Hindu faith also worship the banana
trees, bearing fruits and flowers, for the welfare of the family. This tree is
certainly more than just a household fruit in India.

Because of its use in religious ceremonies, Banana is much more than just a household fruit in
India.

Neem: A Tree of Healing-Neems are drought-resistant evergreens in the mahogany family, with
small tapering leaves and white, fragrant flowers. The flowers and leaves are used in traditional
Indian cooking and small preparations of neem are consumed as part of the New Year’s
celebration in several provinces. Deities are sometimes garlanded with offerings of neem flowers
and leaves. It is greatly respected for its medicinal uses, including anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-

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fungal, and even sedative properties. It is also commonly used as a “toothbrush.” People in India
(as well as Africa and the Middle East) have been chewing on neem twigs to clean their teeth for
centuries. In Hindi culture, neem is manifested as the Goddess Durga, also known as Parvati (the
wife of Shiva). In some parts of India, the neem tree itself is thought to be a goddess, Neemari
Devi. It is associated with Goddess Sitala Devi in the north as well as Goddess Marimman in the
south, who are both associated with giving and healing of skin ailments like small-pox. The
beautiful and famous Jagannatha deities in eastern Odisha are formed from neem wood. Neem
flowers, leaves and even smoke from burning the leaves is often used to ward off evil spirits.

Old Neem tree Sandalwood:

Sacred Incense: These small trees, with glossy green leaves and tiny scarlet flowers, are related
to mistletoe and live off the roots of other trees. The harvested wood is yellowish, fine-grained,
very aromatic, and, unlike other woods, has the distinction of retaining its prized fragrance for
decades. A special paste called “chandanam” created from sandalwood is often used on the body,
applied to the head, chest or neck either cosmetically or as part of a religious ceremony. The
fragrant and sweet-smelling pastes of sandalwood are also very often used to worship the gods
and goddesses. There is an account connected with this tree wherein the Goddess Parvati
(Shiva’s wife) created Lord Ganesha out of a sandalwood paste and breathed life into the figure.
Sandalwood is also prized by Buddhists who use the scent in their own ceremonies and
meditations. It is very often used to purify temples and holy places in both the Hindi and
Buddhist faith.

Sandal tree leaves

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Peepal tree:One can see the a Peepal or fig tree in the opening portion of the temple property. In
Latin, Ficus Religiosa (sacred fig), the peepal is sacred in Indian tradition — it is also known
as the Bodhi tree or Aswatha tree. Krishna said: I am the Peepal (Aswatha in Sanskrit). Vishnu
was born under such a tree.

Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Hindu, Buddhist and Jain

Basic form of a Hindu temple

When you browse our earlier articles on Hindu Temple Architecture, you would realize one
thing. It was a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave temples to monolithic
rathas which finally culminated in structural temples.The basic form of a Hindu structural
temple consists of the following.

1. Garbhagriha:

 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.

 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.

2. Mandapa:

 It is the entrance to the temple.

 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.

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  Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,
Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.

3. Shikhara or Vimana:

 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

4. Amalaka:

 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.

5. Kalasha:

 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

6. Antarala (vestibule):

 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).

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7. Jagati:

 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

8. Vahana:

 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Classification of Indian Temples

Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as

 Nagara (in North India)

 Dravida (in South India)
 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing
of Nagara and Dravida orders.

Sculptures, Iconography, and Ornamentation

 Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities.

 It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated
with them.
 Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for
centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
 Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional
variations in iconography.
 The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental
part of its conception.
 The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses
(Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara
temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida
temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and
Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them.
 Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the
sanctum.
 The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the
sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.
 Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity.
 The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,
kalasha, etc.

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The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture

 Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in Northern India.
 It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
 Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
 Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods, multiple shikharas
came.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

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1. Latina/ Rekha-Prasada:

 It is the simple and most common type of shikhara.

 It is square at the base and the walls curve or slopes inwards to a point on top.
 Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.
 Later on, the Latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower,
the temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together like rising
mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which was
always above the garbhagriha.

2. Phamsana type shikhara:

 They are broader and shorter than Latina type.

 Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre
of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising towers.
 Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upward on a straight incline.
 In many north Indian temples, the phamsana type is used for mandapas while the main
garbhagriha is housed in a Latina building.

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 3. Valabhi type shikhara:

 These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would
have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.
 The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in
existence.

We can also classify the Nagara Temples on the basis of region as follows:

Central India

 In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large
complex.
 This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of
both the religions.

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  Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of
Vidisha (it is a part of a large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which was
a Buddhist site.
 The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small
mandapa before an equally small room that served as garbhagriha.
 Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.
 The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is
that they are made of Sandstone.

1. DASHAVATARA VISHNU TEMPLE, DEOGARH, UP:

 Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are unknown, it is believed that this
temple was built in the early 6th century CE.
 This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.
 This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture. [Panchayatana is an
architectural style where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller
subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total of five shrines – i.e., Pancha]

 There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.

 In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally
dedicated.
 The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which it was assumed that the four
subsidiary shrines must also house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dashavatara temple.
 The grand doorway of the west facing temple (west facing is less common) has the
sculptures of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right side.
 The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which makes it clear that this is an early example
of a classical nagara style of the temple.
 Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
 Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
 Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of achieving moksha , symbolically
communicated by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had taken the form of an
elephant)
 The temple is west facing, which is less common, as most of the temples are east or north
facing.

2. TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO, MADHYA PRADESH:

 The temples at Khajuraho were made in the 10 th century, about 400 years after the temple
at Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
 We can see how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had
developed.
 The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.

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  The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to
king Ganda.
 The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.
 All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion,
emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an
Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a vase.
 The crowning element Kalasha and Amalaka are to be found on all nagara temples of this
period.
 The Khajuraho temples are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10% of
total sculptures); the erotic expression gives equal importance in human experience as a
spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
 Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures)
sculptures, considered auspicious.
 Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with typical features.
 There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them dedicated to Hindu gods.
 There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple.
 Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or
goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the 7th
 [Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP Kalaparishad and is one week long (first
week of February) festival of classical dances celebrated annually against the spectacular
backdrop of Khajuraho]

West India

 There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of India, including Gujarat and
Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.
 The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.
 While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the
10th to 12th-century temple sculptures.
 The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen
in some of the 10th to 12th-century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century
temple at Ranatpur.
 Among the most important art, historical sites in the region are Samlaji in Gujarat.
 It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and
gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.
 A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region.

1. SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA, GUJARAT:

 The temple dates back to the early 11th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of
the Solanki dynasty.
 The Solanks were a branch off later Chalukyas.
 There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called Surya Kund in front of it.
 The hundred square metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.

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  A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.

 A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which
is open on all sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central India temples.

East India

 East Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each
of these three areas produces a distinct type of temple.
 The history of architecture in the northeast and Bengal is hard to study because a number
of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now is later brick
or concrete temples at those sites.
 It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction.
 A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, which shows the
development of important regional schools in those regions.

ASSAM:

 An old 6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few
stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the
import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
 The post-Gupta style continued in the region well in the 10th
 However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.

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  The style that came with the migration of the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the
dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as
the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
 Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was built in the
17th century.

BENGAL:

 The style of sculptures during the period between the 9th and 11th centuries in Bengal
(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at that time.
 That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named after the Sena kings.
 While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist monastic sites, the temple of the
region is known to express the Vanga style.
 The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B, built in the 9th century, shows a
tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka, is an example of early Pala style.
 Many of the temples from 9th to 12th centuries were located at Telkupi in Puruta district,
W.B.
 They were submerged when dams were constructed in the region.
 The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal Sultanate
buildings at Gaur and Pandya.
 Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of the
temple in that region.
 The most prominent of these was the shape of the sloping or curving side of the bamboo
roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as across
India as the Bangla Roof (word Bungalow derived from this).

ODISHA (KALINGIA ARCHITECTURE):

The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders:

A. REKHAPIDA/ REKHA DEULA/ RATHAKA DEULA:

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Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the
garbhagriha.

B. PIDHADEULA:

It is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof and is mainly found

for housing the outer dancing and offering halls.

C. KHAKRADEULA:

It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof. Temples of

the female deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha usually) and will have a resemblance
with Dravidian temples of the south.

 Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district,
including Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
 The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order.
 In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is vertical almost until
the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
 Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas.
 The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches
of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
 The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.
 Odisha temples usually have outer walls.

1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:

 It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.

 The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental
carving.
 These include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing
the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
 The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
 On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.

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  It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the three
temple walls, each facing different directions.
 The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun
would enter the garbhagriha.

2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:

 It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha.

 The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram)
pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime.
 When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of
Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or
nineteen years by using sacred trees.
 The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12 th century by King Anatavarman
Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
 The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival.

The Hills

 A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir.
 Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier)
left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.
 This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from
Sarnath, Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.
 Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
 The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a
result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type, the
mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.
 Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
 The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
 The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir,
Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.

The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture

 Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram.

 The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
 The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving
shikhara of north India.

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 In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is
equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

 In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river
goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple
architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or
door keepers guarding the temple.
 A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south
Indian temples.
 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a
distinct, separate small shrine beside the main temple.
 The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
Dravida style.
 At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
 This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple.
 When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it
would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and also
associated structures).
 An example for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as
seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.
 The outermost is the oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is
the oldest.

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  Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions.
These are basically of five different shapes:

1. Kuta or caturasra – square

2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic
4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal

PALLAVAS:

 The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhra
region from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.
 Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments.
 Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the
reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of the
Deccan.
 The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural
(structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).
 The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I, contemporary of
Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.
 Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around 640
CE.
 He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at
Mahabalipuram which is known after him as Mamallapuram.

THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU

 It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also
known as Rajasimha.
 The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva
and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
 This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas of
worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and different
shrine may be added at different times.
 In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram,
and several other images.
 Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls.
 The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over
the centuries.

The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers and the
features of temples they constructed.

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 a. Mahendravarman Group:

 Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7th century).

 They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture).
 g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.

b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group:

 It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I

(Mamalla) came to the throne.
 The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.
 The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples.
 The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas.

c. Rajasimha Group:

 The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha.
 He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture.
 The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.

d. Nandivaram Group:

 Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava.

 They also represented structural temples.
 The temples were generally small compared to the other groups.
 The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.

Cholas

 The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.
 The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple.
 It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the largest and tallest of all
Indian temples.
 The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, topped by
a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight
centimetres in height.
 The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two
storeyed sanctum.
 Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.

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The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture

 The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements
from nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as
the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).
 The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.

Chalukyas

1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:

 The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which is
known for its distinct sculptural style.
 One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a large
depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.

2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:

 The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples.
 Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty.
 It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is
constructed out of stone.
 The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his
residence for a short period.

3. Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:

 The temple is built in between 7th and 8th century.

 The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain
areas.
 The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period.
 The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.

4. Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:

 There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCO
world Heritage Site.
 A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.
 Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain
temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravida
styles.
 The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th

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  The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad,
was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).
 It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the
Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
 It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation.
 It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.

Rashtrakutas

 By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by the
Rashtrakutas.
 Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.
 The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.

Hoyasalas

 With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into
prominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
 The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and
Somanathpuram.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex with
so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square temple so
that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star.
 As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan.
 They are usually made out of soapstone.

Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:

 The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.

 Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.
 Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate
music and dance.
 In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of
elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.

Vijayanagara

 The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14 th century, attracted a number of
international travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo Paes,
Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have left vivid
accounts of the city.
 Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecture
with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.

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  Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals,
occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments

The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples
but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.

Buddhist Architecture

 When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6 th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and
Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst
numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
 In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
 The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire
by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
 Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture
along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.

BODHGAYA, BIHAR:

 Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and
became Gautama Buddha.
 The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that
time.
 The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been
constructed by King Ashoka.
 The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
 Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.
 The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction
of the old 7th
 The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.

NALANDA, BIHAR:

 The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several

monasteries of various sizes.
 Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most
of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost
impossible.
 Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan
Tsang (Chinese traveller).

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  It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the
5th century CE.
 All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.
 Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Burma, etc.
 Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated manuscripts
to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the Buddhist
countries in Asia.
 The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist
Gupta art of Sarnath.
 The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
 By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by
distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
 The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such
as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.
 During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the
sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as
Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.
 Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.

Jain Architecture

 Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and
pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.
 The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.
 In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at Ellora
and Aihole.
 Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous
statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the
Ganga Kings of Mysore.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
 The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal Shah.
 One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
 The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs
along the domed ceiling.

WOODEN TEMPLE PARTS

Himachal is known for wood carvings. Temples are not only places of worship these are
examples of beautiful wooden ornamentations. In some other temples too such as the
mallikarjuna Temple in Goa( PICS ELSEWHERE) All elements, the doors, jambs, beams,
lintels, abacuses, etc. are exquisitely carved. Lakshana Devi temple, Dakshineshwar
Mahadev temple at Nirmand and Mahasu Devata temple, etc. have intricate and delicate

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three dimensional carvings. And by bringing in these alternative imports we have killed
these craftsmanship.

In some regions, under the market culture. But now they want to produce things in bulk
which has degenerated the style. Earlier, people were doing these wooden carvings for
religious motives for temples. There was no greed for money, but commitment and
devotion towards the work. Now it is for market.

Architecture: The temples with their beautiful wood and silver carvings is reputed to have been
erected by Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of the finest surviving art
on the six pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden pillars in the mandapa
is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate carvings with scenes from
the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the inner sanctum one can see
beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal.
Depending on the dynasty the temple may have beautiful wood and silver carvings some of
them erected by reputed to have Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of
the finest surviving art on the pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden
pillars in the mandapa is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate
carvings with scenes from the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the
inner sanctum one can see beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal made of
stone. So there is a combined use of stones and wood in these peculiar temples.
TEAK CARVINGS: See above pic Most seekers who follow Bhaktiyoga (Path of devotion) for
God-realisation begin their journey by worshipping a Deity. A temple is the basic requirement
for puja (Ritualistic worship). Nowadays, the Devghar is designed as per convenience or as a
showpiece without giving much thought to the scientific aspect in making it. In Spirituality, there
are certain scientific aspects underlying every act being performed in a specific way. This article
provides details such as the direction in which the Temple should be placed, its colour, shape,
aesthetics and arrangement of Deity in it according to Spirituality.

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1. What should be the features of the Temple
A. What material should the temple be made of ?
As far as possible, the temple at home should be made of sandalwood or teakwood. Sandalwood
is expensive and may not be viable for the average individual. Comparatively, teakwood is
cheaper and has better ability to retain and emit sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves. Eventually
it is the bhav towards God that attracts the Divine waves to the top of the temple, which are
further dispersed in the house as per the requirement.
B. What should be the colour?
Though the modern trend is to paint the temple at home with different colours in the name of
decoration, it is ideal to retain the original colour of wood, that is, pale brown. God operates
through two Principles, namely saguṇ Principle and nirgun Principle. Pale brown colour
symbolises the border between the saguṇ and the nirgun, meaning the transition phase of the
journey from saguṇ to the nirgun. Human beings with Panchatattvās (Five Cosmic Principles) as
their constituents fall in the saguṇ category and the formless God falls in the nirguṇ category.
Since a simple religious act like worship of a Deity amounts to spiritual practice, it helps the
individual in traversing from the state of saguṇ to nirgun, meaning, from duality to non-duality.
Obviously, the pale brown colour of the devghar is complementary to this spiritual journey.
C. What should be the shape?
A three dimensional body is determined by its width x depth x height. When deciding the shape
of the temple at home from spiritual perspective, the dimensions can be determined from the
information given ahead. These examples have been provided so as to understand the proportion.
1. Sketch 1 : ‘The proportion of ‘width x depth x height’ should be ‘2 : 1 : 4’. Proportionately
other measurements are given. Terminology of measurement – 2’ : 2 feet, 8” : 8 inches, 1’ 2” : 1
foot 2 inches The distance between two poles of the temple is considered from their periphery.

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D. How should be the two sides ?
The temple is made with the intention that the worshipper gets maximum Chaitanya from the
worship of the
Deities. The two sides of the temple are left open so that the Chaitanya (Divine consciousness)
emitted by the devghar is not blocked and the worshipper benefits directly. This is applicable to
the temple at home that is located in a common room, where all the members have free access.
When the temple is in a bedroom of a couple, its sides should be closed for the following
reasons. During the menstrual cycle, women are not permitted to enter a temple;
because the sattvikta in the temple is likely to cause distress to them. Similarly, during their
menstrual cycle they are also likely to suffer from distress due the Chaitanya emitted by the
temple at home. When two sides of the temple at home are closed, the quantum
of Chaitanya emitted is relatively less; hence, it suits the bedroom of a couple.\

E. Should it have a dome ?

The function of the dome is to attract and emit far and wide the waves of Chaitanya into the
atmosphere. The level of bhakti (Devotion) and bhav (Spiritual emotion) in an average
individual is not high. Hence, so that whatever little Chaitanya that is generated because of the
worship of the Deity does not spread far and wide through the dome on the temple and the
worshipper avail its benefit, it is appropriate for temple at home not to have a dome. The level
of bhakti and bhav in individuals with spiritual level above 50% is high and hence, the amount
of Chaitanya generated as a result of their worship of the Deity is also high. If such individuals
have a high dome for their temple through the medium of this dome the Chaitanya spreads far
and wide and that not only helps others, but also purifies the environment to a large extent. In
this case, along with individual benefits, the broader benefit of the society is sought.
2. What should be the direction ?
‘The temple should always be in the east-west direction. When the temple faces the east, the
waves emitted by the Deity get activated on the strength of kriyashakti (Energy of action)
accumulated in the hollow in the east. This helps the nirgun (Non-materialised) waves of the
Deity transform into saguṇ (Materialised) waves. When the kriya-shakti from the universe
associated with the east-west direction manifests due to the waves emitted by the Deity, its
direction is mostly upwards. The effect of the upward mobile waves on the environment lasts
much longer than that of the downward mobile waves. Hence, for the effect of
the sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves emitted by the Deity to last longer, the direction of the
temple at home should be east-west. On the other hand, when ichha-shakti (Energy of will)
accumulated in the north-south direction gets activated, it flows downwards. This fl ow activates
the tiryak waves (The Raja-Tama-predominant waves causing distress) in the environment. This
causes obstruction to the sattvikta emitting from the Deity and as a result the benefit obtained by
the individual when compared with the first arrangement is less.’
There is a great diversity of wood work and its techniques in Indian Art . It is possible that a
grammar of decorative art might be written from the study of wood carving alone and there is a
circumstantial fact that the wood and the stone carvers belong to one and same caste. This may
be accepted as an additional evidence in favour of gradual production of the one form the other
and that at not very ancient date. There are various techniques by which the 'Wood' has been
ornamented in several specific ways such as by carving, inlaying, veneering, lacquering, etc. The
art of wood carving have been greatly influenced by the grain of the timber employed, that is
possible with type of woods such as teak, red wood, walnut and low relief

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of Sheesham and Deodar the incised design of ebony. The intricate and the ornamental details of
the Sandal and the barbaric boldness of Rohira, Sal and Babul and other coarse grained and hard
woods.
What wood? India has a range of woods and every kind has its own particular properties of
grain and strength. The skillful wood-workers has worked on it tirelessly and evolved styles and
items depending on the quality of available wood and their own ingenuity to tackle it, thus
creating an enormous range in wood products of all kinds. In Tamil Nadu, Virdunagar was once
a traditional centre, Devakottai and Karaikudi are known to make traditional wooden panels in
different sizes and Nagercoil and Suchindram have traditional carvers who make religion figures.
Wood carvings are appreciated also for the special type of wood used in them, like rosewood for
its faint perfume like rose water and lovely ebony-black colour. Madurai is famed for rose wood
carving marked by its bold style and very detail works. Tirupati area of Andhara pradesh has red
sandal wood known as 'Raktachandan' which is blood coloured Sandal wood. The coppery glow
in this wood brings special charm. Sandal wood from karnataka is also known for its own
intrinsic quality and superb carving possibility. This region is inhabited by many of the most
talented wood carvers .
The technique type of carving are in the round, in relief, chip, incised and piercing. In the first
the object is totally detached from main wood background such as 3D form of a human and
animal figure. In relief the figure etched and raised on the background wood, which can be high
or low relief. Chip consist of evolving designs by chipping the wood used mostly in ornamental
and decorative work. Incised is done without ground work mostly put out flowers and creeper
motifs. Pierced is for effective ornamentation in which the wood is completely cut away leaving
just the design that calls for extra scale. Karnataka is also famous for Rosewood artefacts, some
of the best specimen of wood work is provided by the mighty pyramidal gateway of temple. An
extension of this covers Temple chariots or Rathas, as they are called. The one in which the deity
is carried is called Agami and is the most heavily ornamented with numerous sculptures such as
flying angels, horsemen, elephant, eagle, swan, tigers etc. Another style of ornamentation is
painting and inlay, often with precious metals like silver and gold.
FIVE REASONS WHY TEAK IS THE BEST WOOD FOR TEMPLES
The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the Hindu mythology .Teak
is the hardest, most durable and strongest of the hardwoods, making it the perfect material for
outdoor furniture that lasts. Used in shipbuilding since the middle ages, it continues to be used
today in the construction of ships and high-end yachts and boats.
1. OIL OF TEAK IS WEATHER RESISTANT
An outstanding feature of teak outdoor is the ability to withstand all types of weather. It is one of
the few woods in the world containing a natural oil which repels water, keeping it from warping,
cracking or becoming brittle. Outdoor furniture made from teak will withstand the harsh effects
of hard rains, severe winter snow storms and broiling sun without its strength diminishing. The
outdoor furniture found at most high-end ski lodges is made from teak due to this wonderful
quality.
2. TEAK IS PEST RESISTANT
The same resins and oils that protect against weather, also serve as repellents against insects like
termites and marine borers. By choosing teak, you know you wont need to worry about pests.

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3. TEAK IS LOW MAINTENANCE
Teak wood needs no paint or varnish. With the wood’s high oil content teak will fade to a
beautiful even colored patina and will not look patchy or black. If your desire is to show off it’s
showroom luster, then a natural teak sealer can be applied needed.
4. TEAK LASTS A LIFETIME
There are century-old teak carvings – a testament to the durability of this wood.
5. TEAK IS BEAUTIFUL AND STAYS BEAUTIFUL
When new, Teak wood has a honey brown color. Over time it will age naturally into an elegant
patina grey. In it’s original state or weathered grey, the natural teak wood complements any
indoor/’outdoor space with class. Further, teak never rusts. Other woods will start to rust and
deteriorate when in contact with metal. Teak is one of the few woods which does not. Since
many pieces of temple carvings made from teak wood have metal fittings, this is another
amazing quality of this outdoor furniture which keeps it looking good for years to come.

Wood carving involves various techniques of removing wood from an original raw piece,
and then finishing the carved object. This involve traditional carving tools, chisels, gouges,
knifes, hammers, along with sanding, painting, or otherwise finishing your object. A wood carver
must be able to adapt a number of basic wood carving techniques and skills to finish a project
from beginning to end. Techniques used by the Wood Carver

Woodworking Carving involves having the right tools, but also learning correct technique and
have the right wood for any projects. Once proper technique is learned it takes time and practice
to master them. Fixing Damaged Woodcarvings

There are many types of damage and subsequent repair that occur on carvings. The few basic
types of repairs I will address here deal with a carving in progress. The most important thing to
remember about a repair is also the most challenging: the repair must be permanent and invisible.
The best repair should never be seen. Poorly executed repairs can be a detriment to the
appearance of a carving, so it's important to exercise as much care in their execution as you do in
any other phase of carving. Carving is both a skill and an art. Why an individual carver decide
how they are going to carve a piece explains why there is such variety in finished piece.
Knowing what you want to accomplish in you carvings will help with the technique you use to
get the work finished.
After learning the basic, and trying out some simple project, anyone with advance skill can move
on the wood carving for art's sake. Doing it right takes time, talent, technique, supplies.

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341
 wooden ceiling and
ornate door

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343
Dwarpals of a temple are however made of stone- since no point exposing wood to outside
elements.

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Wooden Chariots that ferry Gods(idols) in the streets during specific festivals

6th century onward temples in wood came to be built in this Himalayan area. Prior to
that we don’t get any evidence. But after that we find a continuity in the construction
of wooden temples here, till date. And perhaps before that, not only because we don’t

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have evidence, but also there was no tradition of wooden temple construction. But in
some ancient coins of the pre-Christian era we find temple like devices on coins.
So in Audumbara coins we find temple like structures and sometimes the railings
also, in Kurut coins. The ancient coins that we find of different janpads, may indicate
some type of worshipping structures might have existed. But whether those were
Buddhist or of native/local gods is not clear. Buddhism in this area has been very
dominant from the time of Ashoka. Evidences are there. And we started getting
plenty of evidences for Buddhist monument for Kushana and following periods. So
that is just a hunch that those depictions were temples, Shaiva temples, as those
janpadas had deities like Shiva. And they were Shaiva. This is but a hunch, we don’t
have any evidence. Only coins. And many influences on coin can be borrowed from
these materials also. So we can’t say it was local tradition.

WOODEN TEMPLES of the GABLED ROOF TYPE

In Himachal Pradesh there are cultural differences between those areas. As
there are many villages that are impossible to access by car even nowadays,
there could be temple architecture unknown by the outside world. As temple
architecture commonly develops from the form of folk houses, the figure of a
small temple is not so different from that of a folk house. Therefore, the
oldest and simplest temple type in this region is a single storied structure
covered with a gabled roof, which was first called ‘Challet’ type because of
its resemblance to mountain huts in Switzerland.

This was a nomination by A.F.P. Harcourt who first classified wooden temples
in the Himalayan.The three temples in Bharmaur, Chatrarhi, and Udaipur,
treated in the former chapter, were all of this type, but through the lapse of
more than 1,000 years, they have lost their original external appearances.

___
Barmaur Village & Sandhya Gayatri Temple at Jagatsukh

Sandhya Gayatri Temple in Jagatsukh, one of the oldest wooden temples with
the exterior view of the ‘Gabled Roof Type,’ has an inscription from the year
1428. Its Garbhagriha (sanctuary) and Mandapa (hall) are walled of stone but
surrounded with a wooden open colonnade. The temple is crowned with a
large 'gambrel roof,' a kind of gabled roof or gabled hipped roof, supported
by a line of outer timber columns and the stone wall.

The carvings on the columns are quite naïve; carved men and animals
remind us of Oceanian sculptures and the abstract patterns of Celtic designs.
The style of those carvings is the fundamental folk art of Himachal Pradesh.
The large brackets spread to the left and to the right are remarkable, with

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swirls on both sides, which could be a vestige of the capital of the Ionic order
brought from Kashmir.

This Sandhya Gayatri Temple is also called Sandhya Devi Temple, dedicated
to a goddess (devi), and most Himalayan Hindu temples enshrine goddesses.
As Hinduism is a religion that has gained supremacy in most parts of India by
absorbing various regions’ folk faiths and assimilating local religions, the
goddess in this temple must also be a Hinduized native local goddess, in the
same process as the local religious architecture was Hinduized.

Sketch of a wooden temple at Chergaon by William Simpson

(From "Architecture in the Himalaya" by William Simpson)

W. SIMPSON'S EARLY SKETCHES in the HYMALAYAS

The earliest persons to begin researching Himalayan wooden architecture
were A.F.P. Harcourt and William Simpson (1823-99), both British. The latter
was a watercolor painter, leaving numerous sketches from his journeys to
the Himalayan region in 1860 and 1861, and later publishing a fine report in
the Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects. It was more than
100 years ago, in 1883.
James Fergusson, the first author who systematized the history of Indian
architecture, quoted Simpson’s report in his book, describing one of his
sketches as quite ‘picturesque.’ It is the famous sketch, showed above, of
the temple at Chergaon.
When told this is a piece of Indian architecture, those who do not know
Himalayan architecture might not readily believe it. Those who are well
versed in European architecture will be astonished that this temple strongly
resembles Christian wooden churches found in Scandinavia. However, there
cannot be any direct influential relationship between the Himalayan region
and Scandinavia at such a great distance geographically. Such elements as
sloping roofs due to frequent rain, wooden structure thanks to abundant
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timber, and symbolic designs with a spire as religious buildings, engendered
common characters to both.

Though this temple at Chergaon is famous through Simpson’s sketch, a

photograph of it does not appear in any book, as if it does not exist
nowadays. I found its brother temple, the Maheshvara Temple, of almost the
same design, among the mountains near Sungra in the northeast of Sarahan.

Maheshvara Temple, Sungra

The temple with its back to a deep ravine impressed me unforgettably. It is
much larger than one would imagine through photographs and it astonished
me by the fact that its complicated roofs are totally made of plain timber and
are not covered with any roofing.
Non-Hindus cannot enter the temple, but it is likely that a Linga symbolizing
Shiva is enshrined in the sanctuary. The wooden panels of the outside walls
are carved in relief, quite different from classical sculptures in the lower
Indian plain, giving a primitive impression.
It indicates that this is another architectural style, native to the Himalayas,
existing from before the advent of Indian classical styles from the lower
plain. Harcourt called this temple style the ‘Pagoda’ type.
The word pagoda was used mainly by the British in Burma, indicating a
stupa. By enlarging its meaning, Buddhist towers of three or five stories in
Japan and Shikharas of Hindu temples in India were sometimes called
pagodas too. The origin of the word is unknown, so it is more suitable to call
it a ‘Multi-Tiered Tower.’ As a gabled roof type temple is not much different
from an ordinary house, the roof was developed to have been multi-tiered,
looking to take more symbolic form as a religious building.

Wooden panel of Maheshvara Temple, Sungra

WOODEN TEMPLES of the MULTI-TIERED TOWER TYPE

It was regrettable not to have been able to visit the temple founded in the
14th century, which is regarded as an archetype of the temple at Sungra, by
the side of Lake Parashal at the altitude of 2,600m; part of a mountain road

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collapsed owing to heavy rain the previous day. However, there are some
temples with a similar three-tiered roof scattered in the Kullu Valley.
Going into mountains from the town of Manali, which is located at the end of
the Beas River Basin, one reaches the Hidimba Devi Temple at Dhungri
village surrounded by solemn cedar forest. It is said that this temple was first
built by King Bahadur Singh in 1533. It is crowned with a three-tiered timber
roof at the height of 24m. The conical roof on the top, which has been
replaced by galvanized iron roof, seems to have been added in later ages.
The part most worth seeing in this temple is the first floor wooden façade
with a portal and windows densely embellished with carvings of gods,
goddesses, and animals. Though lacking large statues of guardian gods,
every part is partitioned quite methodically into compartments and is carved
meticulously. The main deity Hidimba in this temple is Rakshasa, who
appears in the “Mahabharata,” and is regarded as a guardian goddess of this
region.

___
Tripurasundari Temple at Naggar
The Tripurasundari Temple at Naggar, a slightly smaller version of this
temple, is said to have taken its current form in the 15th century. In spite of
high durability, cedar can also be decayed by the elements and the temple
was reroofed and reconstructed many times. Most recently, it was
reconstructed in 1960 and 1990, each time showing a pure appearance of
plain wood in every detail, just like the Ise Shrine in Japan, which is
reconstructed every 20 years.
When the author visited the Tripurasundari Temple in 1991, its timber roofs
and animal sculptures (lions on the first tier and monkeys on the second tier)
were entirely undamaged. The whole temple merged into the surrounding
mountainous landscape, making an excellent harmony.
The three-storied tower at Diyar (Dhiyar) Village, the Triyuginarain (Tirygi
Narayana) Temple, is roofed with slates, but originally it was most likely
timber roof. Its walls on the first floor are made of alternate layers of piled
timber and stone, with tiny windows. In the somber interior, a sacred
palanquin for festival processions is placed at the Mandapa in front of the
sanctuary.

___
Triyuginarain Temple at Diyar & Adi Brahma Temple at Khokan

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In contrast, there is a four storied tower at the Adi Brahma Temple at
Khokhan Village. As a Mohra (sacred mask) set inside has an inscription of
the year 1746, during the reign of King Tedhi Singh, the temple itself is
thought to have been built at around that time.
However, it seems that there had been a much older stone temple from
about the 11th century here, from which many fragments of its carvings
have been excavated. Probably this Shikhara-type stone temple from the
Pratihara Dynasty was reconstructed in its current native wooden temple
style.
Its form of four storied tower is rare, and furthermore its gambrel roof on the
top, instead of a conical roof, is quite singular.
There are various views about whether this type of Multitiered-Tower was
brought directly from Nepal, or if it was brought simultaneously from the
Gupta Dynasty in the Indian plain during the 5th to 7th centuries to Nepal
and Himachal Pradesh, especially to Kullu Valley. Because no old wooden
temples remain in the lower plain, it has not still been elucidated.

Mahadeva Temple, Behna

THE COMPOUND
TYPE of
GABLED ROOF and MULTI-TIERED TOWER
In the area from Shimla, the capital of Himachal Pradesh, to the southern
Sutlej Valley, one can see a lot of temples that combine the Gabled Roof type
and the Multi-Tiered Tower type. A traditional Hindu stone temple in the
Indian plain basically consists of [Garbhagriha+ Mandapa] (sanctuary + hall)
with a towering Shikhara over the sanctuary enshrining a statue of a god. A
temple which replaces the Shikhara with a wooden Multi-Tiered tower and
makes the Mandapa a Gabled Roof type, is just this ‘Compound type’ temple.
The before mentioned temple at Sungra is a kind of this type, but its two
storied Mandapa is exceptional.
Although the Mahadeva Temple at Behna is one of the most well-known
representatives of this Compound type, I was disappointed by the damage it
had undrgone, when I visited it. As opposed to its old photographs, in which
it was all roofed with plain timber, its roof has now been replaced with
galvanized metal, painted red, at the conical top tier, and with slate at the
lower two tiers.
Its interior is different from the temple at Sungra, in that only the
Garbhagriha is walled up and the Mandapa is open.

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 ____
Durga Temple and its colored interior, Manan
The Durga Temple at Manan has the same composition as the temple of
Behna, except that the roof is concave like folk houses in this region. While
this concave curvature of roofs will be treated in the next chapter, the
Mandapa’s primitive wooden carvings in both temples display a kitschy
power, entirely painted in full color.
In addition, despite the appearance of a room on the upper floors in both the
Multi-Tiered Tower type and the Compound type, there is actually no
entrance and their windows are nothing but embellishments, without even a
stairway to get there. This indicates that the whole tower is a decoration,
showing conspicuously that the tendency of Indian people who love sculpture
(more than architecture and painting) and are prone to make even buildings
as sculptural works, exists in the Himalayas too.

WOODEN ARCHITECTURE
in the HIMALAYAS. TAKEO KAMIYA http://www.kamit.jp/05_wooden/4_himalaya/him_eng.htm

In the entire Himalayan region, especially in the western Himalayan region, most of
the wooden temples are made in Deodar wood. In Sanskrit, this wood is called
Devdaru, Deva means divine and daru means wood; the divine wood. Main reason to
use this wood profusely is more scientific than religious. It is a resinous wood, which
means that the wood preserves itself. You know about the Lakshana Devi temple, it is
now 1500 years old. And still it is in as good condition as it originally was.
It is now surprising as far as for temples in the Himalayan region are concerned, for
example, the temple in Nirmand is equally old though it is painted many times with
Chuli oil, which is extracted from wild apricot seed. This Chuli oil is periodically
coated over Deodar wood structures that makes it resilient to water and weathering
effects and without any damage except for the human vandalism. If they try to do
something with it, then of course it will get damaged but otherwise it stays very well.
Though there are is confirmed evidence there are some scattered evidences available.
I have read somewhere that even in Harrapan excavations, pieces of Deodar are
found. And because Indus river in its higher areas flows through those forests and
Sutlej also joins the Indus. So, the Deodar wood might have been flowing down
through Indus area and that is why the evidences were found. But I am not certain
about that as I have read this somewhere in the scattered writings but no definite
evidence. So, that is the significance of wood.

For temples, it is exclusively deodar wood. But for the secular houses, deodar wood
and other varieties of wood, which are less durable, like tun, khidk, those have also
been used. Those woods are not water resistant. But deodar can stay indefinitely.
Other woods have also been used but those are not as durable and water resistant as

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deodar wood. Deodar can stay indefinitely and religious monuments are supposed to
last for a very long time. The concept of deodar is very much linked with temple. It is
also sacred. So, people prefer deodar.

When you look at demonic deities, these deities are not to be worshipped but those
are to be feared because they are not benevolent. They are malevolent, terrific and
dreadful. So they have to be appeased, not worshipped. They have to be bribed, I
would say, with sacrifice of goats and so many other things. We have heard about so
many other types of sacrifices.Worship is a classical word associated with classical
deities. It is a sort of contemplation through that. By worshipping them we
contemplate. But here, we fear. And in certain areas people, especially children and
women, would not go near those temples of these ‘demonic deities’ at odd hours.
Those gods are feared. So, when these are feared, we make temples for them.
Originally no god, the local god, the demonic god had temples. But they have their
places under a tree, old tree in some cliff, in some cavern where annual fairs were
held. People would go once in a year, offer sacrificial offerings so that they will
remain calm and do not cause any destruction or harm. Even today, you must have
heard about the places of worship of Rudra, the local variation is Ludra, on
mountaintops, on the pass tops. When goatherds pass through that area, they will
offer stones at a particular place and that formed heap is called Ludra. Otherwise,
there is no temple for Ludra.\

Earlier it used to be on top of a mountain, in caverns, under a tree, etc. It was later,
much later under the Brahminical influence that started, if I go by the inscription of
Nirmand copper plate of 7th century, which indicates that Brahminism has entered to
the interiors of Himalayan region by 6th century, at the earliest. And when
Brahminism came to this area, the cult of worship also came. The idea behind
worship and fear, those were intermingled. After this people realised that worship is
also a way of appeasing gods. With that psychology, they started domesticating their
own demonic gods also and brought their images in the heart of villages.
Even today you will find that the root of those deities are at sequestered places―very
deserted places far away from the habitation, sometimes at top of a mountain or in
forests or on the side of some forest lake, water source. Sometimes there was no
image there, only a symbol, only a belief that a god lives at this place. If at all there
was an image, it was a, what we can call lingam. But it was just a round boulder or
long boulder placed there and it was their deity. They never had a concept of lingam.
However, they used to worship them or, sometimes, a stump of a wood, or a rock,
huge rock that served as the deity. It was abstract. There was a belief that the
symbolic deity, that huge rock or boulder, should not be disturbed from its root place.
Otherwise it will get offended and may retaliate, punish. So what did they do? They
prepared an image of that like of a human being. And that way the mohras started
becoming the face images.

Mohra has nothing to conceal or cover. Whereas, mask means to conceal or to make
something invisible behind. So, it is a face image, not a mask. Mohra itself means a

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face appearance, concealing nothing. Under Brahminic influence, they had seen
images already because in India, though I don’t agree to that belief and that is
completely erroneous European way of explaining things, anthropomorphic tradition
of making images started with the Kushanas. We see images in the Harrapan
traditions also. But it was a tendency of European writers to create divisions,
fractions and dichotomy between the Harrapan and the later cultures. So, when those
Brahmins came in this area, then a humanistic way of thinking about religion
developed and that also prompted creation of these mohras. All deities were brought
within the temple square, in the village square. Temples were erected for them and
those images were placed there.
To give divine touch to those images, myths were created. For example, there is one
myth that a cowherd was taking cows in the jungle and one milching cow would stop
at one certain place and milk will start coming down automatically at that place. The
cowherd noticed that this is happening as a matter of routine, so he dugout the place
and a mask came out. This is one of the images.

A similar example is the tradition of Bhootnath at Mandi. Again the dropping of milk
takes place and appearance of Shivalingam. And in this way innumerable traditions
came up. These temples in the village square then became half-Brahminised and half-
traditional, there was an intermixing of two traditions―demonic and Brahminical. In
that way, the village deities came to be formed, which made the temple erection
necessary.

Here iconography of the deodar tree with spire-like and its tier-like form, provided
the basic structure for temple iconography. People knew very well that the local
material, local structure, local aesthetic sense is more adaptable, not imported. So
they advised that structure in that formal tier form, not pagoda of course. Some
scholars have been using the word pagoda for these type of temples which is
technically wrong. Pagodas must have floors in between, but here the floor is only
one ground floor but the roof is going in tiers. So it is multi-tiered structure, not
pagoda structure.

Buddhist architecture has nothing to do with these traditional wooden temples. The
fact is that Buddhist temples were actually the monasteries/residential complexes
where monks used to stay. Those were not temples. And worshipping has not been the
tradition in Buddhism. These early monastic and other religious structures were
constructed in a squarish layout, not temple like. These were the places of
congregation where monks used to sit, but there was no deity. So, we do not find the
concept of temple in Buddhism. We find such tradition only in later monasteries in
this area when we find terms like Lakhan, Dukhan, etc. But those were the part of a
major complex, not individual. So there is no link. Otherwise also in the indigenous
temples wood has been used but most of the monasteries are still made of mud, earth
born. So the comparison would be irrelevant.
How would you analyse these wooden temples?
The Martand Temple in Kashmir is made of solid stone but the roof is stepped, tiered.
But, what I feel, before structuring stone in that form, wood is far more convenient.

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So the temple must have been experimented first in wood and then replicated in stone
during that period. Another strong point is that beams and studs are the essential
parts of wooden structure. When we copy that style in stone, we start providing
beams in the stone temples also where these are not really required. It was a practice
borrowed from wood. I would say that they have been using stone like wood than
using wood like stone. That trivet type of structures, not arcuate, was a tradition.
Arcuate structures could not be built, not even today, in wood. It can be constructed
in bricks, stones, cement, but not in wood because the wood has to be turned and
fabricated. That makes it very difficult. But trivet type with horizontal members was
very convenient. And this is why they used wood in all types of structures, horizontal
and vertical, but never in an arcuate form. In Martand temple we find existence of
wood in trivet form.

similarity between Kashmiri architecture and Himalayan architecture ?

Now there is no surviving wooden architecture as such in Kashmir. But in Kashmir

and the secular houses in Himachal, not only in Chamba but in Garhwal area also,
there is style of construction prevalent, Farakh. It is a Persian word. People do not
know this construction style with this name.
Actually, there is not a good quality sandstone available in the inner regions in
Himachal. There is more of mica laden schist available here, which is not a good
quality stone for construction. So you can make small walls with this to protect fields
but not high wall structures. And to stabilize structures of this stone people have been
using wood and stone together; one course of wood with one course of stone. This is
peculiar to all Himalayan regions up to Bhutan, not beyond that. This is what you
know as kath-khuni. Kath is kashtha, which means wood, and kuhna means corner.
Such a structure where only wood is visible in the corner is called kath-khuni
structure. But Kath-khuni is expensive because you have to use equal amount of wood
and stone, each layer alternating each other. So to economise it what they did, what
has been done in Kashmir and in foreign structures, was to make thin planks (maybe
the thickness of plank maybe about five cm and the full length about twenty-five cm
in height). A box is prepared of those planks, according to the thickness of the wall
and stones are filled in it. So, the stabilising component is that wood plank. And in
that way the structure is raised. It cannot go very high of course. But reasonablly
high because in Bharmour I have seen an old building constructed in this style. It was
about seven storeys high. I have published that in one of my book.

Even today in Garhwal, Uttarkashi area, with Farakh style.But it has never been used
for temples, only for secular houses. In temples we find some use of kath-khuni
walls. But there are temples which are entirely of wood, from bottom to top,
foundation to roofing. It is built in such a manner that upto plinth level a stone
masonry platform has been made of quite good height (maybe about 1 metre or
3/4 th of a metre) and on that pedestal huge beams are placed overlapping with a lap
joint and the entire structure is raised without using even a single nail, only joining.
Those are very strong. If you have a crane strong enough, you can lift that temple
easily because it doesn’t have a foundation. It has been placed on a platform and from

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platform right upto the roof it is all wood. So, these are portable temples, I would
say. Mrikula Devi temple is not built this way. But Maheshwara temple at Sungra and
so many temples in outer Saraj area, are built in this style. You can just lift it.

Pyramid is also one type of roof here . I have to say that the most beautiful wooden
temples are those which have been built in multi-tier form. Pagoda will be an
erroneous term to define these temples because technically they don’t conform to the
pagoda type as we find in Nepal or further in Southeast Asia also. These are multi-
tier only. One is that. The other is canopy temple. These are also beautiful temples.
Most of those look small but pagoda type. Multi-tier temples rise very high. Sungra
temple and Parashar temple are multi-tiered. And then there are many multi-tiered
temples in the outer-Saraj area, Shimla district at Manan and elsewhere.
The garbhagriha area is made in multi-tiered form and rest of it is canopied. And
some of the temples are totally canopied. Those have got, what I would call, the
flying roofs; they sweep like a wing. So those are canopied roofs. There are temples
in the Kullu area having gabled roofs; two side slopes. Most of the houses are built in
this roof style. There are also some temples having pent roof; slopes on all the four
sides. Then all these styles have been mixed and the composite roof is formed as we
find in Bhimakali temple, in Sarahan. And there were so many other examples.
Bhimakali temple is a good example of multi-tiered roof, though not very aesthetic.
Lakshana Devi temple has a gabled roof. The sanctum of the beautiful temple at
Behna is in a swooping flying type of roof or crowning with a small device comes
over that and rest of it is gabled and pent combined. People have devised a very good
way of making such temples. They will make it gabled but on front side they will
leave some gap in between the ridge to make the pent roof, the top of pent vacant
triangular area carrying some inserted religious motif. It can be the image of
crocodile or lion in wood. In Kinnaur, we have got such temples in profusion. That
combination makes those roofs very beautiful.

Earlier forests were much more than the agricultural land. Population was less, needs
were very few, people used to do their own things within their given environment. So
the desires were limited. People were content within their own lot. There was no
restriction on wood. People could easily take and use that. But now under the trend of
market culture and greed, forests are being depleted day in and day out. Orchards are
being created. Farmlands are being created. So, forests are receding which has
resulted in putting restrictions on use of wood there.

Now people can’t cut trees the way they used to do centuries earlier. This restriction
has imposed some constraints in structural management of building also. More use of
stone and then a new introduction of cement, concrete and so many other things. But
I won’t say that there is no way out or that style cannot be revived. There are far
more benefits of that style than of modern concrete structures in this area which is
sub-temperate, alpine and cold. Those houses were naturally conditioned. They were
cooler during the summer and warmer during the winters. The other thing is they are
structurally very, very strong. They can resist any type of seismic jolt because the

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structure of wood is made this way that it can take any type of strain, stress and
stamp.

So the Kangra Fort built of stone masonry in lime mortar was disintegrated in the
1995 earthquake where these wooden temples houses, stood very well. There was no
damage. We can use wood today also. I have been emphasising on this point because
I go to the rural areas to create awareness about that traditional knowledge system,
that we should find way of using wood more in our houses than cement-concrete. The
cement-concrete is very cold and in this area, the incidents of arthritis and pains in
bone joints have increased because of this. Earlier in wooden houses, it was not a
problem.

And the other thing is that during the post-Independence period, last fifty years, there
has been economic explosion because of orchards and interaction, business,
education, etc. People have become financially very strong, no doubt, but it is a
catalytic situation that they are using Italian marbles, Italian fixtures, Italian sanitary
ware in their houses because they have got ample money but why can’t they use
imported wood and start constructing their houses in traditional manner? There is no
dearth of wood. There is restriction on cutting trees but there is no problem in
importing wood. When we can import marble from Rajasthan, why can’t we import
wood? Imported wood is available in the market and we can use that. But it is a
question of thinking. It is the market culture and Western influence that is getting
imposed even on the traditional practices of an area.

When we are talking of Himalayan region, Buddhism is mostly spread in Tibet region
and the area that was culturally under the influence of Tibet, if not politically. This
large area called the cold desert. And there is no wood, only earth and stone. So here
most of the structures are entirely made of mud, from roof to walls. Only jungle wood
is laid on the roof just to support the mud over it.
The 1000-year-old Tabo Monastery is made of mud, entirely. And this mud structure
is decorated with paintings and murals. The Raja’s palace at Leh, multi-storey
structure, is of mud. Because there are no rains in that area, only sight of snow which
they can shift. Therefore, it is intact and will be in that state for hundreds and
hundreds of years. So all these monastery were earth made.

Buddhist architecture of the Himalayan area developed in Tibet. And it came to this
area from Tibet. So, Tibetan style came reflecting paucity of wood, so it has been.
Threfore, most of the monasteries or Buddhist temples are 90% earth and 10%
everything else, wood and slate and everything. But mostly they are made of earth.
Even areas where wood is available, the architecture is usually earth based for e.g., at
Dharamsala, of Sidhbari. In this area there are built palatial monasteries but
architecture has remained as if these are made of earth. Though they have used
cement and all that the appearance has been made that way. They have their concept
that monastery has to be of that shape. That is traditional.

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 CHAPTER XIII
Vernacular Architecture of Goa for TOURISM

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Stilt houses which may also referred as pile dwellings or palafitte are houses raised on piles over
the surface of the soil or a body of water. Stilt houses are built primarily as a protection against
flooding, and they also keep out vermin.The shady space under the house can be used for work
or storage ( if not on water ).
Advantages of stilt house
There are ecological as well as environmental advantages to stilt houses
which includes
 More airflow in hot climates. Both increased airflow from underneath the floorboards,
and increased wind from the slight elevation.
 Dry space underneath house in rainy seasons. People can use this space for storage,
chores, keeping and tending animals, hanging things, and other useful activities.
 Protection from animals and privacy from other people. This one is fairly self
explanatory.
 Slight visual advantage. Heard stories of people actually hunting game from their
houses in rainforest areas of low human density.
 Can be built on hilly/non-flat terrain. You don't need to modify the terrain to place
your house. You don't need to look for a flat spot. You can build a stilt house anywhere
you can stick poles in the ground.
 Flood protection. This is not only applicable to coastal peoples but also riverine
peoples. People like to live near rivers and streams (especially in lowland rainforest).
 Force of habit. Let's not underestimate in anthropology that humans have a tendency to
do things just because "that's the way we do it," at least until a significant innovation or
diffusion of technology comes along.
History: Raised rectangular houses are one of the cultural hallmarks of the Austronesian
peoples and are found throughout the regions in Island Southeast Asia, Island
Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia settled by Austronesians. The structures are raised on
piles, usually with the space underneath also utilized for storage or domestic animals. The raised
design had multiple advantages, they mitigate damage during flooding and (in very tall
examples) can act as defensive structures during conflicts. The house posts are also distinctively
capped with larger-diameter discs at the top, to prevent vermin and pests from entering the
structures by climbing them. Austronesian houses and other structures are usually built in

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wetlands and alongside bodies of water, but can also be built in the highlands or even directly on
shallow water.[5][4][6][7]

Building structures on pilings is believed to be derived from the design of raised

rice granaries and storehouses, which are highly important status symbols among the ancestrally
rice-cultivating Austronesians.Today in Goa Truly excellent location right amongst all the beach
front restaurants and bars, with the closest club only a 5 minute walk and the sea literally a
stones throw away you couldn’t get any better on location. The beach huts are run by a local
family, the complex has ground level huts and 8 on stilts that face out to the sea which our group
stayed in. They do rock sometimes when people walk around but thats all part of the fun. Your
not getting luxury here by any means but its such great value and perfectly comfortable, with
private ensuite shower and toilet, double bed and mosquito net, electric points and a private
balcony overlooking the beach and sea perfect for watching the sunset. Falling asleep and
waking up to the sound of sea everyday was such a lovely experience.

In Eurpoe and USA, most timber trusses are delivered to site as one-piece building components
but in Goa the materials are bought separately and put together on site by workers. However,
occasionally they are delivered in sections and must be joined on site. Correct installation of
these is critical to maintain the designed load paths.

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