The BIG BOOK of

LAYOUTS

Dr Uday Dokras

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TEMPLE LAYOUT ISSUES of HINDU TEMPLES
Dr Uday Dokras
Vastu. The Sanskrit word vāstu means a dwelling or house with a corresponding plot of land.
The vrddhi, vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground,
building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to
dwell, live, stay, reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching".
Vāstu-Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture.
These contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling).

Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals of architecture, called Vastu Sastra.
Many of these are about Hindu temple layout (above), design and construction, along with
chapters on design principles for houses, villages, towns. The architect and artists (Silpins)
were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity. There exist many Vāstu-
Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such Vāstu Śastra is by
Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century AD,
Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastra
manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages,
towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve
harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town
planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in
practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals
of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.

The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime

in ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric
principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings
carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent
in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles,
suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own
interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states
of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri
compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to
12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by
Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive
list of Hindu temple types.

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Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in
northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (manual for
planning and building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and
Mayamata, texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century
AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva
paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in
south and central India. In north India, Brihatsamhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited
ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara
style of Hindu temples.

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These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple
design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the
temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of
alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water
bodies and nature. The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu
Temples. It is one of 32 Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In
this grid structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance.

The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or

"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both
Hinduism and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9)
and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and
Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine
square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts,
the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric
manner.The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the
Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the
northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in
the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet
facingwest. As is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and
that soul is known as Vastu Purusha a site of any shape can be divided using the Pada
Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024)
square sites. Aspects in Temple Construction

1. There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple
construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The
temple's acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi.
Temple construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by
acarya and shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha.

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2. This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of
different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined
based on the size of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama,
kheta, kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is
decided. Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The
entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa.

3. Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be
known, since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main
deity. Then wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon
(vigraha), pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha).

4. Then tests to determine quality of stone are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three
kinds of stone, male female and neuter. When hit with an iron rod if the stone produces good
sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the main icon. If it produces sound but not
spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it produces neither, it is neuter and
should be used for platform. There are various standards for the relative proportions of image,
gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various parts of the vigraha. The units
for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a multiple of angula and angula is a
multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit, the multiplicity and relative sizes
are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs of images are specified. The finer
specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also mentioned. Generally the standard
is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine talas) for His
consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. 5. The teams that built Hindu temples The 6th-
century Brihat samhita is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles
and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari
and Tamil Grantha scripts. Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as
‘‘Silpin’’ , derived from ‘‘Silpa’’. One of earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in
Atharvaveda, from about 1000 BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art. Other
scholars suggest that the word Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does
the word ‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa, explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates
art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft.
Similarly a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who
embodies art, science, culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any
divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works and
sculpture within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose
number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that
were of 32 types. The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education,
characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in
ancient India included

Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana
(arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue
in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical
competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who
know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse
with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they
are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition,
and ardent in everything they do.

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According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and
include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who
would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons,
painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors. While the temple is under
construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the
patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools
and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament.
For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would
propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its
surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be
anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of
India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and
artists worship their arts, tools and materials.

Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals,
encourage art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for
pilgrims from other towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc. Town
planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in the
agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different
capacities and also direct their work towards a higher goal.

Steps in Temple Construction

Steps in Temple Construction: The procedure for building a temple is extensively

discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning
beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary
from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction:
1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land
should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug,
water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then
the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again
involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are
placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the
place of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done,
like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals

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Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and
waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to
take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good
omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements
Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja
(to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town)
Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)

Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing
kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa
as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes
of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as
prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and
kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs
carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's
drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using
a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses
the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is
being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds
mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple.
This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the
distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and
fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the
temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence
of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are
used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At
especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and
placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious
gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the
temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and,
like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is described as
a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid made up of
squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious significance. To the
priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of 64 or 81
squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity.
The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the
deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the
gods of lower rank.
Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha
is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the temple follows
in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The relationship
between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can
best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for humans until
quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended
to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun
and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-
west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is
reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following major elements 1. an
entrance, often with a porch 2. one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls 3. the
inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber' 4. the tower build directly

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above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design Vastu Shastra
describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in
human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati
Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of
the spaceconsciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory
force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be
the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When
these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This
rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam. Since every unit of time
vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science derives that time is
equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples
of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This
theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and
dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also
composed of rhythmic spatial units.

According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight
spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of which
measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the body's
eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units
are applied in making sculptures of Gods. Since the subtle space within our body is part of
universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of our inner space should be the same as that
of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this consonance between an individual's
and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the person is in harmony with the
Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss. Therefore, when designing a
building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that will elevate the
vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in turn is in
tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the
indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being.

The Agamas are a collection of several Tantric literature

and scriptures of Hindu schools. The term literally means tradition or "that which has come
down", and the Agama texts describe cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines,
precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity
worship and ways to attain sixfold desires.These canonical texts are in Tamil and Sanskrit.
Agamas were predominant in South India but Sanskritized later.

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Small Hindu Temple of Kidel, Java- Marianne North

The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala- The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or
manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a
square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and
results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the
shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The
square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection
beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle,
hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandalavastu,
the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala
represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in
whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a
manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and
a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building. In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is
first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The
drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite.
The rites and execution of the vastupurusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar
to how the physical foundation supports the weight of the building. Based on astrological
calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirtytwo smaller
squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated
division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space:
north, east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two
squares symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon.
Each of the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala.
Outside the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and
also represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern
hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha

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or pure space. The vastupurusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the
building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple
construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-
purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of
the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground
plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are
fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid,
the circle and the curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the
brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly
halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance
ways, the vimana, the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The
brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety
will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of
Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called.
The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this
ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The
interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-
mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units
representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest
places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding
Devata.

The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra
infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala
and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with
many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna.
Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels
invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond,
emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid
with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following
which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers
clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of
the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat,
barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. Temple Layout Ancient
Scripts on Temple Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its
chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: 1.
Square (Chandura); 2. Rectangle (Agatra); 3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart –
shakata); 4. Circle (Vritta); 5. Elliptical (kritta vritta); 6. triangular (dwaja); 7. diamond or
rhombus (vajra) ; 8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; 9. fish (meena); 10. back of a tortoise
(kurma); 11. conch (shanka); 12. crescent (ardha-chandra); 13. pot (kumbha); 14. sword
(khadga); 15. and lotus (kamala).

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South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of India” by
Ferguson, James and James Burgess

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the
back of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are
recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura),
Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are
recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. But all
texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most
auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension.
It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator,
best known for his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan
(1919-1983), who adopted the name Silpi,

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up
the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw
up a construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various
temples to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another
Vastu Mandala.
Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is
the name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture
(vāstuśāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular

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diagram (one only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before
starting the construction. Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain
texts, the compartments (koṣṭha) of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities
associated with the plots of the site diagram. In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the
Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket
at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve as menas of identifying the compartments later
on.1

Temple layout Sreeneevasan’s Blog

It is the process under which the Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is
put to use in site planning and architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into
grids/ modules or pada. Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various
modules, the zoning of the site and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A
Mandala They are
proportional relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-
two such schemes.
1. sakala, whole; 2. pecaka, couch; 3. pīṭha, pedestal; 4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal; 5.
upapīṭha, low pedestal; 6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal; 7. sthaṇḍila, altar; 8. caṇḍita,
circumcised; 9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner; 10. āsana, seat; 11. sthānīya, local; 12.
deśya, regional; 13. ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised; 14. bhadra, auspicious; 15.
mahāsana, great seat; 16. padmagarbha; lotus-womb; 17. triyuta; thrice-yoked; 18.
karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered; 19. gaṇita; computed; 20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the
sun; 21. susaṃhita, well-endowed; 22. supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse; 23.
viśālaka, capacious; 24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-womb 25. viśveśa; lord of the world;
26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment; 27. viprakānta; Brāhmaṇa-spouse 28. viśālākṣa,

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 large-eyed; 29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion; 30. viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the
world, 31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse, 32. candrakānta, moon’s spouse.

Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot
(which does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot;
mahapīṭha, sixteenplot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and
paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot, schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes
the assignment of deities to the plots. The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and
assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra
chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine squares or the pīṭha of nine squares
with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he marks either the upapīṭha
diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks two circles, one on the
floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar. During padavinyāsa, ritual marking of the
plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form of vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of
the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched out across it, while reciting the
mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the vāstumaṇḍala, cluster of forty-five deities,
who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his limbs and thus occupy plots in the four
quarters of the site. He invokes the deity corresponding to each plot and “situates” it
thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its
specifie venerational mantra.

2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled

Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a
number of schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of
plot-disposition is a conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is
constructed out of geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the
number of plots in the scheme is always a perfect square.

Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi)
and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in
the shape of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area
may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: 1.
circular (vritta), 2. triangular (trikona), 3. rod shaped (dandakriti), 4. bow shaped (dhanur
akara) 5. other irregular shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a
land of such “un approved” shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and
rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same
principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a
square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. In case of a rectangular site, it
must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit) should be more than
its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south
shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east
and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the
temple should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi
( Basil) plants with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral
plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much
recommended. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan,
Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The
entire process is rich in symbolism. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth,
signifying the four directions which bind and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of
existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of existence. The ground plan, again, is

13
symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu Purusha represents
terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and equilateral
triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The
position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion
of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the
outer cells house deities of lower order.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead
from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and
so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west
axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected
in the architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu
mandala Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for
deciding upon the location, the orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of
retinue-divinities. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.

The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends
from Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). The Vastu purusha mandala
is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having
astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border
representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all
cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8)
the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided.

The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings
and the engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to
its west are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits
reside in the outer ring. There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding
Brahma. Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma). Dikpalas or guardian deities of
different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal management, are an important part of
the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu , Kubera and Isana; reside in the East ,
South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North and North-East respectively. All
except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a method that determines the
requirements of architecture in relation to its directions. Establishing Vastu Mandala on the
site The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences
that constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site
the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the
time for

14
commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained. Horizontal and vertical dimensions:
From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next proceeds to develop the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and
the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical
alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The subdivisions of the
ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the
mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums).

The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the
structure above the main shrine or chapel) and the prakara (the walls). The construction of the
temple follows in three dimensional forms, in exactly the patterns laid out by the mandala.
The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance
of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top elevation). In order to
establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The ground for civil
construction is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells, by drawing 10 lines from East to
West and 10 lines from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities are installed. In
addition the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after performing
Vastu Homa. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of
construction is a sacred rite in itself. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of
effectiveness, in the manner that the actual foundation supports its weight. Vastu Shanti Puja
is a spiritual and religious process to offer prayers to the Vastu Purush who is the Lord,
protector and soul of the house and seek the blessings for positivity and prosperity. During
this worship, people also pay their tribute to the deity of directions, five elements of nature,
and natural forces. Some of the major objectives of performing Vastu Shanti Pooja are – To
eliminate any kind of faults relating to interiors exteriors, or structures of buildings. To seek
forgiveness of God for the damage done to the nature during construction. To ask for the
blessings of Vastu Purush for happiness, wealth and good health. Offer prayers to Vastu
Purush for protection of home or office from natural calamities. To appease any form of
supernatural force which might be dangerous for the occupants

15
Significance of Vastu Shanti Puja Vastu is a place where nature and human beings live
together in harmony. Vastu Shanti Puja, also known as Vastu Dosh Nivaran Puja, brings a
striking balance between both of them by removing all the hurdles or negativities present in
the environment and preventing unforeseen destruction and misfortune to finally improve the
Vastu of a place. The puja is performed to appease Vastu Devta to seek his blessings and bless
one’s home or workspace with prosperity and harmony. Vastu Puja is also conducted to
reduce the harmful impacts of the Vastu Dosha caused by the construction faults in the Vastu
of a place and to maintain a balance between the eight directions and the five elements of
nature. People worship Vastu Purush or Vastu deva on several occasions such as land
worship, Griha Pravesh, door installation, well mining, foundation laying, foundation mining,
and others.

Garbhadhana, Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the
first stone (square in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the
north-western corner of the building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of
the foundation is taken up. The foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth
level, except in the middle portion of the garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually
constructed first. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it
involves letting in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious
stones, several metals, minerals, herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The
following is a little more detail about it.

The Brahmasthana, the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually
come up, is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the
grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu
Purusha) to enter within the buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the
earth. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-
purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. In the
thirty-two units representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions), the units of Brahma and the
twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the
presence of the corresponding divinity .An Image of Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also
placed in the box. Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also represents theenergy that
supports the universe. The box also contains nine precious stones – diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, pearls, yellow sapphire, and blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade – to appease
the nine planets. A stone slab (adhara- shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot
is buried.And, over this slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera.

16
The copper pot signifies the womb; and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum
constructed around it is the body. That pot represents the roots of the “temple-tree”; and the
icon its sap. The four walls around the icon represent the branches spreading around. The
structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series of tiers. The roof resting over the walls is
called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest. The imagery suggested is that of a tree with
birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a model of a growing tree. Another set of
symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi); the walls of the
sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it the fire (tejas). The final tier of the Vimana
is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha).The sanctum is thus a constellation
of five elements that are basic building blocks of all existence. Once the garbhadhana and
agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the temple commences
according to the plan. When the foundation is finished the vertical structure is raised. The
external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures and
paintings. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the
different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe. It is
believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada, Ashviyuja and Karhika months
facing east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south; In
phalguna, Chaitra and Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana,
he sleeps facing north. The doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective
months.

Temple Layout and its symbolism The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is a mini
cosmos. The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The ideal

17
Temple should have at least one entrance, an ArdhMandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall, a
Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. The design comprises:

1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at
the entrance to the Temple. 2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine
immediately after the Rajagopuram. 3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for
offerings, called the Balipeeta. 4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. 5. The
passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main
Deity is installed. 6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-
Griha”. 7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a
structure or sanctuary called the “Vimana”. 8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity
is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome. 9. There is a circumnutating passage or
“Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa.

The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
“Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The
procedure of worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”.

1. TEMPLE LAYOUT : The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a deity
and to facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a Hindu
temple is a symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment;
the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the western side. The
entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to symbolize its
significance. Vaikanasagamas and the silapashastras stipulate the rules for the
selection of the site and construction of the temple buildings. Most of the temple
adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also seems to be based on the
concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of small shrines
normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The region
wise categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region
Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South
India vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular
in the Tamil country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as
Dravida-Satanga-Vimana. This type consists of six important parts from the base to
the final. These six parts are linked to the angas of human beings. There are 1.
upapitha, 2. adhisthana, 3. pada or bhiti, 4. prastara, 5. sikhara and 6. griva (Kalasa)
humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada :
Forso Prastara : Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana
constitute the basement. The upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the
height of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the wall part of htehouse that houses

18
 themulbera. It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such as the kumbha
panjara and kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The
kumbhapanjara is of the shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural
addition. The kosthapanjara houses Avaranamurts.

2. WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India temple
style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls, with
entrances through large gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf the
enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased
fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic

Angkor layout
invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple
complex came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself.
Accordingly, the templecities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city
surrounded by its mountain ranges (city walls). PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple
structures (moving from east to west) include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open
entrance vestibule, entered by passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the
passage from the world of the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under
the gopuram to the level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa.
Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha
griha; it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in the
garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will have a
second mandapa — called the maha mandapa — that is located in between the external
mandapa and the garbha griha. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core
sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main
tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha griha. The images since the early chola
period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi
Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti Garbhagraha West Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal
19
Vishnu Vishnu (or) Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North Brahma Ardhamandapam north
Mahissuramardini In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu temple in its vertical order in
comparison with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the temple is equal to that
of the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the temple site is
divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu temple is
Vastupurusa.

3.THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the
temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the
resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is
mirrored by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is
associated in Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is
associated with humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most
profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways
to temples’ ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal

form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the
square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

4.MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-
mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport: Temples
venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a
seated bull), facing the main shrine. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi)
display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides
of the external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern
entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal
mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red
highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal
mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later,
even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an
even larger one.

5. SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical sides
that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal outline
(rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable feature
of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the
storeys contrast with the Northern style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was originally
inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents — specifically, the parapets (discussed
below) represent the cells around a squareshaped room in which Buddhist monks were
allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is merely superimposed in ever-
smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

6. HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving
phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the
Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a
macro during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are
the early temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan
includes the garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a

20
lot of development took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu
temple building. A number of gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so
on were added. The micro gopura that peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a
pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai .

Gopuras were set in all cardinal directions and at the entry of each prakara, the total number
reaching its peak in the Srirangam and Madurai temples. Mandapas of intricate workmanship
were in various locations. These catered to the needs of the increasing utsavas;
Kalyanamandapa for holding the marriage festival s and Vasantamandapa for holding the
spring festival. Subsidiary chapel were added for Devis,Nandi,Garuda, Acaryas and so on. A
number of uhanas for processional purpose were added. In short, the Hindu temple reached
the optimum level of its evolution under the Nayakas in the Tamil country. Against this
background the temple chosen or the present study are examined.
The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the
garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the
building complex are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or
ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the
passage next to the previous one, leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the
main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the
prkaras (surrounding walls) are the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the
neck, the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of
hair (sikha) and so on.

Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually
entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the
pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a
man’s journey towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and
sculptural details vary from phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which
awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the
following way. On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the
threshold before crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world
of God. Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls;
representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. As he proceeds, the familiar
mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The immediate pavilion
and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations; these
simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions
and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any
ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility,
to fulfilment and to the presence of God. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a
circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu
and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. Positions and
orientations of the temples. The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses
in an 81 celled temple-site. This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four
equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western side thereof.
The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and the shrine should
have three stories. The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may be represented in
the shrine in one of his many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana) or many ( aneka-

21
murti-vidana). The aneka forms might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan murti); or 9 ( nava
murti). The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred , specially in a shrine
dedicated to Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the intermediate direction (Vidik)-
Atri Samhita (2.3233) And, generally, the doorway to the East is the best , most auspicious
(utta-mottamam) ;to the West is next best (uttama); to the South is middling (madhyama);
and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama) – Vimanarchana kalpa (patala 3)

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

II
Layouts of Angkor Mandirs- and the science behind it

A space can be sacred, providing those who inhabit a particular space with sense of
transcendence—being connected to something greater than oneself. The sacredness may be
inherent in the space, as for a religious institution or a serene place outdoors. A spatial
experience is a multi-sensorial and simultaneous experience that involves built environments,
people, context and purposes and is capable of enhancing emotional connection within space.
Experiencing space is a subtle act of the human body and mind. We use our eyes to visually
probe a space, making thousands of subconscious computations every second. Spatial
experience is not restricted to the interiors of buildings. The sensations one has in nature’s
open spaces may be re-created by art. Temples, Cathedrals, City squares and even gardens,
achieve a variety of expression comparable with that of interiors. The exterior of a single
building, particularly one that is isolated from other architecture, does not create a space. It
occupies the space of nature.

Thus, it may be experienced as sculpture, in terms of the play of masses in a void.

The aesthetics of masses, like that of spaces, is rooted in one’s psychology. When a tall
temple or a mountain is called majestic, we are projecting human attributes. To arouse
predictable patterns of experience, architects try to plan monuments to praise humanity and
the divine.

When one stands to observe even the simplest building, parts of it will be out of sight. To
appreciate spaces, movement is required and consequently PERIFEREY or what we call
LAYOUT.

Most of the architectural remains that survive from Ancient and Medieval India are
religious in nature.In different parts of the country, distinct architectural style of temples
was result of geographical, ethnic and historical diversities. Two broad orders of temples in
the country are known as Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south.At times, the Vesara
style of temples is also found as an independent style, created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders.As temples grew more complex, more surfaces were
created for sculpture by adding more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls
and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine.

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

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1.Sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’)
It was a small cubicle with a single entrance which grew into a larger chamber in time. It
is made to house the main icon.

2. Entrance to the temple

It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of
worshippers and is known as a mandapa.
3. Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire
It can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower,
called a vimana, in South India.

4. The vahan
It was mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or
dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.

5. Many Hindu temples, feature mithun (embracing couple)

sculptures, considered auspicious.Usually, they are placed at the entrance of the
temple or on an exterior wall or they may also be placed on the walls between the
mandapa and the main shrine.

Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

 In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with
steps leading up to it.
 Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways.
 While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several.

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 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
 There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the
shikhara.
 There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts of
India; however, the most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at
the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called
the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
 The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is
the phamsana, which tends to be broader and shorter than latina ones.
o Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over
the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising
tall towers.
 The third main sub-type of the nagara building is generally called the valabhi type.

o These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.

Balinese Hindu temple as an

ex
ample

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Typical Balinese temples are divided into three areas, as shown in the photo to the left. They
are the Jaba or outer courtyard, the Jaba Tengah middle courtyard, and the Jeroan--the
innermost and sacred courtyard. The features of these three courtyards can be seen more
clearly in the larger diagram below.
Introductory Concepts -The Importance of a site
What is the site of construction?
From the above simple example of a Balinese site we can construe that construction site is an
area or piece of land where construction work is taking place. Sometimes construction sites
are referred to as 'building sites'. This usually implies that buildings or houses are being
constructed, whereas 'construction site' covers oncepts-a wider scope of work. The term
'building site' is often used interchangeably with construction site, although this tends to
indicate that buildings (and sometimes, more specifically, housing) are being constructed,
whereas the term 'construction site' can refer to all types of works, such as road construction,
sewer construction.

Location or site means the specific place or position of a proposed or existing sign.
What is the site area for planning?

Site area (SA): the total land area on which development authorisation is sought,
measured on a horizontal plane.
Net development area (NDA): the extent of the site area upon which one or more buildings
or other operations and their ancillary space can be built, measured on a horizontal plane.

25
What is site location in architecture?
Location – where the site is situated. Neighbourhood context – the immediate surrounding
of the site including data on zoning and buildings and other impacts on our project. Zoning
and size – dimensional considerations such as boundaries, easements, height restrictions, site
area, access along with any further plans.

What is construction site analysis?

Site analysis is a preliminary phase of architectural and urban design processes dedicated to
the study of the climatic, geographical, historical, legal, and infrastructural context of a
specific site.
Site surveys are inspections of an area where work is proposed, to gather information for a
design or an estimate to complete the initial tasks required for an outdoor activity. It can
determine a precise location, access, best orientation for the site and the location of obstacles.
The type of site survey and the best practices required depend on the nature of the project.
Examples of projects requiring a preliminary site survey include urban construction. Today,
typically of a tight grid of high resolution (high frequency) reflection seismology profiles to
look for possible gas hazards in the shallow section beneath the seabed and
detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks,
existing pipelines) using multibeam echosounders.

What is a layout plan?

A site layout plan, sometimes called a block plan, shows a detailed layout of the whole site
and the relationship of the proposed works with the boundary of the property, nearby roads,
and neighbouring buildings.
What is layout example?

26
 The
definition of a layout is an arrangement, plan or design. An example of a layout is a drawing
of how a house will be built. (informal) An establishment or property, especially a large
residence or estate.
What is a layout in design?
Layout design is the process of arranging visual and textual elements on-screen or on-paper
in order to grab a reader's attention and communicate information in a visually appealing
way.
What is layout and its purpose?
The basic objective of layout is to ensure a smooth flow of work, material, and information
through a system. The basic meaning of facility is the space in which a business's activities
take place.
What is good layout?
A good layout would be able to co-ordinate all operations. The layout should be designed
taking into account the inter-relationships between various equipment, departments and
personnel. It is therefore important that while planning the layout the complete picture of the
organization is considered.

Angkor Model

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What is the layout of a building called?
Plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on a
horizontal plane, like a map. The term may be used in general to describe any drawing
showing the physical layout of objects.
In architecture and building engineering, a floor plan is a technical drawing to scale, showing
a view from above, of the relationships between rooms, spaces, traffic patterns, and other
physical features at one level of a structure.
Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths.
Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, etc. Floor
plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or
symbols for electrical items.
It is also called a plan which is a measured plane typically projected at the floor height of 4 ft
(1.2 m), as opposed to an elevation which is a measured plane projected from the side of a
building, along its height, or a section or cross section where a building is cut along an axis to
reveal the interior structure.
Similar to a map, the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a
conventional map, a plan is drawn at a particular vertical position (commonly at about four
feet above the floor). Objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown 'cut' in
plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or
shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an
object on a horizontal plane, like a map.
The term may be used in general to describe any drawing showing the physical layout of
objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the displayed objects at an exhibition,
or the arrangement of exhibitor booths at a convention. Drawings are now reproduced
using plotters and large format xerographic copiers.
A reflected ceiling plan (RCP) shows a view of the room as if looking from above, through
the ceiling, at a mirror installed one foot below the ceiling level, which shows

28
the reflected image of the ceiling above. This convention maintains the same orientation of
the floor and ceilings plans – looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and
architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, and ceiling forms as part of
the documents provided for construction.
The art of constructing ground plans (ichnography;"track, trace" and "to write"; was first
described by Vitruvius and included the geometrical projection or horizontal section
representing the plan of any building, taken at such a level as to show the outer walls, with
the doorways, windows, fireplaces, etc., and the correct thickness of the walls; the position of
piers, columns or pilasters, courtyards and other features which constitute the design, as to
scale.
Building blocks

Floor plans use standard symbols to indicate features such as doors. This symbol shows the
location of the door in a wall and which way the door opens. A floor plan is not a top view
or birds eye view. It is a measured drawing to scale of the layout of a fl oor in a building. A
top view or bird's eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical
four foot height above the floor level. A floor plan could show:

 interior walls and hallways

 restrooms
 windows and doors
 appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc.
 interior features such as fireplaces, saunas and whirlpools
 the use of all rooms

29
Plan view
A plan view is an orthographic projection of a three-dimensional object from the position of a
horizontal plane through the object. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top. In
such views, the portion of the object above the plane (section) is omitted to reveal what lies
beyond. In the case of a floor plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be
omitted. Whenever an interior design project is being approached, a floor plan is the typical
starting point for any further design considerations and decisions.
Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their viewing plane is
outside of the object.

A plan is a common method of depicting the internal arrangement of a three-dimensional

object in two dimensions. It is often used in technical drawing and is traditionally
crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes
through.

The Plan of Hindu temple architecture

Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style,
though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an
inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of
a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. This chamber often has an open area designed for
movement in clockwise rotation for rituals and prayers. Around this chamber there are often
other structures and buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the
garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The
shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama,
a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between
garbhagriha and mandapa. There may be other mandapas or other buildings, connected or
detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound.
Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, values and the
way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the
cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu
temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the
masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the
eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture. [2] The form and
meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place
where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge
and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and
Vastu Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple
builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative
expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles
in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life.[6
Early structures
Excavation of the huge Temple of Vāsudeva next to the Heliodorus pillar in Besnagar. Show
that the Temple measured 30x30 meters, and the walls were 2.4 meters thick. Pottery remains
assigns the site to the 2nd century BCE. Further excavations also revealed the outline of a
smaller elliptic temple structure, which was probably destroyed by the end of the 3rd century

30
BCE The platform and the base of the Heliodorus pillar are visible in the immediate
background.
Remains of early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE)
and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated
to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism.

Steps in Temple Construction

Steps in Temple Construction: The procedure for building a temple is extensively

discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning
beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary
from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction:
1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land
should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug,
water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then
the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again
involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are
placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the
place of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done,
like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals
Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and
waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to
take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good
omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements
Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja
(to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town)
Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)

Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing
kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa
as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes
of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as
prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and
kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs
carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's

31
drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using
a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses
the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is
being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds
mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple.
This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the
distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and
fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the
temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals.

The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver,
and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during
the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking
and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as
precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding
to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds
and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is
described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid
made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious
significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid,
usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square
belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance
attached to each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the
outer squares cover the gods of lower rank.

Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in
garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the
temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The
relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the
temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for
humans until quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that
it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face
the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary,
along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great
importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following
major elements 1. an entrance, often with a porch. one or more attached or detached
mandapas or halls 3. the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber'- the
tower build directly above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design
Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally
conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight.

According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of
Architecture, the vibration of the spaceconsciousness, which is called time, is the creative
element, since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial
forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire
universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant
product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called
talam or layam. Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space
measure, vastu science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space
vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of

32
measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam
(eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human
form, it is found that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units.

The Agamas are a collection of several literature and scriptures of Hindu schools. The term
literally means tradition or "that which has come down", and the Agama texts describe
cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four
kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold
desires.These canonical texts are in Tamil and Sanskrit. Agamas were predominant in South
India but Sanskritized later.

Small Hindu Temple of Kidel, Java- Marianne North

The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala- The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or
manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a
square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and
results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the
shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The
square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection
beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle,
hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandalavastu,
the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala
represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in
whom the temple rests.

The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-
purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those
who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In order to
establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala
upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution

33
of the vastupurusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical
foundation supports the weight of the building. Based on astrological calculations the border
of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirtytwo smaller squares called nakshatras.
The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of the
single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and
their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent
cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled
over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four
directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the
sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha
or pure space. The vastupurusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the
building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple
construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-
purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of
the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground
plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are
fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid,
the circle and the curve are most prominent.

The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller
chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan
consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the
main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple
and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of
the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual
called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter
within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of
the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly
resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled
with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the
twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the
presence of the corresponding Devata.

The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator,
best known for his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan
(1919-1983), who adopted the name Silpi,

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up
the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw
up a construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various
temples to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another
Vastu Mandala.
Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is
the name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture
(vāstuśāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular

34
diagram (one only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before
starting the construction. Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain
texts, the compartments (koṣṭha) of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities
associated with the plots of the site diagram.

In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight
Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve
as menas of identifying the compartments later on.This is the process under which the
Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is put to use in site planning and
architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules or pada.
Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site
and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A Mandala They are proportional
relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-two such
schemes.
 sakala, whole; 2. pecaka, couch; 3. pīṭha, pedestal; 4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal; 5.
upapīṭha, low pedestal; 6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal; 7. sthaṇḍila, altar; 8. caṇḍita,
circumcised; 9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner; 10. āsana, seat; 11. sthānīya, local; 12.
deśya, regional; 13. ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised; 14. bhadra, auspicious; 15.
mahāsana, great seat; 16. padmagarbha; lotus-womb; 17. triyuta; thrice-yoked; 18.
karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered; 19. gaṇita; computed; 20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the
sun; 21. susaṃhita, well-endowed; 22. supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse; 23.
viśālaka, capacious; 24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-womb 25. viśveśa; lord of the world;
26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment; 27. viprakānta; Brāhmaṇa-spouse 28. viśālākṣa,
large-eyed; 29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion; 30. viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the
world, 31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse, 32. candrakānta, moon’s spouse.

35
Temple layout Sreeneevasan’s Blog

Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot
(which does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot;
mahapīṭha, sixteenplot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and
paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot, schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes
the assignment of deities to the plots. The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and
assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra
chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine squares or the pīṭha of nine squares
with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he marks either the upapīṭha
diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks two circles, one on the
floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar. During padavinyāsa, ritual marking of the
plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form of vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of
the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched out across it, while reciting the
mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the vāstumaṇḍala, cluster of forty-five deities,
who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his limbs and thus occupy plots in the four
quarters of the site. He invokes the deity corresponding to each plot and “situates” it
thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its
specifie venerational mantra.

36
2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled
Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a
number of schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of
plot-disposition is a conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is
constructed out of geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the
number of plots in the scheme is always a perfect square.

Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi)
and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in
the shape of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area
may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: 1.
circular (vritta), 2. triangular (trikona), 3. rod shaped (dandakriti), 4. bow shaped (dhanur
akara) 5. other irregular shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a
land of such “un approved” shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and
rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same
principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a
square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. In case of a rectangular site, it
must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit) should be more than
its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south
shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east
and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the
temple should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi
( Basil) plants with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral
plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much
recommended. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan,
Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The
entire process is rich in symbolism. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth,
signifying the four directions which bind and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of
existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of existence. The ground plan, again, is
symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu Purusha represents
terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and equilateral
triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The
position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion
of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the
outer cells house deities of lower order.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead
from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and
so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west
axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected
in the architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu
mandala Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for
deciding upon the location, the orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of
retinue-divinities. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.

The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends
from Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). The Vastu purusha mandala
is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having
astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border
representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all

37
cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8)
the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided.

The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings
and the engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to
its west are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits
reside in the outer ring. There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding
Brahma. Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma). Dikpalas or guardian deities of
different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal management, are an important part of
the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu , Kubera and Isana; reside in the East ,
South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North and North-East respectively. All
except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a method that determines the
requirements of architecture in relation to its directions. Establishing Vastu Mandala on the
site The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences
that constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site
the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the
time for

commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained. Horizontal and vertical dimensions:
From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next proceeds to develop the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and
the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical
alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The subdivisions of the
ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the
mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums).

38
The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the
structure above the main shrine or chapel) and the prakara (the walls). The construction of the
temple follows in three dimensional forms, in exactly the patterns laid out by the mandala.
The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance
of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top elevation). In order to
establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site.

The ground for civil construction is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells, by drawing
10 lines from East to West and 10 lines from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities
are installed. In addition the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after
performing Vastu Homa. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of
construction is a sacred rite in itself. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of
effectiveness, in the manner that the actual foundation supports its weight. Vastu Shanti Puja
is a spiritual and religious process to offer prayers to the Vastu Purush who is the Lord,
protector and soul of the house and seek the blessings for positivity and prosperity. During
this worship, people also pay their tribute to the deity of directions, five elements of nature,
and natural forces. Some of the major objectives of performing Vastu Shanti Pooja are – To
eliminate any kind of faults relating to interiors exteriors, or structures of buildings. To seek
forgiveness of God for the damage done to the nature during construction. To ask for the
blessings of Vastu Purush for happiness, wealth and good health. Offer prayers to Vastu
Purush for protection of home or office from natural calamities. To appease any form of
supernatural force which might be dangerous for the occupants

Significance of Vastu Shanti Puja Vastu is a place where nature and human beings live
together in harmony. Vastu Shanti Puja, also known as Vastu Dosh Nivaran Puja, brings a
striking balance between both of them by removing all the hurdles or negativities present in
the environment and preventing unforeseen destruction and misfortune to finally improve the
Vastu of a place. The puja is performed to appease Vastu Devta to seek his blessings and bless
one’s home or workspace with prosperity and harmony. Vastu Puja is also conducted to
reduce the harmful impacts of the Vastu Dosha caused by the construction faults in the Vastu
of a place and to maintain a balance between the eight directions and the five elements of
nature. People worship Vastu Purush or Vastu deva on several occasions such as land
worship, Griha Pravesh, door installation, well mining, foundation laying, foundation mining,
and others.

Garbhadhana, Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the
first stone (square in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the
north-western corner of the building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of
the foundation is taken up. The foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth
level, except in the middle portion of the garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually
constructed first. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it
involves letting in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious
stones, several metals, minerals, herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The
following is a little more detail about it.

The Brahmasthana , the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually
come up, is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the
grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu

39
Purusha) to enter within the buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the
earth. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-
purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. In the
thirty-two units representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions), the units of Brahma and the
twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the
presence of the corresponding divinity .An Image of Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also
placed in the box. Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also represents theenergy that
supports the universe. The box also contains nine precious stones – diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, pearls, yellow sapphire, and blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade – to appease
the nine planets. A stone slab (adhara- shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot
is buried.And, over this slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera.

The copper pot signifies the womb; and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum
constructed around it is the body. That pot represents the roots of the “temple-tree”; and the
icon its sap. The four walls around the icon represent the branches spreading around. The
structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series of tiers. The roof resting over the walls is
called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest. The imagery suggested is that of a tree with
birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a model of a growing tree. Another set of
symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi); the walls of the
sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it the fire (tejas). The final tier of the Vimana
is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha).The sanctum is thus a constellation
of five elements that are basic building blocks of all existence. Once the garbhadhana and
agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the temple commences
according to the plan. When the foundation is finished the vertical structure is raised. The
external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures and
paintings. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the
different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe. It is

40
believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada, Ashviyuja and Karhika months
facing east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south; In
phalguna, Chaitra and Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana,
he sleeps facing north. The doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective
months.

Mini Cosmos

Temple Layout and its symbolism The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is
a mini cosmos. The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The
ideal Temple should have at least one entrance, an ArdhMandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall,
a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. The design comprises:

1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at
the entrance to the Temple. 2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine
immediately after the Rajagopuram. 3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for
offerings, called the Balipeeta. 4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. 5. The
passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main
Deity is installed. 6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-
Griha”. 7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a
structure or sanctuary called the “Vimana”. 8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity
is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome. 9. There is a circumnutating passage or
“Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa.

The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
“Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The
procedure of worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”.

 TEMPLE LAYOUT : The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a
deity and to facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a
Hindu temple is a symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west
alignment; the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the
western side. The entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to

41
 symbolize its significance. Vaikanasagamas and the silapashastras stipulate the rules
for the selection of the site and construction of the temple buildings. Most of the
temple adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also seems to be based on
the concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of small shrines
normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The region
wise categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region
Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South
India vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular
in the Tamil country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as
Dravida-Satanga-Vimana. This type consists of six important parts from the base to
the final. These six parts are linked to the angas of human beings. There are 1.
upapitha, 2. adhisthana, 3. pada or bhiti, 4. prastara, 5. sikhara and 6. griva (Kalasa)
humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada :
Forso Prastara : Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana
constitute the basement. The upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the
height of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the wall part of htehouse that houses
themulbera. It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such as the kumbha
panjara and kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The
kumbhapanjara is of the shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural
addition. The kosthapanjara houses Avaranamurts.

 WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India

temple style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls,
with entrances through large gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf
the enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased
fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic invasions that jeopardized
the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple complex came to
include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Accordingly, the
templecities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city surrounded by its
mountain ranges (city walls).

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Angkor layout

 PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple structures (moving from east to west)
include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by
passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of
the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the
level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa. Mandapa. The
mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha griha;
it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in
the garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will
have a second mandapa — called the maha mandapa — that is located in between the
external mandapa and the garbha griha. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha
griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity
resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha
griha. The images since the early chola period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the
following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti
Garbhagraha West Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal Vishnu Vishnu (or)
Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North Brahma Ardhamandapam north Mahissuramardini
In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu temple in its vertical order in comparison
with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the temple is equal to that of
the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the temple site
is divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu
temple is Vastupurusa.

THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the
temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the
resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is
mirrored by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is
associated in Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is
associated with humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most
43
profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways
to temples’ ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal

form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the
square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

4.MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-
mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport: Temples
venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a
seated bull), facing the main shrine. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi)
display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides
of the external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern
entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal
mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red
highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal
mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later,
even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an
even larger one.

5. SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical
sides that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal
outline (rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable
feature of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of
the storeys contrast with the Northern style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was
originally inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents — specifically, the parapets
(discussed below) represent the cells around a squareshaped room in which Buddhist monks
were allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is merely superimposed in
ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

6. HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving
phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the
Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a
macro during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are
the early temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan
includes the garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a
lot of development took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu
temple building. A number of gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so
on were added. The micro gopura that peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a
pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai .

Gopuras were set in all cardinal directions and at the entry of each prakara, the total number
reaching its peak in the Srirangam and Madurai temples. Mandapas of intricate workmanship
were in various locations. These catered to the needs of the increasing utsavas;
Kalyanamandapa for holding the marriage festival s and Vasantamandapa for holding the
spring festival. Subsidiary chapel were added for Devis,Nandi,Garuda, Acaryas and so on. A
number of uhanas for processional purpose were added. In short, the Hindu temple reached
the optimum level of its evolution under the Nayakas in the Tamil country. Against this
background the temple chosen or the present study are examined.

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The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the
garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the
building complex are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or
ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the
passage next to the previous one, leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the
main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the
prkaras (surrounding walls) are the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the
neck, the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of
hair (sikha) and so on.

Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually
entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the
pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a
man’s journey towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and
sculptural details vary from phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which
awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the
following way. On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the
threshold before crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world
of God. Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls;
representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. As he proceeds, the familiar
mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The immediate pavilion
and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations; these
simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions
and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any
ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility,
to fulfilment and to the presence of God. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a
circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu
and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. Positions and
orientations of the temples. The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses
in an 81 celled temple-site. This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

CENTRAL PART: Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must
be divided into four equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-
western side thereof. The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and
the shrine should have three stories. The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may
be represented in the shrine in one of his many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana)
or many ( aneka-murti-vidana). The aneka forms might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan
murti); or 9 ( nava murti). The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred ,
specially in a shrine dedicated to Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the
intermediate direction (Vidik)- Atri Samhita (2.3233) And, generally, the doorway to the East
is the best , most auspicious (utta-mottamam) ;to the West is next best (uttama); to the South
is middling (madhyama); and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama) – Vimanarchana kalpa
(patala 3)

Building layout design is regarded as one of the major tasks in architecture design. It
determines the shapes, dimensions, and positions of internal building spaces to satisfy
architectural criteria. This task becomes complicated for human designers when the topology
relationships of rooms are complex.

45
The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The
mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the
mandala and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden
serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or
navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine
jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond,
emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid
with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following
which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers
clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of
the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat,
barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. Temple Layout Ancient
Scripts on Temple Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its
chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: 1.
Square (Chandura); 2. Rectangle (Agatra); 3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart –
shakata); 4. Circle (Vritta); 5. Elliptical (kritta vritta); 6. triangular (dwaja); 7. diamond or
rhombus (vajra) ; 8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; 9. fish (meena); 10. back of a tortoise
(kurma); 11. conch (shanka); 12. crescent (ardha-chandra); 13. pot (kumbha); 14. sword
(khadga); 15. and lotus (kamala).

South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of India” by
Ferguson, James and James Burgess

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the
back of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are
recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura),
Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are
recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. But all
texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most
auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension.
It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

46
 STONE STRUCTURES
Though there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the
5th century CE, there probably were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-
cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal
sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture. The earliest preserved
Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at
Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone
superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara
inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and
these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.
No pre-7th century CE South Indian free-standing stone temples have survived. Examples of
early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse
styles at Mahabalipuram, from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the
Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which
already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a
tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and
Pallava era when these were built. In the Deccan, Cave 3 of the Badami cave temples was cut
out in 578 CE, and Cave 1 is probably slightly earlier. Other examples are found
in Aihole and Pattadakal.
Medieval Period (7th to 16th century
about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with
theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods. From between about the 7th
and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer
than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions,
as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. The Vesara style originated in the
region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka.
According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of
Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture built temples
in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles, for example using
both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over the sanctum in
different temples of similar date, as at Pattadakal.

47
48
Nataraja temple plan. 1: East gopura; 2: South gopura; 3: West gopura; 4: North gopura; 5:
1000 pillar hall (choultry); 6: Shivaganga pool; 7: Devi temple; 8: Shiva Sanctum + Chit Sabha +
Kanaka Sabha; 9: Vishnu shrine.

49
Earliest examples of Pallava architecture are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and
structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava
architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram.
Western Chalukya architecture linked between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th
century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of Western
Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they
built in the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in
Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century,
with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day
Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni)
which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their
stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in
the coming centuries.
In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of
temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones. The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim
conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north. In
late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of
South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse, (actually a late
development, from the 12th century or later), was typically added to older large temples.

50
51
The Meenakshi temple complex of Madurai, mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large
complex in the Dravidian architecture of South India, dominated by gopuram gatehouse
towers. 2 main shrines are much smaller, with gold tops .

52
TIRUPATI TEMPLE

53
54
 III

The Complex Erection of Angkor Wat

CONTENTS

55
1. Great structures built to honour the 32. Ghost Temple:
gods 33. In 2016 CE, a New York
2. Hindu Cosmology Times article
3. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat 34. History
4. The height of Angkor Wat 35. Architecture and
5. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud Construction
6. Scale of the ambition determined the 36. classical style of
structure of the Angkor. Angkorian
7. Several years must have gone into the architecture:
planning as such. 37. Built on rising ground
8. The perspective and surrounded by an
9. Scholarly vision artificial moat,
10. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the 38. Sculpture
universe as a cosmic world. 39. The massive
11. The central tower mountain, Its 5 towers sandstone bricks
correspond to peaks of Meru. 40. Architectural
i. Planning Features
ii. The explaination and 41. Construction
concurrence from the Monarch techniques
iii. The Model 42. Materials;
iv. Schedule 43. Bricks
v. Approvals 44. Sandstone
vi. The site 45. Laterite
vii. The water source 46. Central sanctuary
viii. The material sources 47. The central prang of
ix. The manpower Angkor Wat temple
x. Assorted materials symbolizes the mount
xi. Skill and unskilled labour Meru.
xii. Logistics 48. legendary home of
xiii. manpower planning the Hindu gods.
xiv. Lodging abd boarding of workers 49. Prang
xv. Material Storage and facilitation 50. Khmer temples
xvi. Training & development of 51. Thai temples
workers 52. Enclosure
12. Urban planning 53. Gallery
54. Gopura
13. 72 major temples 55. Hall of Dancers
14. How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements 56. dancing.
of style? 57. House of Fire
15. What was the cultural significance of Angkor 58. Library
Wat? 59. Srah and baray
16. What is unique about where Angkor Wat is 60. Temple mountain
built? 61. Bas-relief
17. Site and plan 62. Colonette
18. temple mountain and concentric galleries 63. Corbelling
19. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to 64. List of
the morning sun Khmer lintel styles
20. Rose Bud shape 65. Stairs
21. Ogival 66. MOTIFS
22. The principal temple of the Angkorian 67. Apsara and devata
region, Angkor Wat 68. Dvarapala
23. Vaishnavism 69. Gajasimha &
24. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism Reachisey
25. Vishnu-Suman 70. Garuda
26. Mahayana Buddhism 71. THE MANY GODS of
27. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian ANGKOR
architecture 72. Indra
28. Many temples had been built before 73. Kala
Cambodia:[ 74. Krishna
29. The temple itself consists of two of the 75. linga
primary elements 76. Makara
77. Nāga
30. In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and 78. Quincunx
Claude Jacques 79. Shiva
31. Religious Background 80. The.Australian
archaeologist Damian

56
 Evans.
83.Rervelation
painting
81. Secret Paintings

Great structures built to honour the gods, have led to

groundbreaking construction techniques, and pushed the limits of
engineering. No expense was spared in the ancient world, as temples
were built over decades or even centuries. But one stands out from the
rest. Hidden deep in the Cambodian jungle lies a temple that eclipses all
others- Angkor Wat is a 900-year-old complex covering more than 400
acres across a monsoon-plagued swampland. The largest religious
monument in the world by land area. Its endless hallways and colossal
structures exhibit precision stonemasonry. While some of the great
medieval cathedrals took over a century to build, Angkor Wat was
completed in just 30 years. A masterpiece of craftsmanship, sculptural
decoration and engineering. But how did an early society with little
technology build this vast monument? It is one of the most important
pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has
become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country's main tourist attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role in
converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation and the one and only source
of income for Cambodia today.

Angkor Wat Architectural Features

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin ,

and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to
Phnom Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings
never decided arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their
orientation and their layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired
by the model of the Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu
cosmology. It should have a perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four
gates in the middle of each side and an organised internal layout
resembling a mandala, with the city temple in the centre and its main
sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which represents the mythological
Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by successive concentric
walls.

At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city

planning was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king”
(devaraja), which considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth
(avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in
Southeast Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and
Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

57
Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International
Symposium on Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments,
New Delhi, November 16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper-
Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple pointed out that according to
the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and
the town should mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city
plan are, therefore, related in their conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions
of the temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect
proportions, and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere
presents itself to the viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its
representation of form and movement from Indian mythology has
astonishing grace and power.”
Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500
acres) defined by a laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat
with a long sandstone causeway (length 250 meters, 820 feet; width 12
meters, 39 feet) crossing it and serving as the main access to the
monument. The moat is 200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of
5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles).

Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern

India, which combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of
outer adornment. The five beehive-shaped domes that rise impressively
from the center of the temple are adorned with rows of lotuses and are
designed to look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five
domes are visible when the temple is viewed from certain angles.

The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller
domes are organized in a square plan around the central dome. The five
domes represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru, arranged in the shape of a
lotus blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole so
beautiful are the way the small details harmonize and mix with the
massive architecture. The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded
by halls, arranged together in a square plan, with lower walls and
ceilings, and smaller temples on their corners that represent the
mountains on the edge of the world. The galleries, corridors and halls
are aligned with directions of the compass.

The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side;
the central tower is eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat
around the compound is three miles long; and the causeway that leads
across the moat to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks
at Angkor Wat were quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the
foot of Mt. Kulen 32 kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to
have been transported by canals visible today with satellite imagery.

58
 Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents

an earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the
center of the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru,
situated at the center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the
peaks of Meru. The outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge
of the world, and the surrounding moat the oceans beyond.
The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both
attract and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat
appears to be a colossal mass of stone on one level with a long
causeway leading to the center but close up it is a series of elevated
towers, covered galleries, chambers, porches and courtyards on
different levels linked by stairways.

The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central
tower is greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved
with three rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively
smaller and higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of
the temple.

Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and
second levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners
and one in the middle and these is the most prominent architectural
feature of Angkor Wat. This arrangement is sometimes called a
quincunx. Graduated tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a
conical shape and, near the top, rows of lotuses taper to a point.

The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines

stand out in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right
to the horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height
of the towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all
five towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from
the entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of
a cross. The. Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become
familiar with this dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries,
chambers and aisles is a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it
looks like a series of long narrow ridges but close up from identifies
itself. It is a roof made of gracefully arched stone rectangles placed end
to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end tile at right angles the
ridge of the roof.

The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate

frames. Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill
Candee, who visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness
surpassed their architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are
made to force a halt at beauteous obstruction that the mind may be
prepared for the atmosphere of sanctity, she wrote In order to become

59
familiar with the composition of Angkor Wat the visitor should learn to
recognize the repetitive elements in the architecture. Galleries with
columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums, steps and the cross-shaped
plan occur again and again.

It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of

height was achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of
the monument to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add
height, length or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers
was repeated at the limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and
the entry pavilions. The long causeway at the entrance reappears on
the other side of the entry pavilion.

1. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor.

Several years must have gone into the planning as such.
2. The perspective
3. Scholarly vision
4. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and
represents an earthly model of the cosmic world.
5. The central tower rises from the center of the monument
symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of
the universe.
6. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru.
7. Planning
8. The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch
9. The Model
10. Schedule
11. Approvals
12. The site
13. The water source
14. The material sources
15. The manpower
16. Assorted materials
17. Skill and unskilled labour
18. Logistics
19. manpower planning
20. Lodging abd boarding of workers
21. Material Storage and facilitation
22. Training & development of workers

Urban planning

This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally

associated with the railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a
vast-reaching conurbation, its parts linked by an ambitious network of
60
roads and canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer
cities were connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the
“built-up” area of Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today,
much less barefoot 16th Century Portuguese friars, has been able to
figure. An enormous and intricate irrigation system mapped today lidar
and other tech provided Angkor with food – rice for the main part – and
yet the ever-increasing scale of this engineered and well populated
landscape was, it seems, its undoing.

The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple
complex, is a dizzying 700 feet above the ground. As you get into the
temple and start exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and
plan consists of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and
stairways. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of
Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained
monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise
arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." It
was originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu temple.
Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor Wat is said to be the largest
religious monument in the world. ... Originally dedicated to the Hindu god
Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th
century.
How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of
power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the
style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-
galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures;
and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the
temple. How many temples are in Angkor Wat?

Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area,
and the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are
scattered throughout the landscape beyond.

How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of style?

It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements
characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like
lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries
connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the
main axis of the temple.

61
What was the cultural significance of Angkor Wat?
Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or
commercial significance by the 13th century, it remained an important
monument for the Buddhist religion into the 1800s. Indeed, unlike many
historical sites, Angkor Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell
gradually into disuse and disrepair.

What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built?

Also unusual for the time of construction, Angkor Wat was dedicated to
Vishnu, a Hindu deity, rather than the current king. The original outer wall
at Angkor Wat once enclosed the temple proper, city, and royal palace,
occupying a space of 203 acres (820,000 square meters). Nothing remains
of the wall today.

This phenomenal city was established in the late 9th century, when it
became the home of Khmer King Yashovarman I. At that stage it was a
small, modest settlement. Over the following 500 years a huge amount of
power became concentrated in Angkor. It was the heart of the Khmer
Empire, which grew and grew and grew. From this central base at Angkor,
the empire’s territory eventually stretched as far north as China, as far
south as what as what is now southern Thailand, as far west as Myanmar
and as far east as Vietnam.

The empire accumulated so much wealth and boasted such a vast

workforce that it had the means to turn Angkor into a jaw-dropping city, a
symbol of Khmer supremacy. Not only was its architecture remarkable,
but the concept behind the city’s layout was incredibly complex. Angkor
was intended to represent a universe from Hindu cosmology. Anchoring
the city was its only natural hill, Phnom Bakheng, with each of Angkor’s
temples then positioned in “orbit” around this hill, while the city’s outer
walls symbolized the edge of the cosmos and its irrigation system
represented the rivers of this universe.
It was in Sukhothai in the 13th century that Thailand is widely considered
to have been born and, over that century and the next, the Thais began to
take control of vast areas of what had been Khmer territory. Many
historians have long claimed this rivalry reached a head in 1431. They
believe Angkor was captured and looted by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which
was essentially the Thai successor to the Sukhothai Kingdom. It has been
widely stated that Angkor was deserted as a result of this raid. Now a new
tale has emerged.

62
 Site and plan-Plan of Angkor Wat

An aerial view of Angkor Wat ////A detailed plan of the central structure

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the

standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later
plan of concentric galleries, most of which were derived from religious
beliefs of Hinduism originally. The construction of Angkor Wat also
suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of
the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and
lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to
be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a

63
representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according
to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five
peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding
mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was
progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the
lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of
the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to
the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice
Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to
serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by
the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—
prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order.
Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have
been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has
been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the
disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several
other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and
suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu,
who was associated with the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content
and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues
that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under
King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles
were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to
rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to
perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities
manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been
received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circlesShe
distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham
Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the
constellation Draco. a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name
is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd
century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern
constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco
is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from
northern latitudes.
Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include:
the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden
passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces
which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements
are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and
narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more
static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been
destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers,
gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. One
of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch.

64
the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The
free-standing temple of Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana
period also contains ogive arch but it is constructed using principles of corbel.
Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE
until 2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st–2nd century
CE, featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches
which were used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas.
[3]
Pointed arches as load bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two
pointed arch vault system was built inside the Bhitargaon temple as noted by
Alexander Cunningham, which is dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th century CE.
[4]
Pointed arches also appeared in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and
vaults between 6–7th century CE.
Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by
several scholars to have first been established in Islamic architecture during
the Abbasid Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE, and in Gothic architecture
in the 11th century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of
pointed arch including Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches
were used in the Near East in pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that
these arches were, in fact, parabolic and not pointed arches.
In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which
establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic"
arch, drawn with compasses as outlined above, or with arcs of an ellipse as
described. A very narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet
arch". The most common form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as
the width. In the later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a
pointed head, like S-shaped curves, became prevalent.

65
the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-
steep-stairways-representing-the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT
Cathedral in Rome showing the ogival that also lay a role of bolstering support
to the roof

The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built
between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended
to the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription
says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war
elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a
serpent.
After consolidating his political position through military campaigns,
diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched
into the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum.
Breaking with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by
the concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple
to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each
side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central
towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the
mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.
The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods,
and his residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The
measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one
another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the
temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from
mythology, but also from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the
scenes, the king himself is portrayed as larger in size than his subjects,
sitting cross-legged on an elevated throne and holding court, while a bevy
of attendants make him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans.

66
Vaishnavism
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that
of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction
of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the
beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat
was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as
"Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu."
Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society:
the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by
Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a
royal lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal
personality cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with
the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if

67
you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not
the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional
incarnations, but the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with
Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with
the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial
palace."[Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his
predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva.
Vishnu-Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic
representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his
incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of
Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was
originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with
against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or
mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the
discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the

Bodhisattva Lokesvara.
Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed
radically from the tradition of his predecessors when he
adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made
Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the
Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of
Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the Bayon, the king
represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by
compassion for his subjects.[63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate
the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine
component of the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the
sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian,
and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily

68
on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are
religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other
religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious
architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs,
which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different
architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period,
not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period.
Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such
features as one source of evidence for dating the remains.
Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the
architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of
the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE
to the first half of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the
sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian,
and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily
on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are
religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other
religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious
architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs,
which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different
architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period,
not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period.
Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such
features as one source of evidence for dating the remains.

69
 1. Sambor Prei Kuk
2. Pre Rup
3. Banteay Srei
4. Bayon

Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful

Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region.
At that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor
state of Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural
styles :[
The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of
Khmer architecture: the pyramid, and concentric galleries. The pyramid
takes the form of three stepped terraces, with each step bordered on all
sides by covered galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate
the pathway to the central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The
pyramid culminates in five towers–an indication of the temple's central
shrine.
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging
temple which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used
in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18
miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals.
It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to
some interpretations, it was never fully completed.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally
associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience

70
spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple.
The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards
to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in
stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around
the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other
businesses were opened, and a network of roads created.
Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction

In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques say thet

“The entire complex symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As
Freeman and Jacques describe, “It is, above all else, a microcosm of the
Hindu universe. The moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the
earth and the succession of concentric galleries represent the mountain
ranges that surround Mount Meru, the home of the gods. The towers
represent the mountain’s peaks, and the experience of the ascent to the
central shrine is, maybe intentionally, a fairly convincing imitation of
climbing a real mountain.”

The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to

“calendrically and cosmologically significant totals”
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer
Empire (802-1431 CE) for his creation of a strong central government that
united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military expeditions
against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the
neighboring Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His
greatest successes were in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened
relations with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.

Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a

usurper, who assassinated his great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-
1113 CE) to take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to
destroying a serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was,
is unclear. He then legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments
and immortalized it through the construction of the grand complex of
Angkor Wat, dedicated to his personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in
gratitude for his victory. He had amassed considerable wealth through
trade and taxes and spared no expense in the creation of his temple.
Scholar Christopher Scarre notes:

The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an

austere civilization like that of the Indus, a society that carried the cult
of wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult
reached it apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of
Angkor Wat.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally
associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience
spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple.

71
The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards
to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in
stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around
the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other
businesses were opened, and a network of roads created.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging

temple which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used
in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18
miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals.
It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to
some interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II
wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it.
Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god,
and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops
and holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many
different scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was
a funerary temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other
temples in the area - which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the
land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple are
clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one
conducts traditional religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever
been found of Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no
contesting the claim for it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence
of this.

72
It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained
unfinished at Suryavarman II's death and he was cremated and buried
elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had it
purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight when
one considers the king's religious beliefs.

Suryavarman II-Kris

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism,

which is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is
generally regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually
henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with many different aspects.
In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to
be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of
personalities all of which focus on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while,
in his form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and
rewards humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle
of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the
course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing
Brahma as the supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the

centuries as avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and
instruct people. The most famous example of this comes from the
religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of
existence and one's purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed
to fulfill this same purpose through its ornamentation which tells the story
of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and how one is to
best live one's life.

73
SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE,
USING RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY
WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts
between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c.
1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his
reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's
religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which
was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their
faith. Vishnu, as a protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts
and the backlash against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known
as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the
region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II
elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing
the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme
creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between
human beings and the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent
guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the
interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known
as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into
surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal
and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-
reliefs found at Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was
originally conceived of as a temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and

physical nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five
peaks of Mount Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple.
Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru
and it is famously referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and
his brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the brothers die
until only Yudhishthira and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the
border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for
the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not allowed in heaven.
Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns
away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who
was only testing him one last time before allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes
from the classic works of Hindu religious literature such as
the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana.
As most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served
as a gigantic book on which the important religious and cultural tales
could be related visually.

74
Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY)

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a

series of galleries - giving ample room for the designers to explore the
cultural, religious, and temporal history of the people. The outer gallery of
the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs.
Angkor Wat was designed to represent the world with the four corners of
the outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat
representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes from everyday life,
mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal processions all wind
themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been

placed in the present day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet
in supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The central sanctuary
of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the
Vishnu statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at
the heart of all earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to
some scholars, were used for astronomical observations and were built
specifically for that purpose so that astronomers could clearly view the
rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There is no doubt the site was
linked to astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror
the constellation of Draco, the dragon, which represents eternity because
it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE

and statues of the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the
already impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the beliefs of
the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and
artwork was left in place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate
story of the temple while taking nothing away.

75
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though
it was still occupied by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of
stories and legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the
distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as
a palace for his son and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single
night. The temple was protected from the surrounding jungle by the
immense moat and so, unlike other ancient temples and cities (such as
those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.

Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still
visited the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark
spirits. The great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it
was said, needed to be continued to infuse the area with positive energy.
Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the
afterglow of the high energy, moved in and made the place their home.
Dark energy was now thought to emanate from the empty galleries,
porches, and entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went to visit.
With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and
even though it was never completely taken by the jungle, natural growth
made headway up the walls and through the cracks between the stones.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts
of archaeologists who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding
jungle and have located the sites of the workers who built the temple and
of others who lived around the complex. The temple itself has undergone
major restoration and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in
the world. Those who visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps
of literally millions of people from the past who have emerged from the
surrounding jungle to find themselves at the site Suryavarman II created
as the nexus of earth and heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at

Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the
Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the
greatest examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia,
comparable to the finest specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque
architecture in Europe. Situated some 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern
town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple
was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, by
King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his mausoleum.
Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu, then a
Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat is
Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on
the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical
style of Khmer architecture, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief
sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and
large sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in
1867, announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in
sophistication the work of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992,

76
along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN
World Heritage Site.
For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please
see: India: Painting & Sculpture.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital
from which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated
kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King
Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of
Angkor controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the
Indochina peninsula northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as
far as the Bay of Bengal. During this era, these kings implemented a
series of massive construction projects designed to glorify both
themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman
VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline, although as late as
1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the most
magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was
over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies
were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor
was limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which,
having been maintained by Buddhist monks, became one of the most
significant pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell into
disrepair and all that remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient
temples and the remnants of the once-magnificent series of waterways,
although it was never completely abandoned and its moat helped to
preserve it against total engulfment. After the French took over Cambodia
in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of reconstruction, under
which Angkor Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals were restored to
something approaching their original grandeur. The political and military
upheavals which took place in Cambodia during the period 1935-1990 put
an end to this program, but otherwise caused no great headaches. The
site's only serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle.

Architecture and Construction

The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone,
each of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor
required more stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and
originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day Paris.
Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear
that Angkor was designed and managed by some of the finest architects
in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political
ideas imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the
time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally called
Yasodharapura) was named, Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe

77
modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, and its temples were built in
order to provide a means whereby Khmer kings could be assured of
immortality by becoming closely identified with Shaiva or one of the other
important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by King
Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home
for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal and eternal
identitification with Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the

classical style of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in
this idiom include Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor,
and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer
temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple,
founded on early Dravidian architecture, with key features including the
"Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace upon which many buddhist and
hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous
shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho.

78
Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the
temple of Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that
ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of
213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each
stepped level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are
lined with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across
the moat, via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending
towers represent the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and
were probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The temple's
structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into
the walls; the corbelled blockwork and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered
with highly animated figures chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic
rock.

Sculpture
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can
be seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are
literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-relief friezes
illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering

79
array of animal and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus
rosettes and garlands. They include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits),
griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas, snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls
and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in
southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair,
garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and human figures. In
addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and
to the shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are
decorated with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from
Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern
gallery walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of
Hindu mythology, while the eastern gallery houses one of the most
celebrated friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu
showing 88 devas and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century

temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds
of canals, according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks,
some weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the
temple from quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. The researchers
found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and
also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew
that the rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but
wondered how the sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the
site. Previously people thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake
via canal, and then rowed against the current through another river to the
temples.

To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50
quarries along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also
scoured satellite images of the area and found a network of hundreds of
canals and roads linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance
between the quarries and the site along the route Uchida's team found
was only 22 miles (37 kilometers), compared with the 54 miles (90 km)
the river route would have taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when
constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex
was built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as
Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor

80
 Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that
include a bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of
sculpture but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of
previous styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had
general decline in standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings
on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being
continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean
architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be
distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as
paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a

period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower
is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls
and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin
to appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of
the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the
area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the
modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple
of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The
temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers
and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain
constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was
the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of
Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one
of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite
perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV,
capital of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the
north which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh
Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main
material but sandstone also used.
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian
Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas.
Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre
Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major
Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is
known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative
carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with
scenes from Indian mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries.
Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative

81
 carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta
Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most
impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor
toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a
naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures
typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration
and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple
and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of
the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the
classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style
are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor,
and Phimai in modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century,
King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an
invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive
program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the
state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations
participated in the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan
and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of
construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic
construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the
period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is
known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers,
and nāgas.

Construction techniques

Corridor

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The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with
a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far
greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and
occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover,
unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km
(1⁄4 mi) away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with
sandstone quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to
be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres
(25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake,
and finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap
River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo
Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have
discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount
Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the
Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved.
There are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian
literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as
well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial
dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated
with almost 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the
Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze
sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target
for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor,
recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60
days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted
experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to
quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport,
carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands
including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these
sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by
some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the
Khmer came to power
Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as
their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite,
the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive
processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good
examples are the temple towers of Preah
Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved
into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This
because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to sculpting as
opposed to stones of different kinds such as the Sandstones or the

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Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in
the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while
building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples,
as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as
Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as
compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with
age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick
temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive
ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two
countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest
proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a
standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an
impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was
more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham
won the contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from
the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more
expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and
at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-
century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed
more or less entirely from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the
ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and
other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven,
it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with
stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at
Angkor itself.[10] Because the water table in this entire region is well high,
Laterite has been used in the underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other
temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help
towards better stability of the Temple.

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 1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick
2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less
entirely from sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

Central sanctuary

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's

primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated:
typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented
by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the
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temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at
large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be
large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few
metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the
tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple,
and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary
represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to
much Khmer religious architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire,
usually richly carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later
adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya
Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In
Thailand it appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in
front') and aṅga (limb of the body), with the contacting vowels united
by sandhi. Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding
size as it ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof structures of
the stepped pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower
is taller than it actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of
Indic shikhara of Hindu temple, although slightly different in design. On
each cardinal points, a prang usually has richly
adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or blind doors.
The prang took plan of multi corners rectangular, which on top of each
roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of multi-
headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.
Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun
Thornbury Thailand PRANGS

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Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of
the Hindu gods, such as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang
tower, the cella, was relatively small for two reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite
(in the capital of the Khmer only the god king could enter the
shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls.
(Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which
was called the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower,
the bud-shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned
by a top stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha
(temple towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th
century prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the
great temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
Thai temples

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang

The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom
Rung and Lopburi between the early 10th century and the late 12th
century, when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of
the Sukhothai Kingdom adapted the Prang form. They extended and
developed it. The building material was no more separate small sandstone
blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with
stucco. And the cella could be reached only by stairs. An example for this
is the Prang of the Wat Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of
the Prang suggested the cella only. The entrance door became a niche, in
which was placed the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally
taken the central position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was
repeated on all four sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon
of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which
lets its Khmer origin be only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the
landmark of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in
a row. Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all four directions

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around Wat Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat
Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls,
with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented
the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the
gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the
innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures
are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures
of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through
the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.

Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.
A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along
the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form
of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long
hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of
a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th
century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced
to buttress the structure of the temple.
Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman
VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces
of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the

enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently
accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an
aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are
often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In
plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of
the enclosure wall.

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If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is
sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras
have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are
often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or
carved on either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century
temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only
the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with
carved designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that
the hall itself may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building
found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century
monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A
House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing
windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with
fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest
houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou
Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited
Angkor in 1296 CE Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious
function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.
Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of
Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most
likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as
repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally
placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to
the west.

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Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation
and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of
these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East
Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry.
The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the
West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the
center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of
which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have
speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake
of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the
Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural
representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The
style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures
represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat
represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of
several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated
sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid
dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took
shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of
early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong
and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the
gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that
Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must
have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer
kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only
ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including
arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh
Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.

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According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the
ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the
central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after
his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the
royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut
into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a
background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-
relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some
cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to
work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-
relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or
history. Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their
narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The
most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the
10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature,
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire
walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external
gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such
scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer
gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the
everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the
reign of King Jayavarman VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt
to extinguish the fire created by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of
this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.

91
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is
a lintel, above which is a tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one
direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind
doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise
blank walls. RIGHT PIC This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows
Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more

famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the
intervention of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which
sit Shiva and his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to
extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th
century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or
monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of
Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at
the Bayon (late 12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops

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 o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for
the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the
period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes
were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta

Prohm.
Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct
rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is
constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an
opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre
than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the
middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch. The use
of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large
openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such
buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer
maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings
constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The
problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor
remains a serious one for modern conservation.
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting
two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because
the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they
constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a
roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated
surface of a pediment.

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Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels

evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful
guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to
develop a periodization of lintel styles.[28] The most beautiful Angkorean
lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th
century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and
the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. [30] Also frequently
depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions,
with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment
depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the
sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with
South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of
wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies.

Four arches joined by three medallions, the central once carved
with Indra. Small figure on each makara. A variation is with figures
replacing the makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras
disappear, being replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more
rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A variation is a
central scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a
garland of vegetation (like a wreath) more or less segmented.
Medallions disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot of
leaves. Leafy pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java,
including the kala and outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich,
will-carved and imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either
side. Distinct loops of vegetation curl down from garland. Outward-
facing makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu
on Garuda common.

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 Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny

figures disappear. Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight
circular coils. Garland begins to dip in the center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up
almost the entire height of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of
figures shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and
Bakheng. Central figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland
sometimes makes pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of
each loop. Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala
with triangular tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at
the center. Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland
on either side divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment
of vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding
a steed or a Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of
garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with many figures and
little vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second
type is a narrative scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they
curls are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that
of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom
of the lintel surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the
middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts, while later a
series of whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. [32]
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.

95
Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of
the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent
somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity
appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious
perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to
heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view,"
according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear – the
square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire
building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple

the Bayon.///Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.
Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from
Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of
the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana.
Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras,
who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce
mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras
as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other
religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern
descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used
to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though
minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are
more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in
the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras
are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars
that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in
the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean
of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat,
where they appear individually and in groups.

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 This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.
Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed
with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as
relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close
to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples.
Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay
Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of
an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a
mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay
Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with
the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a
dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his
shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of
birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu.
Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though

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Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. [37] They may be
classified as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed

of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and
simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such
images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas
relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized
mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as
in the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this
context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and
their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah
Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over
invaders from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and
balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga
heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is
ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may
again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda. [

THE MANY GODS of ANGKOR

Indra
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In
the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status,
and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated
with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his
image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that
direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed
elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra.
The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu
epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.

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Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay
Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect

and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva.[38] In Khmer
temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on
lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with
a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw.
Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the
base for other figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative
element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period
when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a
kind of protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their
lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the
kalas of Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its
decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive
antecedents.
Krishna
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are
common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and
unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for
these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata
Purana. The following are some of the most important Angkorian
depictions of the life of Krishna:

 A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid

called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. [41]

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 Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing
the nāga Kaliya. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly
stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads.
 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts
Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds
with shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.
 Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons,
including his evil uncle Kamsa. An extensive bas relief in the outer
gallery of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In
battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the
traditional mount of Vishnu.
 In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor
and protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known
bas relief from the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the
Krishna and Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.
As described in the Bhagavata Purana, the
youthful Krishna miraculously raises Mount
Govardhan, near Mathura in northern India,
to protect the villagers and cowherds from a
great rainstorm sent by Indra. The sculptor of
this image, active in the Phnom Da
workshops, clearly understood the essence
of his subject. It is evident that this sculpture
evolved from a long-standing local tradition,
which, by the seventh century, had
surpassed any Indian prototypes that were
remembered.

A twelfth-century Phnom Da inscription

credits a group of seven cult images to the
patronage of an early Funan ruler and lists a
Krishna Govardhana in the group. This
sculpture is likely one of those
works.METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

Linga

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The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of
a makara that in turn disgorges another monster./// This segmented linga from 10th century
Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of
creative power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily
that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In
the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king
himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's
consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean
period are generally made of polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

 Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic
of the womb.
 On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas
are called mukhalingas.
 Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic
of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a
round tip symbolic of Shiva.
Makara
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk
of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a
crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the
makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or
wall. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a
lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central
motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of
temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of
makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the
corners of the buildings.
Nāga

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Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite
motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated
between 1150 and 1175 CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel
from the end of the 9th century.

Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer

architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently
depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in
a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of

such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center
of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far
ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either
vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are
depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for
human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the
myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended
from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from
Cambodia.[47] Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and
stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk,
the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon,
and the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha
from the elements.[48]
Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th
century city of Angkor Thom.
Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by
stone balustrades shaped as nāgas.

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In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the
entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped
balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of
gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the
nāga king Vasuki in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of
the amrita or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean
of Milk or samudra manthan has its source in Indian mythology.
Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the
riverbed at Kbal Spean.
A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The
five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and
Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic
identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-
century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the
shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of
the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian
Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though
they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic
representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous
tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with
his consort, while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from
below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic.
His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the
trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.

The Australian archaeologist Damian Evans has discovered

undocumented ancient cities between 900 and 1,400 years ago buried in
the Cambodian jungle surrounding Angkor Wat, the largest religious
monument in the world. Some cities can reach the size of Cambodia's
capital, Phnom Penh (about 678.5 square kilometers). The new finding
may rewrite the history of Southeast Asia.

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Angkor Wat, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia

The existence of Mahendraparvata (the 1,200-year-old lost medieval city

in Cambodia) was confirmed in 2012. In 2015, Damian Evans and his
colleagues utilized the advanced light-scanning equipment lidar to scan
more than 735 square miles of the Angkor region. Recently, the entire
ancient cities beneath the jungle have been found by analyzing data
captured in 2015. These cities seemed to have constituted the Khmer
Empire, the largest empire on earth in the 12th century.

The new discovery can deepen our understanding of Khmer culture and
cast into doubt the traditional assumptions about the empire. In addition,
the survey detected elaborate water systems were constructed hundreds
of years earlier than historians previously believed. It appears that these
ancient cities will become the new secrets attracting tourists to visit and
explore soon.

Although it remains unknown when the newly discovered ancient cities

will be opened to visitors, the Angkor Wat has already been extremely
popular with world travelers. The magnificent temple was built by King
Suryavarman II and considered among the most significant attractions in
Southeast Asia widely. It consists of three rectangular galleries
surrounding a central tower, each level higher than the last. Small apsara
images are used as decorative motifs on pillars and walls and larger
devata images are employed in the entry pavilion of the temple to the
tops of the high towers.

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 Devatas,
characteristic of the Angkor Wat style

If you have a plan to travel in Cambodia, contact Odyssey Tours to tailor-

make a private tour based on your interest and needs. We'll take you to
experience the best Cambodia!
https://www.indochinaodysseytours.com/news/new-secrets-around-angkor-wat-
discovered.html

New, digitally enhanced images reveal detailed murals at Angkor

Wat showing elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people
riding horses — all invisible to the naked eye. Many of the faded markings
could be graffiti left behind by pilgrims after Angkor Wat was abandoned
in the 15th century. But the more elaborate paintings may be relics of the
earliest attempts to restore the temple.

Painting discovery: Subtle traces of paint caught the eye of Noel

Hidalgo Tan, a rock-art researcher at Australian National University in
Canberra, while he was working on an excavation at Angkor Wat in 2010.
While spotting traces of red pigment all over the walls when one
rfesearcher was taking a stroll through the temple on his lunch break one
day.he took a few pictures and planned to digitally enhance them later.
The digitally enhanced pictures revealed paintings of elephants, lions, the
Hindu monkey god Hanuman, boats and buildings — perhaps even images
of Angkor Wat itself. Tan went back to the site to conduct a more
methodical survey in 2012 with his Cambodian colleagues from APSARA
(which stands for the Authority for the Protection and Management of
Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap).

Invisible images- Some of the most detailed paintings, the ones located
at the top of the temple, are passed by literally thousands of visitors
every day, but the most elaborate scenes are effectively invisible to the
naked eye. To make these paintings visible, a technique called
decorrelation stretch analysis, was used, which exaggerates subtle color
differences. This method has become a valuable tool in rock-art research,

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as it can help distinguish faint images from the underlying rock. It has
even been used to enhance images taken of the Martian surface
by NASA's Opportunity rover.

One chamber in the highest tier of Angkor Wat's central tower, known as
the Bakan, contains an elaborate scene of a traditional Khmer musical
ensemble known as the pinpeat, which is made up of different gongs,
xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the
same chamber, there's an intricate scene featuring people riding horses
between two structures, which might be temples
Secret Paintings

Digitally enhanced images revealed hidden paintings on the walls of

Cambodia's Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the
world, built between A.D. 1113 and 1150. The paintings, once invisible to
the naked eye, show elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and
people riding horses, according to a new research article detailed online in
May 2014 in the journal Antiquity.
Angkor Wat-Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway
and the central tower surrounded by four smaller towers

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 IV

Layouts of the Mandirs (Temple ) of the Khmer Kings

Dr Uday Dokras

The Hindu Imprint

A spatial experience is a multi-sensorial and simultaneous experience that involves built
environments, people, context and purposes and is capable of enhancing emotional connection within
space. Experiencing space is a subtle act of the human body and mind. We use our eyes to visually
probe a space, making thousands of subconscious computations every second. Spatial experience is
not restricted to the interiors of buildings. The sensations one has in nature’s open spaces may be re-
created by art. Temples, Cathedrals, City squares and even gardens, achieve a variety of expression
comparable with that of interiors. The exterior of a single building, particularly one that is isolated
from other architecture, does not create a space. It occupies the space of nature

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What is a layout plan?
A site layout plan, sometimes called a block plan, shows a detailed layout of the whole site
and the relationship of the proposed works with the boundary of the property, nearby roads,
and neighbouring buildings.
What is layout example?
The definition of a layout is an arrangement, plan or design. An example of a layout is a
drawing of how a house will be built. (informal) An establishment or property, especially a
large residence or estate.
What is a layout in design?
What is the site of construction?
The construction site is an area or piece of land where construction work is taking place.
Sometimes construction sites are referred to as 'building sites'. This usually implies that
buildings or houses are being constructed, whereas 'construction site' covers oncepts-a wider
scope of work. The term 'building site' is often used interchangeably with construction site,
although this tends to indicate that buildings (and sometimes, more specifically, housing) are
being constructed, whereas the term 'construction site' can refer to all types of works, such as
road construction, sewer construction.

Location or site means the specific place or position of a proposed or existing sign.
What is the site area for planning?

Mahabalipuram and Angkor

Did you know that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of Cambodia was inspired by
Mahabalipuram sculptures? Some call these places Vaikuntha, an abode of the preserver of
the universe. When you look at the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient temples of
Mahabalipuram, you’ll find a number of similarities, sounds interesting right?

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South-East Asian Hindu temples

Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century),
examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled
after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

India-Cambodia cultural and historical relations are more than a millennium old when Indian
culture, religion and trade emanated out of India and spread rapidly in various parts of South-
East Asia. However, Cambodia witnessed Indian influence centuries before that whose living
example is the temples of Sambor Prei Kuk built by Ishanvarmana I and other kings of
Chenla empire during 6th and 7th Century AD in Ishanapura, the then capital of the Kingdom,
which is so far the oldest known example of existence of Indian culture and religion in
Cambodia. However, some scholars are of the opinion that the cultural and religious connect
between India and Cambodia date back to 1 st century. According to Cambodian belief, Khmer

109
people’s founding legend centers around an Indian prince Kaundinya called Preah Thaong in
Cambodian folklore. Cambodian society which is now predominantly Buddhist retains a
strong influence of Indian Hindu and Buddhist rituals, idolatry and mythology which can be
seen in many of its rituals having resemblance with Indian culture and traditions. Khmer
language too is a live example of Indian culture which has approximately more than 3000
words originated from ancient Indian Sanskrit language. Later the pervading influence of
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Indian architecture are borne out by the magnificent structures at
Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Bantey Srei, Preah Vihear and other religious
and historical sites in Cambodia.
Early Hinduism in SE Asia was largely focused on devotion to Lord Vishnu. Literally
hundreds of Vaishnav images have been in the Mekong Delta, in both Cambodia and
Vietnam, many dating from the 5th, 6th & 7thC CE.

Many of the earliest images of Mitred Vishnu's have been dug up around the early trading
sites of Oc Eo, Angkor Borei & Phnom Da where ships brought in goods from across the Bay
of Bengal to Suvarnabhumi, the Lands of Gold.
https://twitter.com/DalrympleWill/status/1484091464846299137

Then in the fifth century, a wave of Shaivite Pasupatas arrived in some numbers in SE Asia
from India, spearheading a new wave of popularity in Shaivism which up to then had been
much less prominent than devotion to Lord Vishnu. The Pasupatas were wandering ascetic
Brahmins who smeared their bodies with a “white radiance” of the dust from cremation
grounds. They bathed themselves in ashes three times a day and slept on a bed of ashes. The
Pasupatas turned their back on the conventions of society. Some pretended to be madmen,
making obscene gestures, singing, dancing and laughing. They lived between two worlds, and
through their austerities and visions believed they could cross over to the world beyond.

Orthodox Indian Brahmins, versed in the Vedas, fire sacrifices & the Dharmashastras had
been coming to the region for centuries, offering to enpower local kings with ritual
consecration & astrological predictions, as well as more terrestrial skills such as literacy &

110
numeracy. In 984 one Chinese source mentioned the existence of more than a thousand
Indian Brahmins at one Khmer court. Many were reported to have married Khmer princesses
in return for their services.
But the Pasupasatas offered more: Siddhis- secret spiritual knowledge- and yogic powers
ranging from concentration and "unshakable self control as a result of austerities" to magical
powers- ways to shrink or enlarge the body, to fly & to hear conversations held far away.
In order to obtain victory over his enemies, Jayavarman II for example was offered "a Siddhi
which no other had obtained," from a Brahmin named Hiranyadama "learned in the mantras."

For some 600 years, from the 8th to 13th centuries, the Khmer empire ruled much of
mainland Southeast Asia from its capital of Angkor in northern Cambodia. Here the Khmer
people erected major temples, and their rulers were considered god-kings, associated with
Shiva, Vishnu, or other Hindu deities. Jayavarman II is generally considered the founder of
the Khmer empire. Around 800 he established his royal court, where he stressed both his role
as a god-king and parallels between the temples he built and the gods’ abode of Mount Meru.
He regarded Shiva as his personal deity and established a cult of the royal linga.

The next few centuries saw Angkor become a great city with elaborate temples. Some kings,
like Suryavarman I, patronized both Hinduism and Buddhism, although the Khmer kings
remained predominantly Hindu. Great monuments like the Baphuon (11th century) and
Angkor Wat (12th century), with their supremely rhythmic and elegant relief sculptures on
themes from the Hindu epics as well as scenes from daily and ceremonial life including
military processions and dance, mark a high point in Cambodian art.

The level of detail Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close
quarters, its fascinating decorative flourishes. Stretching around the outside of the central
temple complex is an 800mlong series of intricate and astonishing bas-reliefs – carvings
depicting historical events and stories from Hindu mythology.
Shaivite Cambodia
Like with all things medieval, it turns out that the truth is far stranger than modern notions. It
is certainly beyond dispute that for many centuries — starting from around the 8th century
CE all the way up to the 15th — the religious culture of Cambodia was predominantly
Shaivite. But the process by which it became Shaivite is astonishing: Contrary to what we
may think, it involves active conversion by Hindu preachers, market forces emerging from

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Cambodian courts, Indians emigrating in search of greener pastures, and a considerable
degree of intelligence and selectivity in how Cambodia interacted with ‘Indian’ ideas.

The sect known as the Pashupatas and its missionaries in India

and abroad

Roughly around the second century CE, legend holds that the corpse of a young man in
Karohana (present-day Karvan), Gujarat, was reanimated. This man, Lakulisha, then went
about preaching a Shaiva doctrine revolving around asceticism and meditative practice to
inculcate magical powers. And thus, the sect known as the Pashupatas was born. It would
grow to become one of the most influential and widespread sects of all early medieval
schools of Shaivism.
From the outset, Pashupatas distinguished themselves from other Shaivite sects by their
missionary zeal. Lakulisha himself travelled to distant Mathura and initiated four Brahmin
disciples into his esoteric tradition, positioning each of them in a different city to convert
many more. Pashupatas spread rapidly through the relatively urban Gangetic Plains; within
barely a few generations (fourth century CE), they were being mentioned in the inscriptions
of the Gupta emperors, and were spreading down the coast towards the Krishna-Godavari
delta. By the seventh century, they had established themselves near the now-famous
Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal. Chinese travellers claim that by this time,
Varanasi alone had nearly 10,000 of these ash-covered ascetics, and here, they composed
much of the great text known as the Skanda Purana. Around this time, they also began
seeking a foothold in new, rapidly-urbanising regions that were developing complex state
structures, the elites of which required ritual services and were willing to pay dearly for them.
We thus begin to see them in the inland Deccan and in Southeast Asia.

Lakulisha at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th century CE). His
5th–10th century ithyphallic statuesare also found in seated yogi position in Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh in india and elsewhere

A Deccan inscription from 660 CE offers some insight into this process. In return for ritually
initiating the Chalukya king Vikramaditya I into Shaivism, the Pashupata guru Sudarshana
was granted the village of Iparumkal. Sudharshana then distributed plots in the village to 27

112
Shaivite Brahmins; over the generations, through close ties with the Chalukyas, this region,
present-day Alampur, Telangana, grew into a major Shaiva stronghold.

Religious Reform in Cambodia

It is in this context that we now turn to Cambodia. Around this time, Cambodia, like the
Deccan, was home to several warring principalities. The general region — including sites in
Laos — already had some centres of Shiva worship, particularly centred around mountains
and natural stone columns believed to be self-manifestations (svayambhu) of the Shiva linga.
In Cambodia, stones were already believed to be the dwellings of ancestral spirits associated
with the land; it seems to have been a natural transition to see stone Shiva linga as
representing a primordial, ancestral deity of the land as well. Pashupatas may have arrived on
these shores as early as the fifth century, with the earliest epigraphic evidence dating to the
seventh century.

The Cambodian embrace of Pashupata missionaries was also tied also to their beliefs about
rulership. David Chandler in his History of Cambodia says that those who could lead men
and win battles were also believed to be spiritually gifted, and vice versa. This idea that
worked well with Pashupata concepts of gaining magical power through Shaivite ritual.
Cambodian chiefs, seeking to attract and use Pashupata ritual knowledge, rapidly
commissioned dozens of Shaivite temples along the length of the Mekong River and in
various urban, political, and pre-existing sacred centres. Many of these were named after
existing Pashupata Shiva centres in India (Siddheshvara, Amratakeshvara, Amareshvara),
writes Shaivism scholar Alexis Sanderson in The Saiva Religion Among the Khmers. The
objective behind these constructions was not an ‘imitation’ of India, but to make Shiva a
Cambodian god and Cambodia a Shaivite land, as was being done by temple-building royals
in South India at the same time.

Market forces and Shaivite ritual

Through the sixth to the ninth centuries CE, as Cambodian princes and Pashupata initiates
were making their land increasingly Shaivite, Indian Shaivism underwent a major transition
with the growth of mantramarga, Shaiva Siddhanta, or tantric Shaivism. Mantramarga texts
were somewhat simpler than the esoteric doctrines of the Pashupatas, providing agamas —
scriptures and frameworks of practice — that could be developed by practitioners for use in
temples, personal worship, and public rituals.

The arrival of mantramarga texts in Cambodia was revolutionary. In 802 CE, when the
young king Jayavarman set out to establish the empire of Angkor, he conducted a ritual with
a Brahmin priest, Hiranyadama. The priest developed a paddhati, a detailed ritual manual that
was the basis of the Devaraja cult, practically the State religion of the Angkor Empire for
centuries after. The Devaraja cult closely associated the king with Shiva, and worshipped him
as the king of the gods. It led to the establishment of dozens of temples and monastic
establishments, all of which drew on paddhatis composed by mantramarga experts.
So, what can we really say about medieval Cambodia’s relationship with India? If
These texts reveal something fascinating about medieval
Shaivism. Mantramarga practitioners were technically supposed to base
their paddhatis on agamas of their own school and lineage. In practice, due to the need to
fulfil the ritual demands of their royal customers, they very often melded together multiple
lineages in their paddhatis. The Cambodian market for Shaivite experts was such that many
Indians are known to have travelled there in search of employment, especially Brahmins.
Some of them even claimed to have come to worship the national god, Shiva Bhadreshvara.

113
(Oddly, we have little evidence that Southeast Asians ever visited Hindu sacred sites in India,
but plenty of evidence of the converse).
Anirudh Kanisetti is a public historian. https://theprint.in/opinion/indias-hindu-preachers-how-
shaiva-monks-converted-cambodia/1097764/

Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE
from the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta. They were probably dedicated to a sun
god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one
with a small stepped pond.
The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the
mainland Southeast Asia is the Võ Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century
CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century
local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often
mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-
East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.
Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on
Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the
Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple
in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as
if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple
building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their
own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more
conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of
Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the
Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with
the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of
gods Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the
Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the
Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).

Layouts of the Mandirs (Temple ) of the Khmer Kings

Simple example of the Ta Prohm Temple (c. 1186) A mightly temple that archaeologists
have allowed nature to recover. It was built during the reign of Jayavarman VII, a great king
who reconquered the Khmer empire from Cham invaders in the years 1177-1181. Needless to
say, the war caused great damage to the ancient capital of Angkor. The ambitious king set
about making it into a proper seat of power by ordering the reconstruction of a number of
temples.
Ta Prohm was the centerpiece of his master plan, located roughly in the center of the capital.
Though the temple covers barely 2.5 acres, its walls and moat encompass 148 acres, which
would have sheltered a town attached to the temple. According to a stele found here on site,
12,640 people lived at the temple, supported by a population of 79,365 who worked in nearby
villages to provide food and supplies. In its own era, the temple was known as Rajavihara, the
'Royal Monastery'.
Ta Prohm housed the deity Prajnaparamita, the 'perfection of wisdom.' It was consecrated in
1186. Like many Khmer kings, Jayavarman had it carved in the likeness of his mother.The

114
Prajnaparamita statue was surrounded by 260 lesser divinities, housed in their own
sanctuaries.
Interestingly, the temple was also the headquarters of a vast hospital network created by the
king. From Ta Prohm, supplies filtered out to 102 hospitals located throughout the empire.
The Khmer kings seem to have taken the Buddha's call to mercy into their own hands.

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 Bantey Srei

The Ambitious construction project of the temple of

Tribhuvanamahesvara.
Banteay Srei or Banteay Srey is a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to
the Hindu god Shiva. Also known as the "Citadel of Women", it was discovered by the French
Geographical Service in 1914, in the forest near Mt Kulen about 25 km north of Angkor

116
proper. It was built by Yajnavaraha a counsellor (guru) of King Rajendravarman 11.
Rajendravarman 11 ruled from 944-968 CE. He moved the capital back to the Angkor region
and restored Khmer power across the region by successfully raiding neighbouring regions in
Vietnam and Thailand. The temple was associated with small town of Isavarapura. It was
cleared in 1924 by Parmentier and published by Goloube in 1925. It is notable because it was
fully restored using anastylosis from 1931-36 by Marchal. It was the first temple at Angkor to
receive this treatment. The central foundation stele, discovered in 1936, allows the temple to
be dated. The inscription gives a date of April-May 967, the last year of Rajendravarman 11's
reign. The mention of a linga of Shiva in the central sanctuary gives us its official name:
Great Lord of the Three-fold World, Tribhuvanamahesvara.

This famous Khmer temple of Yajñavarāha, a Brāhmaṇa priest, who served during the reigns
of Khmer kings Rajendravarman and Jayavarman V. According to stele inscription of
Banteay Srei, work on its construction began in 967 CE and Yajñavarāha's brother,
Viṣṇukumāra, is also mentioned as a co-patron. Banteay Srei was the only major temple at
Angkor not built for the king. This temple lies near the hill of Phnom Dei located twenty-five
km to the northeast of the main group of temples, where Yaśodharapura, the Khmer capital of
that time, was located. It consists of three shrines, laid out in a row from north to south: the
north shrine (dedicated to Viṣṇu), and the central and south shrines (both dedicated to Śiva).
The original name of this temple was Śrī Tribhuvanamaheśvara (Great Lord of the Threefold
World), an appellation of Lord Śiva. The temple's modern name, Banteay Srei‒ citadel of
women or citadel of beauty‒ is most probably related to the intricate the bas-relief carvings
that can be found on the walls as well as the tiny dimensions of the structures themselves
(Freeman and Jacques, 1999: 206). The other explanation is that the temple has got its name
from the fact that it has many devatās (female deities of fertility) carved into the walls of the
structures (Jessup, 2004: 101). A typical devatā, embellishing each of the corners of the
various shrines, is shown as standing with a lamp hung over her head and swans adorning the
base. These devatās, with naked torsos and playing with flowers, are known for being the
most voluptuous of the Angkor devatās.1
Located in the area of Angkor, it lies near the hill of Phnom Dei, 25 km (16 mi) north-east of
the main group of temples that once belonged to the medieval capitals of Yasodharpura that
was association with Nālandā University
___________________________________________________________________________
__11.Banteay Srei, the Cambodian Citadel of Women: A Look at the Scenes from the
Ancient Indian Epics and the Purāṇas, Karam Tej Sarao at the Conference: International
Seminar on Civilizational Dialogue between India and ASEAN, organized by the Ministry of
External Affairs and Indian Council of Cultural Relations in and Angkor Thom.

Banteay Srei is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the elaborate
decorative wall carvings which are still observable today. The buildings themselves are
miniature in scale, unusually so when measured by the standards of Angkorian construction.
These factors have made the temple extremely popular with tourists, and have led to its being
widely praised as a "precious gem", or the "jewel of Khmer art."

117
The site of this Temple consists of three concentric
rectangular enclosures constructed on an east–west axis. A causeway situated on the axis
leads from an outer gopura, or gate, to the third or outermost of the three enclosures. The
inner enclosure contains the sanctuary, consisting of an entrance chamber and three towers,
as well as two buildings conventionally referred to as libraries.
The outer gopura
The gopura is all that remains of the outer wall surrounding the town of Isvapura. The wall is
believed to have measured approximately 500 m square, and may have been constructed of
wood. The gopura's eastern pediment shows Indra, who was associated with that direction,
mounted on his three-headed elephant Airavata. The 67 m causeway with the remains of
corridors on either side connects the gopura with the third enclosure. North and south of this
causeway are galleries with a north–south orientation.
The third (outer) enclosure
The third enclosure is 95 by 110 m; it is surrounded by a laterite wall breached by gopuras at
the eastern and western ends.[21] Neither pediment of the eastern gopura is in situ. The west-
facing pediment is now located in the Musée Guimet in Paris. It depicts a scene from
the Mahabhārata in which the Asura brothers Sunda and Upasunda fight over
the Apsara Tilottama. The east-facing pediment is lying on the ground. It depicts a scene
from the Rāmāyaṇa in which a demon seizes Rama's wife Sita. Most of the area within the
third enclosure is occupied by a moat divided into two parts by causeways to the east and
west.
The second enclosure
The second enclosure sits between an outer laterite wall measuring 38 by 42 m, with gopuras
at the eastern and western ends, and a brick inner enclosure wall, measuring 24 by 24 m.
[21]
The western gopura features an interesting bas relief depicting the duel of the monkey
princes Vāli and Sugriva, as well as Rāma's intervention on Sugrīva's behalf. The inner
enclosure wall has collapsed, leaving a gopura at the eastern end and a brick shrine at the
western. The eastern pediment of the gopura shows Śiva Nataraja; the west-facing pediment

118
has an image of Karaikal Ammaiyar, one of the three women saints amongst the sixty
three Nayanmars (hounds of Śiva). Likewise, the laterite galleries which once filled the
second enclosure (one each to north and south, two each to east and west) have partially
collapsed. A pediment on one of the galleries shows the lion-man Narasiṃha clawing the
demon Hiranyakashipu.
The first (inner) enclosure
Between the gopuras on the collapsed inner wall are the buildings of the inner enclosure: a library in
the south-east corner and another in the north-east corner, and in the centre the sanctuary set on a T-
shaped platform 0.9 m high. Besides being the most extravagantly decorated parts of the temple, these
have also been the most successfully restored (helped by the durability of their sandstone and their
small scale). In 2010, the first enclosure is open to visitors again, but the inner temples are roped off
and inaccessible.
The libraries

The two libraries are of brick, laterite and sandstone. Each library has two pediments, one on the
eastern side and one on the western. According to Maurice Glaize, the four library pediments,
"representing the first appearance of tympanums with scenes, are works of the highest order. Superior
in composition to any which followed, they show true craftsmanship in their modelling in a skilful
blend of stylisation and realism."
The east-facing pediment on the southern library shows Śiva seated on the summit of Mount Kailāsa,
his mythological abode. His consort Umā sits on his lap and clings anxiously to his torso. Other
beings are also present on the slopes of the mountain, arranged in a strict hierarchy of three tiers from
top to bottom. In the top tier sit bearded wise men and ascetics, in the middle tier mythological figures
with the heads of animals and the bodies of humans, and in the bottom tier large animals, including a
number of lions. In the middle of the scene stands the ten-headed demon king Rāvaṇa. He is shaking
the mountain in its very foundations as the animals flee from his presence and as the wise men and
mythological beings discuss the situation or pray. According to the legend, Śiva stopped Rāvaṇa from
shaking the mountain by using his toe to press down on the mountain and to trap Rāvana underneath
for 1000 years.
The west-facing pediment on southern library shows Śiva again seated on the summit of Mount
Kailāsa. He is looking to his left at the god of love Kāma, who is aiming an arrow at him. Umā sits to
Śiva's right; he is handing her a chain of beads. The slopes of the mountain are crowded with other
beings, again arranged in a strict hierarchy from top to bottom. Just under Śiva sits a group of bearded
wise men and ascetics, under whom the second tier is occupied by the mythological beings with the
heads of animals and the bodies of humans; the lowest tier belongs the common people, who mingle
sociably with tame deer and a large gentle bull. According to the legend, Kāma fired an arrow at Śiva
in order to cause Śiva to take an interest in Umā. Śiva, however, was greatly angered by this
provocation, and punished Kāma by gazing upon him with his third eye, frying Kāma to cinders.
The east-facing pediment on the northern library shows the god of the sky Indra creating rain to put
out a forest fire started by the god of fire Agni for purposes of killing the nāga king Takshaka who
lived in Khandava Forest. Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna are shown helping Agni by firing a dense hail of arrows
to block Indra's rain. Takṣaka's son Aśvasena is depicted attempting to escape from the conflagration,
while other animals stampede about in panic.
The sanctuary

The sanctuary is entered from the east by a doorway only 1.08 m in height: inside is an entrance
chamber (or maṇḍapa) with a corbelled brick roof, then a short corridor leading to three towers to the
west: the central tower is the tallest, at 9.8 m. Glaize notes the impression of delicacy given the towers
by the antefixes on each of their tiers. The six stairways leading up to the platform were each

119
guarded by two kneeling statues of human figures with animal heads; most of those now in
place are replicas, the originals having been stolen or removed to museums.

120
121
122
123
 VI
Banteay Samre Temple (built early-mid 12th
century)

Banteay Samre is a compact and beautifully proportioned temple laid out during the reigns of
Suryavarman II and Yasovarman II. It was probably built by a high-ranking official, not by
the king, which was unusual but not unheard of (Prasat Kravan, also at Angkor, was another
privately built temple). The temple stands about 500 meters east of the southeast corner of the
(now dry) eastern baray. Its relative isolation prevents it from receiving as many tourists as
the larger temples to the west, although the quality of the bas-reliefs and stonework is among
the best at Angkor. In fact, the temple was originally believed to have been erected in the
15th century as the quality of its design suggested that was built at the apex of Khmer artistry
and technological know-how.
The layout of Banteay Samre is similar in many respects to other temples built in the reign of
Suryavarman II, including Chau Say Tevoda, Thommanon, and Angkor Wat. Similar features
include the distinctive shape of the central sanctuary's tower, along with the mandapa
(antechamber) connected to the central shrine via an antarala (small corridor). The layout
and positioning of the 'libraries' is also a common feature, as is the series of galleries

124
encircling the temple's core pavilions. One curious omission at Banteay Samre is the lack of
apsara bas-reliefs, which were used extensively in the other major temples of Suryavarman's
era.
Plan View

Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.

125
The façade or front part or exterior It is a loan word from the French façade (pronounced
[fasad]), which means 'frontage' or 'face'. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the
most important aspect from a design standpoint, as it sets the tone for the rest of the building.

126
Outer Wall or boundary is a line that divides
one area from another, called a border and
defines the extent of one or more areas that
are adjacent or in close proximity.

127
128
 Garbagr
iha with Shivalinga

perimeter design?

Perimeter design is required for

any ceiling type and concerns the
point where the ceiling meets a
wall or partition (aka where the
edges meet). This design also
considers how the perimeter
connection will perform when
subjected to lateral loads due to
seismic movement.

129
Chidambaran Nataraja Temple

Iconography of Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu is governed by the Shaiva

Agamas (IAST:Āgama) that revere the ultimate reality as the Hindu
deity, Shiva. Āgama (Sanskrit: आगम, Tamil:ஆகமம்) in the Hindu religious context means
a traditional doctrine or system which commands faith. [1] Temple worship according to
Āgamic rules can be said to have started during the Pallava dynasty (551-901 A.D.) in South
India, but they were fully under establishment during the Chola dynasty (848-1279 A.D.)
[2]
The temples during the Chola period expanded to Sri Lanka and islands in South East Asia.
The temple complex was expanding with niches for various deities on the stipulated sides of
the sanctum. Lingam was universalised and prakarams (precincts) with subsequent deities
came up. The temple parivara(deities related to primary deity) expanded considerably during
the Chola period. The niches of following Āgamic rules for building Shiva temples in Tamil
Nadu, a South Indian state continues even in the modern era. Some of the prime images like
that of lingam, Vinayagar and Parvati are present in all the Shiva temples. Almost all the
temples follow the same custom during festivals and worship methods with minor exceptions.
Most of the Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka (like Munneswaram
temple, Koneswaram temple, Tennavaram temple, Ketheeswaram temple, Naguleswaram)
are built in Dravidian architecture.

SYMBOLISM Behind the Structures

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The temple structure resembles the human body with all its subtleties. The five walls
encircling one another are the koshas (sheaths) of human existence.[5] The outermost is
the Annamaya kosha, symbolizing the material body.[5] The second is Pranamaya kosha,
symbolizing the sheath of vital force or prana (breath).[5] The third is Manomaya kosha,
symbolizing the sheath of the thoughts, the mana.[5] The fourth is the Vijnanamaya kosha,
symbolizing, the sheath of the intellect. [5] The fifth and innermost is the Anandamaya kosha,
symbolizing the sheath of bliss.[5]
Dravidian Shiva temples invariably follow the structure, arranged in differing manners, but
differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were constructed:.: [6]
 The principal part of the temple is called the Vimanam which is the roof of the sanctum
sanctorum.
 The porches or Mantapams (halls), which always cover and precede the door leading to
the sanctum.
 Gate-pyramids, Gopurams is the principal feature of the temple seen from outside.
 Pillared halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for festivals and daily gatherings.
A temple always contains temple tanks or wells for water called theertham used for sacred
purposes of ablution.
These terminologies are not specific to Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu, but common across
all temples built in Tamil architecture including most Khmer Hindu temples.
Moola Sannidhi or Garbhagriha
Garbhagriha or garbha gṛha (Devanagari: गर्भगॄह) is a Sanskrit word meaning the
interior of the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides
the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. Literally the word means "womb
chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house.
Only pujari (priests) are allowed to enter the sanctum.[7][8]
Vimanam

Stoney vimana of Bantey Srei

Vimana (Tamil:விமானம்) is a term for the tower above the garbhagriha or Sanctum
sanctorum in a Hindu temple. [9][10] The towering roof of the other deities is also called
the vimanam. These do not assume as much significance as the outer gopurams (gateway
towers), with the exception of a few temples where the vimanams are as famous as the temple
complex - Kanka sabai (Golden stage) at Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram covered
with golden plates and the Ananda Nilayam vimanam of the Tirumala Venkateswara
Temple are examples.

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Prakaram[

Ramanathaswamy Temple prakaram

A Prakaram, Sanskrit:प्राकारम ), also spelled Pragaram or Pragaaram) in Indian
architecture is an outer parth around the Hindu temple sanctum. These may be enclosed or
open and are typically enclosed for the inner most prakaram. Typically a Hindu Temple
prayer hall is built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) in the
first prakaram.

Gopuram
A Gopuram or Gopura, is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any
temple, especially in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu
temples of the Dravidian architecture. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone or
metal finial. The gopurams function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple
complex.
The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava dynasty. By the
twelfth century under the Pandya rulers these gateways became a dominant feature of a
temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary obscured from view
by the gopuram's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of
ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. The gopuram raises from a square
or rectangular granite or brick base to a pyramidal structure with multiple storeys. A temple
may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the
main shrine. Rajagopuram indicates the prime one of all the gopurams within the temple. It is
typically the most commonly used gateway and the tallest of all.

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Lingam

Image of Prasat and the Bayon Linga of Khmer temples

Decorated form of Shiva Lingam

The Lingam (also, Linga, Ling, Shiva linga, Shiv ling, Sanskrit लिङ्गं liṅgaṃ,
meaning "mark" or "sign") is a representation of the Hindu deity Shiva used for worship in
Hindu temple. The lingam is the principal deity in most Shiva temples in South India. The
lingam is often represented with the Yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female
creative energy. The union of lingam and yoni represents the "indivisible two-in-oneness of
male and female, the passive space and active time from which all life originates". A
complementary theory suggests that the Lingam represents the beginning and
ending Stambha pillar symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva. The propagation
of linga worship on a large scale in South India is believed to be from Chola times (late 7th
century A.D.), through Rig veda, the oldest literature details about worshipping Shiva in the
form of linga.[21] Pallavas propagated Somaskanda as the principal form of worship, slightly
deviating from the Shaiva agamas; Cholas being strict shaivas, established lingams in all the
temples. The relation between Shiva and the lingam extends to the Indus Valley civilization,
where several remains, such as the round stone caps at Harappa and the well-known seal of

133
polycelphalic yogi (saint), have led scholars to attribute the primordial native origin.
[23]
Svayambu lingam indicates a lingam that comes into existence on its own accord and not
erected by human beings. Some of the temples are built around the lingam, with its position
maintained as the sanctum.

The temple structures is divided into five lingams with the main one at the sanctum supplying
power to the rest. The others are dhvaja lingam or flag lingam (signifying flag pole), bhadra
lingam or prosperous lingam (signifying the balipeetha), stupa
lingam (signifying vimana tower) that raises over sanctum and the sacrificer or officiating
priest
Parvati

Parvati riding behind Shiva in Angkor Shrine within a Shiva temple

Parvati (Sanskrit: पार्वती, IAST: Pārvatī) is a Hindu goddess. Shaiva tradition is replete
with a number of form of goddesses and all of the consorts, Parvati is the most celebrated and
artistic.[26] Parvati is nominally the second consort of Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction and
rejuvenation. However, she is not different from Satī, being the reincarnation of Shiva's wife.
Parvati is the mother of the gods and goddess, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya). Some
communities believe her to be the sister of Vishnu. Parvati, when depicted alongside Shiva,
generally appears with two arms, but when alone, she is shown having four or eight arms, and
astride a tiger or lion. Generally considered a benevolent goddess, Parvati also has wrathful
incarnations, such as Durga, Kali, Shitala Devi, Tara, Chandi, and the Mahavidyas as well as
benevolent forms like Kathyayini, Mahagauri, Kamalatmika, Bhuvaneshwari, and Lalita.

134
Ganesha

The shrine of Ganesa inside a temple in Angkor Thom

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश; IAST: Gaṇeśa; listen (help·info)), also
spelled Ganesa or Ganesh, also known as Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति, IAST: gaṇapati),
Vinayaka (Sanskrit: विनायक; IAST: Vināyaka), and Pillaiyar (Tamil: பிள்ளையார்), is one
of the deities best-known and most widely worshipped in the Hindu pantheon. [28] Ganesa is
the first son of Shiva and is given the primary importance in all Shiva temples with all
worship starting from him. Local legend states the Tamil word Pillayar splits
into Pillai and yaar meaning who is this son, but scholars believe it is derived from the
Sanskrit word pulisara meaning elephant.[29] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1963:57-58) thinks that
Pallavas adopted the Ganesa motif from Chalukyas.[30] During the 7th century, Vatapi
Ganapati idol was brought from Badami (Vatapi - Chalukya capital) by Paranjothi, the
general of Pallavas who defeated Chalukyas

135
Skanda-Murugan (Sanskrit:सुब्रह्मण्य, Sanskrit: कार्तिकेय)-also
called Kartikeya, Skanda and Subrahmanya, is more poplar in South India
especially among Tamil people famously referred as Thamizh
Kadavul (God of Tamils). He is the patron deity of the Tamil land (Tamil
Nadu). Like most Hindu deities, he is known by many other names,
including Senthil (Smart), Saravaṇa, Kārtikeya (meaning 'son
of Krittika' ), Arumugam, Sanmuga(from Sanskrit Ṣaṇmukha), Shadanana
(meaning 'one with six faces'), Kumāra (meaning 'child or
son'), Guhan or Guruhuha (meaning 'cave-dweller'), Skanda (meaning
'that which is spilled or oozed, namely seed' in Sanskrit),
[33]
Subrahmaṇya, Vēlaṇ and Swaminatha. Tolkappiyam, possibly the
most ancient of the extant Sangam works, dated between the 3rd
century BCE and 5th century CE glorified Murugan, " the red god seated
on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," and " the
favoured god of the Tamils.". The Sangam poetry divided space and Tamil
land into five allegorical areas and according to
the Tirumurugarruppatai (circa 400-450 A.D.) attributed to the great
Sangam poet Nakkiirar, Murugan was the presiding deity of the Kurinci
region (hilly area). Tirumurugaruppatai is a deeply devotional poem
included in the ten idylls (Pattupattu) of the age of the third Sangam.
The cult of Skanda disappeared during the 6th century and was
predominantly expanded during late 7th century Pallava period -
Somaskanda sculptured panels of the Pallava period stand as a testament.

Shiva is worshipped in 9 forms

namely Linga, Lingodbhava, Chandrashekhara, Somaskandha, Bhair
ava, Veerabhadra, Nataraaja, and Dakshinamoorthy
Lingothbhava or emergence of linga, found in various puranas as a symbol of Shiva,
augments the synthesis of the old cults of pillar and phallic worship. The idea emerged from
deity residing in a pillar and later visualised as Shiva emerging from
the lingam.The lingothbhavar image can be found in the first precinct around the sanctum in
the wall exactly behind the image of Shiva. Appar, one of the early Saivite saint of the 7th
century, gives evidence of this knowledge of puranic episodes relating
to Lingothbhavar form of Shiva while Tirugnana Sambandar refers this form of Shiva as the
nature of light that could not be comprehended by Brahma and Vishnu.

136
Nataraja Above pics in Thailand Lintel on Prasat Sikhoraphum, Thailand More
description from Art and Archeology Style: Angkor Wat, Suryavarman II
Completed: 1113-1150 CE In the center, a ten-a…right pic in Angkor

Nataraja or Nataraj, The Lord (or King) of Dance (Kooththan)) is a depiction of

the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer Koothan who performs his divine dance to destroy
a weary universe and make preparations for god Brahma to start the process of creation. A
Tamil concept, Shiva was first depicted as Nataraja in the famous Chola bronzes and
sculptures of Chidambaram. The dance of Shiva in Tillai, the traditional name
for Chidambaram, forms the motif for all the depictions of Shiva as Nataraja. He is also
known as "Sabesan" which splits as Sabayil aadum eesan in Tamil which means "The Lord
who dances on the dais". The form is present in most Shiva temples in South India, and is the
main deity in the famous temple at Chidambaram. The sculpture is usually made in bronze,
with Shiva dancing in an aureole of flames, lifting his left leg (or in rare cases, the right leg)
and balancing over a demon or dwarf (Apasmara) who symbolizes ignorance.

137
Dakshinamurthy or Jnana Dakshinamurti-: दक्षिणामूर्ति is an aspect of
Shiva as a guru (teacher) of all fields. This aspect of Shiva is his
personification of the ultimate awareness, understanding and
knowledge. The image depicts Shiva as a teacher of yoga, music, and
wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras (vedic texts) to his
disciples. He is worshipped as the god of wisdom, complete and rewarding
meditation. This form of Shiva is popular in the Southern states of India
especially Tamil Nadu. Dakshina indicates south and this deity is south
facing usually depicted in the wall of first precinct around the sanctum.

Navagraha
Read my excellent 9 Graha Puja performed at Bantey Sarai
article

https://www.academia.edu/69010081/9_Graha_Puja_performed_at_Bantey_SaraiGraha (fro
m
Sanskrit gráha—seizing, laying hold of, holding) is a 'cosmic influencer' on the living beings
of mother Bhumidevi (Earth). In Hindu astrology, the Navagraha nine seizers or nine
influencers are some of these major influencers. All the navagraha have relative movement
with respect to the background of fixed stars in the zodiac. This includes the
planets: Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, the Sun, the Moon, as well as positions in
the sky, Rahu (north or ascending lunar node) and Ketu (south or descending lunar node).
As per Hindu customs, the Navagraha are typically placed in a single square with the Sun
(Surya) in the center and the other deities surrounding Surya; no two of them are made to
face each other. In South India, their images are generally found in all
important Shiva temples. They are invariably placed in a separate hall, on a pedestal of about
three feet in height, usually to the north-east of the sanctum sanctorum.

There are 2 kinds of installation of the planets when arranged in this fashion, known
as Agama Pradishta and Vaidika Pradishta. In Agama Pradishta, Surya occupies the central
place, Chandra on Surya's east, Budha on his south, Brihaspati on his west, Shukra on his
north, Mangala on his south-east, Shani on his south-west, Rahu on north-west and Ketu in
the north-east. Temples such as Suryanar temple, Tiruvidadaimarudur, Tiruvaiyaru and
Tirucchirappalli follow this system. In Vaidika Pradishta, Surya is still in the centre, but
Shukra is in the east, Mangala in the south, Shani in the west, Brihaspati in the north,
Chandra in the south-east, Rahu in the south-west, Ketu in the north-west and Budha in the
north-east.

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Durga

Metropolitan Museum of Art-The Goddess Durga Victorious over the Buffalo Demon, Mahisha
(Mahishasuramardini) | Indonesia (Java) | Central Javanese period | The Metropolitan Museum of Art/
Prambanan Temple Durga

Durga (Sanskrit: दुर्गा); (listen: Durga (help·info));

meaning "the inaccessible" or "the
invincible"; "one who can redeem in situations of utmost distress"is a form of Devi, the
supremely radiant goddess, depicted as having eighteen arms, riding a lion or a tiger,
carrying weapons and a lotus flower, maintaining a meditative smile, and practicing mudras,
or symbolic hand gestures. The name is made of Sanskrit dur- = "with difficulty" (compare
Greek δυσ- (dys-)) and gā ("come", "go"). The buffalo sacrifice depiction transposes into
ritual Durga's feat killing the buffalo demon. The deity is north facing usually depicted in the
wall of first precinct around the sanctum. In Tamil Nadu Shiva temples, she stands gracefully
on the severed head of buffalo and lion is rarely included.

Sapthamatha are a group of seven Hindu goddesses who are always depicted together. Since
they are usually depicted as a heptad, or
Saptamatrikas (Sanskrit: saptamātṝkās, सप्तमातृका, "seven mothers"): Brahmani,
Vaishnavi, Maheshvari, Indrani, Kaumari, Varahi and Chamunda or Narasimhi. In Tamil
Nadu temples, the sapthamtha is rarely represented in the dancing form compared to their
northern counterparts.

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This Sapthamathas might be in a separate Temple. Sapthamathas are in a single panel.
Vinayagar and Verabhathirar are individual sculptures. This Sapthamathas is now called as
Porayatha. Annual festival is being celebrated by the Villagers during Tamil Aadi month. As
per the Experts this sapthamathas panel may belongs to Pallava Period 9-10th Century.

Nandi

Each main deity of the Shiva temple has a vehicle associated with them - Shiva
has Nandi(sacred bull), Parvati has lion, Muruga has peacock and Vinayagar has mice. Nandi
or Nandin (Tamil: நந்தி Sanskrit: नंदी), is now universally supposed to be the name for
the bull which serves as the mount (Sanskrit: vāhana) of Shiva and as the gate keeper of
Shiva and Parvati in Hindu mythology. Temples venerating Shiva and Parvati display stone
images of a seated Nandi, generally facing the main shrine. There are also a number of
temples dedicated solely to Nandi.
But the application of the name Nandin to the bull (Sanskrit: vṛṣabha) is in fact a
development of recent centuries, as Gouriswar Bhattacharya has documented in an illustrated
article entitled "Nandin and Vṛṣabha"

Bas relief of Shiva Uma on Nandi the bull in red sandstone at Banteay Srei
Angkor Wat Siem Reap Cambodia-RIGHT PIC at Angkor Wat

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 VI
The Hindu Imprint

Did you know that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of Cambodia was inspired by
Mahabalipuram sculptures? Some call these places Vaikuntha, an abode of the preserver of
the universe. When you look at the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient temples of
Mahabalipuram, you’ll find a number of similarities, sounds interesting right?

South-East Asian Hindu temples

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Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century),
examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled
after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

India-Cambodia cultural and historical relations are more than a millennium old when Indian
culture, religion and trade emanated out of India and spread rapidly in various parts of South-
East Asia. However, Cambodia witnessed Indian influence centuries before that whose living
example is the temples of Sambor Prei Kuk built by Ishanvarmana I and other kings of
Chenla empire during 6th and 7th Century AD in Ishanapura, the then capital of the Kingdom,
which is so far the oldest known example of existence of Indian culture and religion in
Cambodia. However, some scholars are of the opinion that the cultural and religious connect
between India and Cambodia date back to 1 st century. According to Cambodian belief, Khmer
people’s founding legend centers around an Indian prince Kaundinya called Preah Thaong in
Cambodian folklore. Cambodian society which is now predominantly Buddhist retains a
strong influence of Indian Hindu and Buddhist rituals, idolatry and mythology which can be
seen in many of its rituals having resemblance with Indian culture and traditions. Khmer
language too is a live example of Indian culture which has approximately more than 3000
words originated from ancient Indian Sanskrit language. Later the pervading influence of
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Indian architecture are borne out by the magnificent structures at
Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Bantey Srei, Preah Vihear and other religious
and historical sites in Cambodia.
Early Hinduism in SE Asia was largely focused on devotion to Lord Vishnu. Literally
hundreds of Vaishnav images have been in the Mekong Delta, in both Cambodia and
Vietnam, many dating from the 5th, 6th & 7thC CE.

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Many of the earliest images of Mitred Vishnu's have been dug up around the early trading
sites of Oc Eo, Angkor Borei & Phnom Da where ships brought in goods from across the Bay
of Bengal to Suvarnabhumi, the Lands of Gold.
https://twitter.com/DalrympleWill/status/1484091464846299137

Then in the fifth century, a wave of Shaivite Pasupatas arrived in some numbers in SE Asia
from India, spearheading a new wave of popularity in Shaivism which up to then had been
much less prominent than devotion to Lord Vishnu. The Pasupatas were wandering ascetic
Brahmins who smeared their bodies with a “white radiance” of the dust from cremation
grounds. They bathed themselves in ashes three times a day and slept on a bed of ashes. The
Pasupatas turned their back on the conventions of society. Some pretended to be madmen,
making obscene gestures, singing, dancing and laughing. They lived between two worlds, and
through their austerities and visions believed they could cross over to the world beyond.

Orthodox Indian Brahmins, versed in the Vedas, fire sacrifices & the Dharmashastras had
been coming to the region for centuries, offering to enpower local kings with ritual
consecration & astrological predictions, as well as more terrestrial skills such as literacy &
numeracy. In 984 one Chinese source mentioned the existence of more than a thousand
Indian Brahmins at one Khmer court. Many were reported to have married Khmer princesses
in return for their services.
But the Pasupasatas offered more: Siddhis- secret spiritual knowledge- and yogic powers
ranging from concentration and "unshakable self control as a result of austerities" to magical
powers- ways to shrink or enlarge the body, to fly & to hear conversations held far away.

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In order to obtain victory over his enemies, Jayavarman II for example was offered "a Siddhi
which no other had obtained," from a Brahmin named Hiranyadama "learned in the mantras."

They preached a particularly intensed evotion to Lord Shiva as the Supreme Yogi, the
ultimate form of cosmic protection and the protector of kings. The pyramid temples built by
Khmer rulers at the centre of their domains are almost all dedicated to the worship of Lord
Shiva, such as this massive edifice at Koh Ker (Angkor Wat is the great exception: it was
originally dedicated to Lord Vishnu.) The lingams placed in these sanctuaries are often
named after the venerable Shaivite pilgrimage sites of India- for example the
Rajendrabhadresvara lingam of the Pre Rup temple pyramid, is named after the 10thC ruler
who erected it Rajendravarman + Bhadresvara. The new Shaivite arrivals made a dramatic
impression on their hosts and soon came to power as advisors, poets, bureaucrats, ritual
specialists, astronomers, astrologers and magicians.

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For some 600 years, from the 8th to 13th centuries, the Khmer empire ruled much of
mainland Southeast Asia from its capital of Angkor in northern Cambodia. Here the Khmer
people erected major temples, and their rulers were considered god-kings, associated with
Shiva, Vishnu, or other Hindu deities. Jayavarman II is generally considered the founder of
the Khmer empire. Around 800 he established his royal court, where he stressed both his role
as a god-king and parallels between the temples he built and the gods’ abode of Mount Meru.
He regarded Shiva as his personal deity and established a cult of the royal linga.

The next few centuries saw Angkor become a great city with elaborate temples. Some kings,
like Suryavarman I, patronized both Hinduism and Buddhism, although the Khmer kings
remained predominantly Hindu. Great monuments like the Baphuon (11th century) and
Angkor Wat (12th century), with their supremely rhythmic and elegant relief sculptures on
themes from the Hindu epics as well as scenes from daily and ceremonial life including
military processions and dance, mark a high point in Cambodian art.

The level of detail Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close
quarters, its fascinating decorative flourishes. Stretching around the outside of the central
temple complex is an 800mlong series of intricate and astonishing bas-reliefs – carvings
depicting historical events and stories from Hindu mythology.
Shaivite Cambodia
Like with all things medieval, it turns out that the truth is far stranger than modern notions. It
is certainly beyond dispute that for many centuries — starting from around the 8th century
CE all the way up to the 15th — the religious culture of Cambodia was predominantly
Shaivite. But the process by which it became Shaivite is astonishing: Contrary to what we
may think, it involves active conversion by Hindu preachers, market forces emerging from
Cambodian courts, Indians emigrating in search of greener pastures, and a considerable
degree of intelligence and selectivity in how Cambodia interacted with ‘Indian’ ideas.

145
The sect known as the Pashupatas and its missionaries in India
and abroad

Roughly around the second century CE, legend holds that the corpse of a young man in
Karohana (present-day Karvan), Gujarat, was reanimated. This man, Lakulisha, then went
about preaching a Shaiva doctrine revolving around asceticism and meditative practice to
inculcate magical powers. And thus, the sect known as the Pashupatas was born. It would
grow to become one of the most influential and widespread sects of all early medieval
schools of Shaivism.
From the outset, Pashupatas distinguished themselves from other Shaivite sects by their
missionary zeal. Lakulisha himself travelled to distant Mathura and initiated four Brahmin
disciples into his esoteric tradition, positioning each of them in a different city to convert
many more. Pashupatas spread rapidly through the relatively urban Gangetic Plains; within
barely a few generations (fourth century CE), they were being mentioned in the inscriptions
of the Gupta emperors, and were spreading down the coast towards the Krishna-Godavari
delta. By the seventh century, they had established themselves near the now-famous
Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal. Chinese travellers claim that by this time,
Varanasi alone had nearly 10,000 of these ash-covered ascetics, and here, they composed
much of the great text known as the Skanda Purana. Around this time, they also began
seeking a foothold in new, rapidly-urbanising regions that were developing complex state
structures, the elites of which required ritual services and were willing to pay dearly for them.
We thus begin to see them in the inland Deccan and in Southeast Asia.

Lakulisha at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th century CE). His 5th–
10th century ithyphallic statuesare also found in seated yogi position in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh in
india and elsewhere

A Deccan inscription from 660 CE offers some insight into this process. In return for ritually
initiating the Chalukya king Vikramaditya I into Shaivism, the Pashupata guru Sudarshana
was granted the village of Iparumkal. Sudharshana then distributed plots in the village to 27

146
Shaivite Brahmins; over the generations, through close ties with the Chalukyas, this region,
present-day Alampur, Telangana, grew into a major Shaiva stronghold.

Religious Reform in Cambodia

It is in this context that we now turn to Cambodia. Around this time, Cambodia, like the
Deccan, was home to several warring principalities. The general region — including sites in
Laos — already had some centres of Shiva worship, particularly centred around mountains
and natural stone columns believed to be self-manifestations (svayambhu) of the Shiva linga.
In Cambodia, stones were already believed to be the dwellings of ancestral spirits associated
with the land; it seems to have been a natural transition to see stone Shiva linga as
representing a primordial, ancestral deity of the land as well. Pashupatas may have arrived on
these shores as early as the fifth century, with the earliest epigraphic evidence dating to the
seventh century.

The Cambodian embrace of Pashupata missionaries was also tied also to their beliefs about
rulership. David Chandler in his History of Cambodia says that those who could lead men
and win battles were also believed to be spiritually gifted, and vice versa. This idea that
worked well with Pashupata concepts of gaining magical power through Shaivite ritual.
Cambodian chiefs, seeking to attract and use Pashupata ritual knowledge, rapidly
commissioned dozens of Shaivite temples along the length of the Mekong River and in
various urban, political, and pre-existing sacred centres. Many of these were named after
existing Pashupata Shiva centres in India (Siddheshvara, Amratakeshvara, Amareshvara),
writes Shaivism scholar Alexis Sanderson in The Saiva Religion Among the Khmers. The
objective behind these constructions was not an ‘imitation’ of India, but to make Shiva a
Cambodian god and Cambodia a Shaivite land, as was being done by temple-building royals
in South India at the same time.

Market forces and Shaivite ritual

Through the sixth to the ninth centuries CE, as Cambodian princes and Pashupata initiates
were making their land increasingly Shaivite, Indian Shaivism underwent a major transition
with the growth of mantramarga, Shaiva Siddhanta, or tantric Shaivism. Mantramarga texts
were somewhat simpler than the esoteric doctrines of the Pashupatas, providing agamas —
scriptures and frameworks of practice — that could be developed by practitioners for use in
temples, personal worship, and public rituals.

The arrival of mantramarga texts in Cambodia was revolutionary. In 802 CE, when the
young king Jayavarman set out to establish the empire of Angkor, he conducted a ritual with
a Brahmin priest, Hiranyadama. The priest developed a paddhati, a detailed ritual manual that
was the basis of the Devaraja cult, practically the State religion of the Angkor Empire for
centuries after. The Devaraja cult closely associated the king with Shiva, and worshipped him
as the king of the gods. It led to the establishment of dozens of temples and monastic
establishments, all of which drew on paddhatis composed by mantramarga experts.
So, what can we really say about medieval Cambodia’s relationship with India? If
These texts reveal something fascinating about medieval
Shaivism. Mantramarga practitioners were technically supposed to base
their paddhatis on agamas of their own school and lineage. In practice, due to the need to
fulfil the ritual demands of their royal customers, they very often melded together multiple
lineages in their paddhatis. The Cambodian market for Shaivite experts was such that many
Indians are known to have travelled there in search of employment, especially Brahmins.
Some of them even claimed to have come to worship the national god, Shiva Bhadreshvara.

147
(Oddly, we have little evidence that Southeast Asians ever visited Hindu sacred sites in India,
but plenty of evidence of the converse).
Anirudh Kanisetti is a public historian. https://theprint.in/opinion/indias-hindu-preachers-how-
shaiva-monks-converted-cambodia/1097764/

Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE
from the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta. They were probably dedicated to a sun
god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one
with a small stepped pond.
The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the
mainland Southeast Asia is the Võ Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century
CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century
local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often
mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-
East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.
Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on
Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the
Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple
in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as
if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple
building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their
own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more
conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of
Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the
Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with
the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of
gods Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the
Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the
Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).
oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

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 VII
Craft of Stone Carved Sculptures and Idols-Prof. Bibhudutta Baraland Mr. Antony
William

The Village Shivarapatna is very well known for its intricate carvings on black and grey
granite to make idols for temples. The Shivarapatna craft is popular all over India and abroad.
There are myths that “During the period of Ganga Dynasty a ‘shilpi’ (Craftsperson) named
Basulinga Acharya was traveling from a place which were near Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
border in then India to some other place and he spent a night in a Dharmashala in the village
Shivarapatna. After cooking the food in the night, he took some pieces of charcoal and drawn
an idol on the wall, which was very beautiful. Next morning few villagers saw the line
drawing and got surprised by the skill of him. This news spread like wild fire in the village
and the king got to know about this. He came to the village to meet him and asked him to stay
in the village and practice the craft and offered him land in the village to stay. There onwards
the craft flourished in the village.

The Ganga dynasty that ruled Karnataka started traditional sculptures that have been
continuing for two thousand years. Basavalingachari from the Jakanacharya hereditary started
the Vishwakarma community structures. They came in groups and they settled in the village
to construct temples. The Vishwakarma structures has been given the name Shilparamam and
the village making these stone structure came to be known as the Heritage Village, by the
government recently. Below outlined an account of the family which has been routinely
engaged in stone craft. A case study method was followed for covering the practice of stone
craft by an average craftsman’s family.

149
Family Members : 4-6
Work force : Outsourced Labour locally (3-6 Nos.)
Hours of work per day : 8-10 hours

• Education:
Master had taught the craft of Shilpkala to the whole village. The disciples became the new
masters of their families. The family passes on their traditional knowledge of craft to the next
generation. Children study in school to the age of 15 after which they work under their family
elders for gaining skills in stone craft.

• Source of Raw Material:

The Stone is procured from the quarry named ‘Krishna Salai. The rocks are transported to the
‘Mahalakshmi ’ industrial area (5 kms ) and are cut according to pre decided dimensions. The
master himself chooses the rocks according to the sculpture ordered by the client.

Raw Material:
Stone– Sandstone, soft stone, Granite and marble, Brass, Silver, Gold and Panch Loha
(Bronze, Gun metal, Gold, silver, Copper), Fibre (Acrylic and Fibre reinforced plastic).

• Clients:
Donors of temples belonging to the following states, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Orissa Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Custom:
Ladies are not allowed to work on the idols as they are deities. The task is divided among the
artisans according to the process (Cutting, Drawing, rough finishing, final finishing).

Duration of Sculpting:
2 weeks – 2 months and also up to 9 months in some cases (Subjected to scale, amount of
detailing).

Tradition, culture and values represent Shivarapatna which is synonymous with the word
sculpture and currently with about 700 members of 300 families are engaged in stone craft.
The sculptors of Shivarapatna in Karnataka keep alive the 1,000-year-old artistic tradition.
Shivarapatna is a unique village in the country which has been made into a traditional
sculpture centre. Shivarapatna is- also renowned for its metal casting (Pancha Loha, an alloy
of copper, zinc, lead, silver, and gold). Deities and warriors of Chalukyan Period are the main
source of inspiration for Shivarapatna sculptures. It is believed that the Shilpi’s, sculptors, of
Shivarapatna are descendants of the craftsmen who constructed the temples of Belur, Hampi
and Hoskote.

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152
Stone Craft Factory-Village and Stone Craft-Making Process

Process and Techniques:

The carving process essentially has the following sequence:

• Selection of the stone (Hard granite, Soft Gray granite, Mysore stone, White granite) is
done on the basis of the sculpture to be made, depending on male or female carving the artist
wants.
• The artist prepares detailed Sketching of the sculpture in the form of template on the hard
paper, if necessary he also makes the clay models too. If there is a change in the figure style
e.g., cloth draping etc., he also makes a wax model of the sculpture, in small scale. All these
techniques not only give the artist the rough idea of the sculpture, but it also helps them to
understand the proportion of the sculpture. This helps the master craftsmen to communicate

153
with their fellow craftsmen who work under them as trainee regarding the understanding of
the form.

The master craftsmen divide the work of sculpting into the three parts depending on the shape
and size of the structure to be made.

- The master craftsman does the marking on the rough stone.

- The trainee or the helping craftsman who is/are semi-skilled or in learning stage removes
the rough extra part of the stone.
- The master craftsman himself does the final finishing.
• After getting the exact pictures of the sculpture, Dimensions of the figure to be
manufactured are marked on a stone slab, the rough and extra portion are removed in order to
get the basic shape, smooth or flat dressing is made to define each and every details. The
marking on the stone is done by the red oxide in several layers. The red oxide is commonly
available locally. The metal is crushed and then mixed with water in order to make red colour
out of red oxide. The colour marks on the stone surface do not vanish while chiseling the
surface.
• Final finishing of the surface is done by carborundam stones (Chane Kallu) & final
polishing is done with water and emery papers. If the sculpture has to be painted in black, it is
done with the colours which are extracted from local fruits, as sarkai, annabare and kenbabari
(dry fruit) - these raw materials are heated, melted and used as colour pigment.

The main techniques used are as follows :

- Cutting - Round chisel, Flat chisel, Hammer (all of different size).
- Grinding - Die grinder with different beats size, Channel cutter.
- Buffing - Hand buffer, traditionally made coconut shell hair brush.
- Polishing - Local fruits, as sarkai, annabari and kenbabari (dry fruit) are used.

Raw Material:

Hand Tools:

154
155
Tools and Raw Materials

Common Tools used for Stone Crafts are:

• Compass (Ttiwar)
• Pencil
• Steel ruler (L-shape)
• Red oxide to mark centerand base of the statue
• Hammer
• chisels of different sizes and points
• Blades
• Grinding stone (to polish)
• Brick to sharpen the tools
• Cloth or brush to take the dust out (while polishing)
• Power Drill
• Die Grinder
• Stone Cutter

Raw Materials:
Raw materials used are:
• Stone– Sandstone
• Soft stone
• Granite and marble,
• Brass, Silver, Gold and Panch Loha (Bronze, Gun metal, Gold, silver, Copper)
• Fibre (Acrylic and Fibre reinforced plastic)

The stone used to make idols for temples as well as of a human consists of Black and grey
granite which are locally available. In traditional language the artisans of the village call the
black granite as ‘Purush Shila’ (Male Stone) and the grey granite as ‘Stree Shila’ (Female
Stone), which is less hard, than the male stone. The artisan chooses the stones for making the
idols according to the characteristics of the god or goddesses.

Few other stones are also imported from other states to make idols when there are any
specific requirements of the client. Mostly the stone carving is done with the help of various
traditional hand tools, which includes various kinds of iron chisels and hammers along with
some measuring instruments like right angles and compass of various sizes. For finishing,
waste grinding stones of various grades from the industries is used. The craftsperson forge
the iron chisels and they themselves do maintenance work like regular sharpening of the same
in-house. In current time in order to increase productivity the artisans have started using basic
power tools also like Power drills, Die grinders, stone cutters etc.

156
157
158
159
160
Working Posture:

Power Tool:

161
The view of working environment gives the idea of how the work is carried out. Raw
materials on one side, working craftsmen, tools used, view of complete and incomplete
structures. In one case it was seen that the craftsman divides his work area into two parts:
• Sculpting area
• Back yard for display
Though the backyard was small the craftsman had used this space efficiently to display his
sculptures for visitors to see and purchase. He blended his contemporary work with his
traditional work and this way he could portray his capability to cater different and new
requirements.

162
163
http://www.dsource.in/resource/shivarapatna-stone-crafts-ii/making-process

Products
The products one can find in Shivarapattna are mainly idols and statues for temples. The
figures represented are common figures and deities of the Hindu religion. The same designs
have been used for generations, respecting the traditional proportions of the sculptures.
Generally the statues have the natural colour of the stone, but they can also be painted, in
black or various colours.

The colours are made of local fruits, as sarkai, annabra and kenbabari (dry fruit). They are
heated, melted and used as colour pigment. The artisans can also create personalized
sculptures of their clients, whose picture is kept in front of the statue as the work progress.
The finest the lines are, the more expensive the product will be. The price for one statue can
be up to Rs. 25/- and a set of 4 statues costs Rs. 100/-. The price depends also on the
dimensions of the idol.

164
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 www.udaydokras.com

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ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vedic Architecture, Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
7
 Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
 Highest number of research Papers and Books written
 Hindu Temples
 Buddhism
 Vaastu

167
 2 - Worldwide Book of

#1 7

Records
x  2 - Unique World Record
 1-INDIA Book of
RECORDS
 1-Kalam Book of Records
 1 Institute of International
Historiography

780- BOOKS & 2500 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.

3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr. Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SEVEN categories for
having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture, Dhamma,
(including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at Prambanan, Design
elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravatim,Vandan in Indo China and Hindu temple, He is
consultant to numerous Projects involving Vaastu Shastra and Beneficial and applied Vedic Astrology

Earlier in his career he was a senior management professional in HR domain during his career, Group
Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi , anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go Airlines
India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; and a Large Hospital and 5 Medical Colleges- amongst
other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied and worked, he anchored
HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund
Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of California, Los
Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of
Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English- SPOTLIGHT 7”- and
8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a
copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic
Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm, SWEDEN and President
of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred by more than 200+ researchers in papers, books and theses .
Contributor to various magazines and literary Fora.

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 World Record Holders 2023
Maximum Number of Research Papers Completed
by an Individual Person
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Dr Uday Dokras

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World# Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
1
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual

on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
[email protected]

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest
number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Boo
ks_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

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Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of
Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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AMONGST the Great Au thors of Borobudur

Search Borobudur and come across a Plethora of my writings

Red arrows

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