GENE

REGULATION
A. GENE REGULATION
PROKARYOTES
The genetic content of each somatic cell in an organism is the same,
but not all genes are expressed in every cell. The control of which
genes are expressed dictates whether a cell is (a) an eye cell or (b) a
liver cell. It is the differential gene expression patterns that arise in
different cells that give rise to (c) a complete organism.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
gene

Chromosome
DNA

A. Overview of Regulation of Gene Expression

B. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

C. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

INTRODUCTION

Gene expression is the process by

which the information encoded in a
gene is used to create a functional
product, typically a protein. This Gene regulation is the intricate
process is essential for all living process by which cells control the
organisms, as it allows cells to timing, location, and amount of gene
produce the molecules they need to expression.
function, grow, and respond to their
environment.
INTRODUCTION
Each somatic cell in the body generally contains the
same DNA. In general, the genes that determine
whether you have green eyes or brown hair, or how
fast you metabolize food are the same in eye cells and
liver cells, even though these organs function quite
differently.

Although each cell in your body contains the same

DNA sequences, each cell does not turn on, or express,
the same set of genes.
A. OVERVIEW OF gene

REGULATION OF GENE
EXPRESSION Chromosome
DNA

•Discuss why every cell does not express all of

its genes.

•Describe some major differences between

prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene regulation.
 For a cell to function properly, necessary proteins
must be synthesized at the proper time. All cells
control or regulate the synthesis of proteins from
information encoded in their DNA. The process of
“turning on” a gene to produce mRNA and protein is
called gene expression.

Cells would have to be enormous if every protein

were expressed in every cell all the time. The
control of gene expression is extremely
complex. Malfunctions in this process are
detrimental to the cell and can lead to the
development of many diseases, including
cancer.
 PROKARYOTIC VERSUS
EUKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
•Transcription and
translation occur almost
simultaneously
•Gene expression is
regulated primarily at
the transcriptional level
 PROKARYOTIC VERSUS
EUKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
•Transcription occurs in the
nucleus prior to translation,
which occurs in the cytoplasm.
•Gene expression is regulated at
many levels: epigenetic,
transcriptional, nuclear
shuttling, post-transcriptional,
translational, and post-
translational
B. PROKARYOTIC
GENE
REGULATION
•Describe the steps involved in
prokaryotic gene regulation.
•Explain the roles of activators,
inducers, and repressors in
gene regulation
The DNA of prokaryotes is
organized into a circular
chromosome that resides in the
cell’s cytoplasm. Proteins that
are needed for a specific
function, or that are involved in
the same biochemical pathway,
are often encoded together in
blocks called operons.
Each operon needs only one
regulatory region, including a
promoter, where RNA polymerase
binds, and an operator, where
other regulatory proteins bind.
In prokaryotic cells, there are three
types of regulatory molecules that can
affect the expression of operons.
1.) Activators are proteins that increase
the transcription of a gene.
2.) Repressors are proteins that
suppress transcription of a gene.
3.) Inducers are molecules that bind to
repressors and inactivate them. Next
slides are two examples of how these
molecules regulate different operons.
THE TRP OPERON: A
REPRESSOR OPERON
THE LAC OPERON: AN
INDUCER OPERON
 C. EUKARYOTIC
GENE
REGULATION
•Explain the process of epigenetic gene regulation in eukaryotic cells.
•Explain the process of transcriptional gene regulation in eukaryotic
cells.
•Explain the process of post-transcriptional gene regulation in
eukaryotic cells.
•Explain the process of translational gene regulation in eukaryotic cells.
•Explain the process of post-transcriptional gene regulation in
eukaryotic cells.
In eukaryotes, control of gene expression is more complex and
can happen at many different levels. Eukaryotic genes are not
organized into operons, so each gene must be regulated
independently. In addition, eukaryotic cells have many more
genes than prokaryotic cells. Regulation of gene expression can
happen at any of the stages as DNA is transcribed into mRNA
and mRNA is translated into protein. For convenience,
regulation is divided into five levels: epigenetic, transcriptional,
post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational.
 LEVELS OF
REGULATION
1. EPIGENETIC CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION

Epigenetic control involves changes to genes that do not

alter the nucleotide sequence of the DNA and are not
permanent. Instead, these changes alter the chromosomal
structure so that genes can be turned on or off. This level of
control occurs through heritable chemical modifications of
the DNA and/or chromosomal proteins.
MODIFICATION OF HISTONE
PROTEINS IS AN EXAMPLE OF
EPIGENETIC CONTROL

•Histones are chromosomal proteins that

tightly wind DNA so that it fits into the
nucleus of a cell.
MODIFICATION OF HISTONE
PROTEINS IS AN EXAMPLE OF
EPIGENETIC CONTROL
The first level of organization, or packing, is the
winding of DNA strands around histone proteins.
Histones package and order DNA into structural units
called nucleosome complexes, which can control the
access of proteins to the DNA regions

DNA is wrapped around histones to create

nucleosomes (a), which control the access
of proteins to DNA. When viewed through
an electron microscope (b), the
nucleosomes look like beads on a string.
MODIFICATION OF HISTONE
PROTEINS IS AN EXAMPLE OF
EPIGENETIC CONTROL
How the histone proteins move is dependent on signals
found on the histone proteins. These signals are “tags”
– in the form of phosphate, methyl, or acetyl groups –
that open or close a chromosomal region

Nucleosomes can slide along DNA.

(A) When nucleosomes are spaced
closely together, transcription
factors cannot bind and gene
expression is turned off.
(B) When nucleosomes are spaced
far apart, transcription factors can
bind, allowing gene expression to
occur.
 LEVELS OF
REGULATION
2. TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION
Transcriptional regulation is control of whether or not an
mRNA is transcribed from a gene in a particular cell. Like
prokaryotic cells, the transcription of genes in eukaryotes
requires an RNA polymerase to bind to a promoter to initiate
transcription. In eukaryotes, RNA polymerase requires other
proteins, or transcription factors, to facilitate transcription
initiation.
THE PROMOTER AND
TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS
 LEVELS OF
REGULATION
3. POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION

Post-transcriptional regulation occurs after the mRNA is

transcribed but before translation begins. This regulation can
occur at the level of mRNA processing, transport from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm, or binding to ribosomes.
ALTERNATIVE RNA SPLICING

Before a RNA can be translated, introns must

be removed by splicing. Pre-mRNA can be
alternatively spliced to create
different proteins.
CONTROL OF RNA STABILITY

The protein-coding region of mRNA is

flanked by 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions
(UTRs). RNA-binding proteins at the 5′ or 3′
UTR influence the stability of the RNA
molecule.
 LEVELS OF
REGULATION
4. TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION
After an mRNA has been transported to the cytoplasm, it is
translated into proteins. Control of this process is largely
dependent on the mRNA molecule. As previously discussed,
the stability of the mRNA will have a large impact on its
translation into a protein. Translation can also be regulated
at the level of binding of the mRNA to the ribosome. Once
the mRNA bound to the ribosome, the speed and level of
translation can still be controlled.
 LEVELS OF
REGULATION
5. POST-TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL OF GENE
EXPRESSION
•The final level of control of gene expression in eukaryotes is post-
translational regulation. This type of control involves modifying the
protein after it is made, in such as way as to affect its activity.
• Activity and/or stability of proteins can also be regulated by
adding functional groups, such as methyl, phosphate, or acetyl
groups. Sometimes these modifications can regulate where a
protein is found in the cell—for example, in the nucleus, the
cytoplasm, or attached to the plasma membrane.
Proteins with ubiquitin tags are marked for
degradation within the proteasome.
Thank you for listening!