CH A PTER

8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 MAXWELL'S DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

A brief survey of the electromagnetic waves. We 1. Discuss the inconsistency in Ampere's circuital
have learnt that an electric current produces a mag- law. What modification was made by Maxwell in this
netic field. Also a magnetic field changing with time law ? What is displacement current ? Conduction and
produces an electric field. Can an electric field displacement currents are individually discontinuous,
changing with time produce a magnetic field ? James but their sum is continuous. Comment.
Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), argued that this was indeed Inconsistency of Ampere's circuital law. According
the case-an electric field changing with time produes a to Ampere's circuital law, the line integral of the
magnetic field. Maxwell noticed that Ampere's proportional to
circuital law is inconsistent namely, makes non-unigue magnetic field B along any closed loop Cis
predictions for the magnetic field in situations where the current Ipassing through the closed loop, ie,
electric current changes with time. He showed that
consistency requires an additional source of magnetic ...(1)
field, this is called displacement current. This made the
laws of electricity and magnetism symmetrical. In 1864, Maxwell showed that the equation (1) is
Maxwell formulated a set of four equations, called logically inconsistent. To prove this inconsistency, we
Maxwell's equations. With the help of these equations, consider a parallel plate capacitor being charged by a
charging
he predicted that electric and magnetic fields battery as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). As the
dependent on time and space propagate as transverse Capacitor plates
waves, called electromagnetic waves. His discovery that
electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light
led him to a remarkable conclusion that light is an
electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hert, in 1865,
successfully demonstrated the existence of electro
magnetic waves. A few years later, GuglielmoMarconi
Battery Key
H
Battery Key
of Italy succeeded in transmitting electromagnetic (a) (b)
waves over distances of several kilometres. His
experiments brought a revolution in communication Fig. 8.1 Aparallel plate
which we are witnessing even today. charged by a battery cageseCFHten Copy
Not For Sale
(8.1)
S. S. PANDEY
 PHYSICS-X|
continues, acurrent I flows through the connecting Unlike the conduction current, the
wires, which of course changes with time. This current displacement
current exists whenever the electric field and hence he
produces a magnetic field around the capacitor. electric flux is changing with time. Thus according to
Consider two planar loops C, and C, C just left of the Maxwell, the source of a magnetic field is not iustte
capacitor and C, in between the capacitor plates, with conduction electric current due to
flowing
electric field. Hencecharges,
their plarnes parallel to these plates. also the time-varying but
Now the currentIflows across the area bounded by the
Current I is the sum of the conduction current I total
loop G because connecting wire passes through it. displacement current I,
Hence from Ampere's law, we have

C
..(2)
Consistency
i-1,+l¡=l+o dt
of modified
But the area bounded by CG lies in the region G, there is
no electric flux ( =0). Ampere's law. For loop
between the capacitor plates, so no current flows equation (5) we have Therefore, from
across it.

...3) Ci ..(6)
C,
For
Imagine the loops G and C, to be infinitesimally close to because loop
a
C,, conduction current I =0 but I,
0,
each other, as shown in Fig. 8.1(b). Then we must have time-varying electric field exists in the
region between the capacitor plates. Hence
...(4)
C, Cz dt ..7)
C
This result is inconsistent with the If Abe the area of the capacitor plates and gbe
and (3). So a need for modifying Ampere'sequations (2)
law was felt charge on the plates at any instant t the
by Maxwell. during the
charging process, then the electric field in the gap will
Maxwell's modification of Ampere's law : Dis- be
placement current. To modify Ampere's law, Maxwell E=1
followeda symmetry consideration. By Faraday's law,
a changing magnetic field induces an electric field,
hence a changing electric field must induce a magnetic or EA 9
field. As currents are the usual sources of magnetic
fields, a changing electric field must be associated with
a current. Maxwell called this current as or Flux
the
displacemnent current to distinguish it from the usual
conduction current caused by the drift of electrons. d d
Displacement current(is that current which comes =Mo 0 dt dt
into existence, in addition to the conduction current,
whenever the electric field and hence the electric flux or

changes with time. C dt

To maintain the dimensional consistency, the
displacement current is given the form: This agrees with the equation (6), proving the
consistency of the Ampere's modified law (5).
dt Property of continuity. The sum (I, + L) has the
where ¢: =electric field x area = EA, is the electric fux mportant property of continuity along any cosed
across the loop. path even when individually I, and I, may not be
.:. Total current across the closed loop continuous. In Fig. 8.1, for example, a current I, enters
one plate and leaves the other plate of the
The conduction current
capacitor.
dt
Hence the modified form of the Ampere's law is dg
I,= dt
d ...5) is not continuous across the capacitor gap as no
charge is transported across this gap. The displacement
 8.3
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

a point O) between the

current I, is zero outside the capacitor plates and in the indeed induced (say at
gap, it has the value capacitor plates and has same magnitude as that just
dg outside (say at point P).
do d
-(EA) = & dt ...8)
dt In Fig.8.2(a), the direction of E is from the positive
which is exactly the value of the conduction current in plate to the negative, whereas the direction of B at Q is
the lead wires. Thus the displacement current satisfies perpendicular to the plane of paper. Fig. 8.2(b) shows a
the basic condition that the current is continuous.
cross-sectional loop parallel to the plane of the plates.
The sum I, + [0
dt
has the same value along the The field Äis directed normally into the plane paper,
clockwise
entire path (both inside and outside the capacitor asshown by crosses. The induced field B is
plates), although individually the two currents are along the tangents on a circle in this
cross-sectional
discontinuous. Clearly, outside the capacitor plates, plane.
we have only conduction currentI, = I, and there is no
displacement current (I, =0), While inside the capa 3. State the important consequences of displacemnent
citor plates, there is only displacement current I, =, current. The
Consequences of displacement current.
and there is no conduction current (I, =0) But in any concept
general medium, both I, and I, are present. However, of displacement current has made the laws of
electricity and magnetism symmetrical. According to
I, is larger than I, in a conducting medium while I, is
larger than I, in an insulating medium. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the
emf is equal to the rate of change
2. Is a displacement current associated with a magnitude of induced the emf between two points is the
magneticfield ? Or, can a changing electric flux induce a magnetic flux. But one point to
magnetic field ? Explain it with the help of an example. work done in taking a unit charge from This implies
against the electrostatic forces.
Induced magnetic field. A displacement current another existence of an electric field in the region. So
produces the same physical effects as the conduction the
current. Like a conduction current, a displacement Faraday's law simply states that a time varying
magnetic field gives rise to an electric field.
current is also associated with a magnetic field.
Consider, for example, the charging of a parallel plate By symmetry, a time varying electric field should
capacitor by a constant current Iin the connecting give rise to a magnetic field. This is an importance
wires [Fig. 8.2(a)]. This increases the charges on the consequence of displacement current which is a source
capacitor plates at asteady rate. Consequently, the of magnetic field.
electric field between the plates also increases at a Another very important consequence of the
steady rate. Between the capacitor plates, there exists a symmetry of electricity and magnetism is the existence
displacement current due to time varying electric field. modern
though of electromagnetic waves, so important for
In such a region, we expect amagnetic field communication.
there is no source of conduction current nearby.
4. State the important properties of displacement
Experimnents have shown that a magnetic field B is Current
mportant properties of displacement current.
P These are as follows:

1. Displacement current exists whenever there is a

B change of electric flux. Unlike conduction
i(t) current, it does not exist under steady conditions.
2. It is not acurrent. It only adds to current density
in Ampere's circuital law. As it produces
magnetic field, so it is called acurrent.
3. The magnitude of displacement current is equal
(a) (b) to the rate of displacement of charge from one
capacitor plate to the other.
Fig. 8.2 (a) Electric and magnetic fields E and B at any point Q 4. Together with the conduction current,
between the capacitor plates. (b) A cross-sectional view of displacement current satisfies the property of
Fig. 8.2(a) continuity.
 ELECTROMGNETIC WAVES 8.7
8,3 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS 8.4 MAXWELL'S PREDICTION OF
Maxwell found that all the basic priniples of electro ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
magnetism can be formulated in terms of four funda 5.Explain clearly how Maxwell was led to predict the
mental equations called Maxwell's equations. Assuming existence of electromagnetic waves. How can these waves
that no magnetic or dielectric material is present, the be represented mathematically ?
four basic equations can be stated as follows : Maxwell's prediction of electromagnetic waves. In
1. Gauss law ofelectrostatics. This law states that 1865, Maxwell theoretically predicted the existence of
the electric flux through a closed surface S is 1 times the electromagnetic waves. According to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction :
total charge q enclosed by the surface S. * Atime-varying magnetic fleld is a source of changing
electric field.
i.e., ...(9)
On the basis of his theoretical studies, Maxwell
argued that
Important consequences of this law are that () the
charge on an insulated conductor resides only on its Atime-varying electric field is a source of changing
outer surface, and (ii) the electrostatic force between magnetic field.
two charges is inversely proportional to the square of This means that the change in either field
the distance between them.
(electricmagnetic) produces the other field. Maxwell
2. Gauss law of magnetism. According to this law, further showed that these variations in electric and
the magnetic flux through any closed surface is always magnetic fields occur in mutually perpendicular
Zero. directions and have wave like properties. He was thus
led to the idea that a wave of electric and magnetic
1.e., ...(10) fields both varying with space and time should exist,
S one providing the source of the other. Such a wave is
This law implies that isolated magnetic poles or called an electromagnetic wave and it indeed exists.
magnetic charges do not exist, i.e., it explains the An electromagnetic wave is a waue radiated by an
absence of magnetic monopoles. accelerated charge and which propagates through
3. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. space as coupled electric and magnetic fields,
This law tells that a changing magnetic field induces oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the
an electric field. According to this law, the induced emf direction of propagation of the wave.
set up in a closed circuit C is equal to the rate of change
of magnetic flux linked with the closed circuit. Mathematical representation of electromagnetic
waves. Figure 8.5 shows a plane electromagnetic wave
i.e.,
dt travelling along X-axis. The electric field E oscillates
C
along Y-axis while the magnetic field B oscillates
Or E=- .(11) along Z-axis.

4. Modified Ampere's law. This law states that the B E B

line integral of the magnetic field around any closed
circuit Cis equal to e times the total current (the sum
of conduction and displacement currents) threading
the closed circuit.
B B
Z
i.e., ..(12) Direction of propagation
dt
Fig. 8.5 A plane electromagnetic wave
This law implies the fact that not only a con travelling along X-axis.
duction current but a displacement current, asso
ciated with a changing electric field, also produces a The values of electric and magnetic fields shown in
magnetic field. the above figure depend only on x and t. The electric
8.8
PHYSICS-XIl
field vector can be represented mathematically as wave. The emergence of the speed of light from purely
follows : electromagnetic considerations is the crowning
achievement of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.
E - E, j=E, sin (kr - ot) j The speed of an e.m. wave in any medium of
permeability u and permittivity s will be
1 C
V=

..(1) where is the dielectric constant of the medium and u

where k =2n/ is the propagation constant of the is its relative permeability.
wave and angular frequency, o=2rv. As the electric and magnetic fields in an e.m. wave
Clearly, E, = E, =0 are always perpendicular to each other and also
The magnetic field vector may be represented as perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, so
e.m. waves are transverse in nature.
B = B, k = B, sin (kx - ot) k
8.5 SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
6. Briefly explain how is an accelerating charge a
sOurce of an electromagnetic wave.
.2) An accelerating charge as a SOurce of an
Clearly, B. = B, =0. electromagnetic wave. A stationary charge produces
only an electrostatic field while a charge in uniform
Here E and Bare the amplitudes of the electric field motion produces a magnetic field that does not chan ge
E and magnetic field B, respectively. with time. Thus, neither stationary charges nor charges
in uniform motion (or steady currents) can produce
Equations (1) and (2) show that the variations in electromagnetic waves. According to Maxwel, (an
electric and magnetic fields are in same phase, i.e., both accelerating charge produces electromagnetic wves.
attain their maxima and minima at the same instant Consider a charge oscillating harmonically with time.
and at the same place (*). This is an example of an accelerating charge. This
The magnitudes of E and B are related as charge produces an oscillating electric field in its
neighbourhood. This field, in turn, produces an
=C or oscillating magnetic in the neighbourhood. The
B process continues because the oscillating electric and
Maxwell also showed that the speed of an e.m. magnetic fields act as sources of each other. Hence an
wave depends on the permeability and permittivity of electromagnetic wave originates from the oscillating
charge.(The
the medium through which it travels. The speed of an to the frequency of the electromagneticwave is equal
frequency of oscillation of the charge. The
e.m. wave in free space is given by carried by the wave comes from the source energy which
C=
1 makes the charge oscillating.
From the above discussion, we may note that
order to generate an electromagnetic wave in
Permeability of free space, frequency v, we
of
need to set up an a.c. circuit in which
Ho =4rx 10 Ns² c-2 the current oscillates at the frequency v. Hence it is
Permittivity of free space, easier to generate low frequency e.m. waves, such as a
radiowave. However, it is not possible to experi
En =8.85 x 10-" CN'm-2 mentally demonstrate the existence of high frequency
C=
1 e.m. waves, such as visible light. For example, the
N4nx 10 x8.85 x1o-12 generation of yellow light requires an oscillator of
frequency 6x 10 Hz, while the modern oscillators
= 3.0x 10ms-1 have frequency hardly above 10" Hz.
wbich is the speed of light in vacuum. Inus ract lea for In the next section, we discuss Hertz's experiment
Maxwell to predict that light is an electromagnetic demonstrating the existence of low frequency
radiowaves.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.9

closed
8.6 HERTZ'S EXPERIMENT The receiver or detector consists of an almost
stout wire terminating at the two ends in two
7. Describe Hertz's experiment for producing and detec- circular
small polished brass spheres S and ec
ting electromagnetic waves. How were the various pro- maenetic waves reaching the gap of the detector
perties of electromagnetic waves demonstrated by Hertz ? associated with a sufficiently strong electric field
are
Hertz's experiment. Maxwell predicted the which sets up a high p.d. across the gap S, S, his
existence of electromagnetic waves in 1865. This causes tiny sparks jumping across the gap, thereby
prediction had to wait for about 22 years before a proving the existence of e.m. waves.
German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, succeeded in experi Hertz demonstrated the various properties of e.m.
mentally confirming the existence of electromagnetic waves as follows :
waves in 1887.
1. Hertz observed that maximum sparks are
In the oscillations of an LC- circuit, we know that produced across the detector gap when this gap is
the charge oscillates across the capacitor plates. Since parallel to the transmitter gap. When these two gaps
an oscillating charge has non-zero
acceleration it will
are perpendicular to each other, no sparkes are
continuously emit electromagnetic waves. As shown produced across the detector gap ie., no electro
electric
in Fig, 8.6, Hertz used an oscillatory LC-circuit for magneticwaves are detected. This means that
producing electromagnetic waves. the
field associated with the waves radiated from
trarnmitter is parallel to the two gaps i.e., the direction
direction of
of the electric field is perpendicular to the
-Metal propagation of the e.m. wave. This clearly demon
Induction plate in nature.
strates that the e.m. waves are transverse
coil Gap electro
2. Hertz not only produced and detectedproperties
Input magnetic waves, butalso demonstrated their and so
of reflection, refraction and interference
Detector established beyond doubt that the e.m. radiation has a
Transmitter Metal wave nature.
plate 3. Hertz allowed the e.m. waves to fall on a large
plane sheet of zinc. The reflected waves superimposed
on the incident waves, produced stationary e.m.
Fig. 8.6 Hertz's experimental set-up for producing waves. The wavelength of these waves was deter
and detecting e.m. waves. mined by measuring the distance between two nodes.
equal to that of the
The transmitter consists of two large square metal The frequency of the wave was
(brass) plates with sides of length 40 cm. These are oscillator, ie.
1
placed in the same vertical plane with their centres
about 60 cm apart. The plates are connected to two 2n VLC
thick wires ending in highly polished brass spheres Hence the speed of the e.m. wave was determined
S, and S,. The distance between the two spherestois the
2to by using the formula v=và It was found that e.m.
3 cm. The two thick wires are connected
secondary terminals of an induction coil.
waves travel with the same speed as the speed oflight.
4. Electromagnetic waves can be polarised. To test
Every time the current in the primary arcut Of ue this fact. take a portable AM radio provided with a
induction coil is interrupted, a large p.d. is set up across
high p.d. telescopic antenna. It responds to the electric
S, and S, and the metal plates get charged. Thegap conduc- component of the e.m. signal from the broadcasting
ionises the air in the gap and makes the
oscillate back station. When the antenna is turned horizontal, the
ting. The electrons and ions so produced
and forth across the gap S, S,. An oscillatory discharge signal is greatly diminished. The portable radios
of the plates occurs through the conducting gap. The having horizontal antenna inside themn are sensitive to
the magnetic component of e.m. wave. The signal is
process results in the production of e.m. waves.
The metal plates form a capacitor of low best received whern such a radio is held horizontal.
capacitance C and connecting wires offer a low In Hertz set-up, the frequency of the e.m. waves
inductance L The system generates e.m. waves of high produced was 5x 10 Hz. So the wave length of the
frequency (v)given by e.m. waves produced is given by
1
3x 108
=6 m.
V=
2n /LC V 5x 10
 8.11
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Energy density of an electromagnetic wave. Electro Suppose a plane electromagnetic wave propa
gates along X-axis with speed c As shown in Fig. 8.8,
magnetic waves carry energy as they travel through consider
space and this energy is shared equally by the electric a cylindrical volume with area of cross
energy
and magnetic fields. Energy density of an e.m. wave is section A and length cAt along the X-axis. The
the energy in unit volume of the space through which the c Af
wave travels.
We know that energy is stored in space wherever
electric and magnetic fields are present.
Infree space, the energy density of a static field Eis Area = A

Calculation of intensity.
Again in free space, the energy density of a static Fig. 8.8
magnetic field is contained in this cylinder crosses the area A in time At
1
as the wave propagates with speed c. The energy
2u0 contained is
The total energy density of the static electric and
magnetic fields willbe U= Average energy density x volume
1 = UX c Atx A
2
240 Intensity of the wave,
But in an electromagnetic wave, both Eand Bfields Energy
vary sinusoidally in space and time. The average I=
Area x Time AAt
energy density u of an e.m. wave can be obtained by
replacing E and B by their rms values in the above 1
equation. Thus or l=, E c= E Es C
1
Bms 1J=
2
24o Also,
2u0
1

44o1_B: Ems1
Or Bems Thus the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is
proportional to the square of the electriclmagnetic field.
Moreover, E, =c, and therefore Conversely, the size of the electric/magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square
1 root of its intensity.
12. Write an expression for the momentum carried by
1 1 an e.n. wave.
4 Momentum of an e.m. wave. An electromagnetic
travels
Wave transports linear momentum as it
Hence in an electromagneticwave, the average energy of electromagnetic wave transfers a
through space. If an
the E field equals the average energy density of the B field. total energy U to a surface in time t, then total linear
It may be noted that momentum delivered to the surface is
1 1 1

p=
Also, [For complete absorption of energy U]
1
B+
1 = 1_ &= Bns If the wave is totally reflected, the mnomentum
240 delivered will be 2 U / c because the momentum of the
11. Define intensity of an electromagnetic wave. wave will change from p to - p
Obtain an expression for it. 13. Write an expression for the pressure exerted by an
Intensity of an electromagnetic wave. The energy electromagnetic wave.
perpen-
crossing per unit area per unit time in adirection of Pressure exerted by an e.m. wave. When an electro
dicular to the direction of propagation is called intensity
the wave. magnetic wne falls on a surface, it exerts pressure on the surfuce.
8.12
PHYSICS-XI1
This pressure is called radiation pressure. The
radiation
pressure for an electromagnetic wave of intensity 9. Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of
I is superposition. They show the
given by
reflection, refraction, interference,properties of
diffraction
P= and polarisation.
10. The electric field of an
It is because of the radiation pressure of the solar electromagnetic
responsible for its optical effects,
wave is
radiation that the tails of comets point away from the sun. E, >> B because
8.10 PROPERTIES OF
WAVES ELECTROMAGNETIC For Your Knowledge
14. Mention the various properties of An accelerating or oscillating charge is a
electro source of
magnetic waves. electromagnetic waves. An electric charge oscillating
Properties of electromagnetic waves. These are as harmonically with frequency v, produces electro
follows : magnetic waves of frequency v. An
dipole radiates electromagnetic waves.oscillating electric
1. The
electromagnetic waves are produced by
accelerated All types of electromagnetic waves travel through
charges
material medium for and do not require any vacuum with the same speed but they
their propagation. different speeds in any travel with
2. The material medium.
directions oscillations of E and B fields
of The frequency of an
are perpendicular to each other as well as inherent characteristic. electromagnetic wave is its
When an electromagnetic
perpendicular to the
wave. So the direction of propagation of
wave travels from one
medium to
the
transverse in nature. electromagnetic
waves are wavelength changes but frequency remainsarnother, its
unchanged.
The ratioo/cgives the
3. The magnitude of the propagation
Oscillations of E and B fields are in same vector for an
electromagnetic wave,
phase. 2T
k=
4. All
electromagnetic
with the same speed, waves travel in free space The direction of
2 C

propagation of an
C=
1
-3x 10 ms-1 wave is same as that of the vector Eelectromagnetic
xB.
The speed of an
In a material medium dependselectromagnetic wave through any
waves travel withmedium,
the on its
the speed, electromagnetic permittivity [ permeability and
1 1 C
V=

where n is the refractive index of the º Half of the intensity of an

medium.
5. The amplitude ratio of the
electric and magnetic provided by its electric field electromagnetic
and half by the
wave is
fields is o -=(= 1 field. So the power delivered by the magnetic
an electromagnetic wave magnetic field of
is equal to the power
VHoo byits electric field, but the delivered
6. The magnetic
travelelectromagnetic
waves carry energy as they much weaker than the electric field strength is
through space and this energy field strength. In fact,
is shared
equally by the electric and magnetic fields. -=c
average energy density of an e.m. wave is The
The fact that
electromagnetic
from one place to another,waves can carry energy
is of great technical
Ho importarnce. They transmit energy radio and TV
7. Electromagnetic waves
transport linear stations to our homes. Light carriesfrom energy from the
momentum as they travel through space: sun to the earth, thus making life
possible on the earth.
In 1903, the
p= American scientists Nicols and Hull success
C fully measured the radiation
8. Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by and found it to be of the order pressure of visible light
of 7 x 106 Nm 2 Thus,
electric and magnetic fields. on a surface area of 10 cm, the
is only about 7 x 10 N.
force due to radiation
8.16
1
PHYSICS-XI
5.0 x 100T. (a) Calculate the amplitude of the 5. Usec=
electric field. (b) What the total average energy
density of the e.m. wave? 6. ) =cB 3 x10 ×5.0 ×10-6 =1.5 x10 Vm1
(Ans. 1.5 x10° Vm-1,1.0 ×105m)
7. A plane electromagnetic wave is moving along (i) " , E=x8.85 ×1012 x(1.5 x10
*-direction. The frequency of the wave is 10 Hz and +1.0 ×105m-3
the electricfield at any point is varying sinu- soidally 7. Proceed as in Example 11 on page 8.14.
with time with an amplitude of 2 Vm. Calculate
the average densities of the electric and magnetic 8. Here B, 200 T=2*104T
fields. (Ans. 8.85 x10-1 Jm,8.85 x10 Jm) E, c, 3x 10 ×2x10 =6x10 Vm-1
8. The magnetic field in a plane e.m. wave is given by
B=(2001T) sin (40x10%)|:-) =0.008 Jm-3
Find the maximum electric field and the average MFrequency, v 3x108
energy density corresponding to the electricfield. 2 2x10-31.5 x10 Hz
(Ans. 6x 10* Vm,0.008 Jm 20
9. A millimetre wave has a wavelength of 2.00 mm =6.67 x10 T.
C 3×10
and the oscillating electric field associated with it 10. () Average energy density of the e.m. wave,
has an amplitude of 20 Vm. Determine the
frequency of oscillations of the electric and magnetic B(12×1082
240 2x 4n X107
fields of this electromagnetic wave. What is the
amplitude of the magnetic field oscillations of this 18× 10-9
=5.73 x10 Jm3
wave ? (Ans. 1.5x 10" Hz, 6.67 x10-8 T) 3.14
10. The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave () B, =12 x10sin(1.,20x 10 z+3.60 x105)
is given by : B B, sin (kz+ot)
B, =12 x10*sin(1.20 x10 z+3.60 x1051) T C.o3.60 x1015 =3×10 ms1
Calculate: L.20%10
() The energy density associated with the 8.11 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
electromagnetic wave. 15. What is electromagnetic spectrum ? Name the
(ii) The speed of the wave. [CBSE SP 18]
main parts of the electromagnetic spectrum giving their
[Ans. () 73x10 Jm (i) 3x10" ms "1 frequency ange and source of production. Also give their
important properties and uses.
Electromagnetic spectrum. All the known
HINTS
radiations form a big family of electromagnetic waves
3x 10 = 6.67 x 10 m. which stretch over a large range of wavelengths. The
1. =
4.5 x 100 orderly distribution of the electromagnetic waves in
o 600 =2 x10 6T accordance with their wavelength or frequency into distinct
2. B, = 3 xx108
groups having widely differing properties is called
electromagnetic spectrum. As shown in Fig. 8.9, the main
As the directions of E, B and direction of parts of the e.m. spectrum are y-rays, X-rays,
perpendicular, so B
ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays microwaves
propagation are mutually and radiowaves in the order of increasing wavelength
should be along the z-direction, from 10 Àor 10 m to l10 m.
page 8.33.
3. Proceed as in Exercise 8.5 on The various regions of the e.m. spectrum do not
= 880 × 10 Hz, have sharply defined boundaries and they overlap.
4. Here v = 880 kHz
The classification is based roughly on how the waves
P=10kW = 10x 10 W
are produced and/or detected.
Number of photons emitted per second, We now describe the various regions of the
10 × 10
P =1.71 x10. electromagnetic spectrum in the order of increasing
hy 6.6 x 103 x880 x10 frequency.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
8.17
Frequency, Hz
Wavelength
14
l0 10 Violet
13
400 nm
10
20 Gammna rays 10 12
10
19
10
450 nm
10 X-rays 10
17 109. 1 nm Blue
1ol6
10
Ultraviolet 7
500 nm
l0l4 Visible 6
1um Green
10
-5
Infrared
12 4
10 550 nm
3
10'!
Microwaves 1cm Yellow
Short radio waves 10
10 600 nm
8 1 1m
10 Television and FM radio Orange
l0 10
AM radio
10 650 nm
10 10 1km: Red
10 10*
10 Long radio waves 10 700 nm
10 10°
10 10

Fig. 8.9 Electromagnetic spectrum.

1. Radio waves. These are the e.m. waves of longest
2. Microwaves. They are the e.m. waves having
wavelength and minimumn frequency. wavelengths next smaller to radiowaves.
Wavelength range 600 mto 0.1 m Wavelength range0.3 mto 10 m
Frequency range 500 kHz to 1000 MHz Frequency range 10 Hz to 102 Hz
Source Accelerated motion of charges in con Source Oscillating currents in special
ducting wires or oscillating circuits. vacuum tubes like klystrons,
Discovered by Marconi in 1895 magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
Properties Reflection, diffraction Discovered by Marconi in 1895

Uses of radio waves: Properties Reflection, refraction, diffraction

and polarisation. Due to their
() In radio and television communication systems. shorter wavelengths, they can
(ii) In radioastronomy. travel as a beam in a signal.
lable 8.1 Some important wireless Uses of microwaves:
communication bands () In radar systems for aircraft navigation.
(ii) In long-distance communication systems via
Frequency band Service
geostationary satellites.
540- 1600 kHz Medium wave AM band
(iii) In microwave ovens.
3-30 MHz Shortwave AM band
3. Infrared waves. These radiations lie close to the
88 - 108 MHz FM broadcast
low-frequency. or long-wavelength of the visible
54-890 MHz TV Waves spectrum. Infrared waves produce heating effect, so they
840 935 MHz Cellular Mobile radio are also known as heat waves or thermal radiation.
 PHYSICS-XI1
The water molecules (and also CO,, NH, molecules) 5. Ultraviolet light. This
region of the e.m.
present in different materials readily absorb infrared spectrum has wavelengths just shorter than viek
waves, increase the thermal motions and hence heat up light and can be detected just beyond the violet end
the materials and their surroundings. the solar spectrum.
Wavelength range 5x 10mto 10mn Wavelength range 3.5x 10 mto 1.5 x 107m
Frequency range 10 Hz to5 x104 Hz 106 Hz to 10" Hz
Source Hot bodies and molecules.
Frequency range
Source High voltage gas discharge tubes,
Discovered by William Herschel in 1800. arcs of iron and mercury, the sun
Properties Heating effect, reflection, refrac Discovered by Ritter in 1800
tion, diffraction and propagation
through fog. Properties Effect on photographic plate, fluo
rescence, ionisation, highly energetic,
Uses of infrared waves : tanning of the human skin.
(i) In the remote control of aTV or VCR, the keypad
of which contains a small infrared transmitter. Uses of ultraviolet light :
(i) In green houses to keep the plants warm. (1) In food preservation.
(iii) In haze photography because infrared waves (ii) In the study of invisible writings, forged
are less scattered than visible light by atmos documents and finger prints.
pheric particles. (üi) In the study of molecular structure.
(iv) Infrared lamps in the treatment of muscular
complaints. The ultraviolet light in large quantities has harmful
(v) In reading the secret writings on the ancient walls.
effects on human beings. But fortunately, most of the
ultraviolet light coming from the sun is absorbed by
(vi) In knowing the molecular structure. the ozone layer in the atomosphere at an altitude of
4. Visible light. It is a very small part of the e.m. about 40 50 km.
spectrum towards which the humnan retina is sensitive. 6. X-rays. These e.m. waves have wavelengths just
The visible light emitted or reflected from bodies shorter than ultraviolet light. As X-rays can pass
around us gives information about the world.
through many forms of matter, so they have marny
Wavelength range8x10m to 4 x10m. useful medical arnd industrial applications.
Frequency range 4x 104 Hz to 7 x 104 Hz Wavelength range 100 ¢to 0.1 ¢
Source Radiated by excited atoms in
ionised gas and incandescent Frequency range 108 Hz to 100 Hz
bodies. Source
Sudden deceleration of fast moving
Properties Reflection, refraction, intetference, electrons by a mnetal target.
diffraction, polarisation, photo Discovered by Rontgen in 1895
electric effect, photographic action,
sensation of sight. Properties Effect on
Uses of visible light : ionisation photographic plate,
of gases, photoelectric
effect, fluorescence, more energetic
(i) It provides us the information of the world than UVrays.
around us.
(ii) It can cause chemical reactions. Uses of X-rays:
(i) In medical
The approximate wavelength ranges for lights of diagnosis because X-rays can pass
different colours are as follows: through flesh but not through bones.
(ii) In the study of crystals
structure because
Table 8.2 Visible Spectrum X-rays can be reflected and diffracted by crystals.
(iii) In engineering for detecting faults, cracks,
Wavelength and holes in the finished metal flaws
Colour
Iange
Colour Wavelength products.
Iange (iv) In detective departments to
Violet, indigo 4000 4500 ¢ Yellow 5700 5900 Ä diamond, gold, etc. in thedetect explosives,
possession of
Blue 4500 - 5000 Orange 5900 - 6200 Å smugglers.
Green 5000 5700 Red 6200 - 7500 (v) In radiotherapy to cure untracable skin
diseases and malignant growths.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.19

7. Gamma rays. These are e.m. radiations of highest Uses of y-rays :

frequency range and lowest wavelength range. These () In radiotherapy for the treatment of malignant
are most penerating e.m. waves. tumours.

Wavelength range 10-14 mto 10-10,m. (i) In the manufacture of polyethylene from
ethylene.
Frequency range 108 Hz to 10 Hz. (iii) To initiate some nuclear reactions.
Source Radioactive nuclei and nuclear
reactíons. Co - 60 is a pure y-ray (iv) To preserve food stuffs for a long time
sOurce. because soft Y-rays can kill micro
organisms.
Discovered by Henry Becqurel in 1896 (v) To study the structure of atomic nuclei.
Properties Effect on photographic plate, fluore
scence, íonisation, diffraction,
high penetrating power.

Kole 8.3 The electromagnetic spectrum

Name Frequency Wavelength Production Detection Main properties

range (Hz) range and uses

Radiowaves 10 to 10 >0.1 m Rapid acceleration Receivers Different wavelengths find

and deaccelerations aerials. specialised uses in radio
of electrons in communication.
aerials.

Microwaves 10 to 1o!2 0.1 m to Klystron valve or Point contact (a) Radar communication.
1mm magnetron valve. diodes. (b) Analysis of fine details of
molecular and atomic
structure.
(c) Since 23 x 10- m, useful
for demonstration of all wave
properties on macroscopic
scale.

Intrared 10!" to 1mm to Vibration of atoms Thermopiles (a) Useful for elucidating
5 x 104 700 nm and molecules. Bolometer molecular structure.
Infrared (b) Less scattered than visible
photographic
film.
light by atmospheric particles-
useful for haze photography.
4x 10'4 700 nm to Electrons in atoms Human eye (a) Detected by stimulating
Visible light 400 nm emit light when they Photocells nerve endings of human
move from one
energy level to a
Photographic
film.
retina.
(b) Can cause chemical reaction.
lower energy level.
Ultraviolet 10l6 to 1017 400 nmn to Inner shell electrons Photocells (a) Absorbed by glass
1nm in atoms moving Photographic (b) Can cause many chemical
from one ener8y film. reactions, e.g., the tanning of
level to a lower level. the human skin.
(c) lonize atoms in atmosphere,
resulting in the ionosphere.
X-rays 10l to 1o' 1nm to X-ray tubes or inner Photographic (a) Penetrate matter
10- nm shell electrons. film, Geiger (eg, radiography)
tubes, Ionization (b) lonize gases
chamber.
(c) Cause fluorescence
(d) Cause photoelectric emission
from metals.
(e) Reflected and diffracted by
crystals enabling ionic lattice
Spacing and N, (or wave
length) to be measured.
Gamma rays 10 to 1022 < 10 nm Radioactive decay of Photographic film, Similar to X-rays.
the nucleus. Geiger tubes,
Ionization chamber.
tiECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.21
813 EFFECT OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ON Atmosphere reflects
Solar energy
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION heating earth Infrared rays
CO, and other
Introduction Gases in lower
The sun is the main source of the Atmosphere
electromagnetic
radiation that we receive on the earth. The atmosphere
is transparent to the visible radiation as we can see the Clouds

sun and the stars through it clear ly. However, the

other components such as infrared and ultraviolet
radiations from the sun are absorbed by different
Earth
layers of the atmosphere. Infrared waves
radiated by earth
17. What is Greenhouse effect for the atmosphere of
the earth and what is its importance ? Fig. 8.11 Greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse effect. This is the phenomenon which
keeps the earth's surface warm at night. 18. What is the importance of ozone layer in the
atmosphere ?
The radiation from the sun heats up the earth. Due
Importance of ozone layer. The solar radiation
to its lower temperature, the earth re-radiates it mostly consists of ultraviolet and some other lower wave
in the infrared region. These infrared radiations cannot length radiations which cause genetic damages to
pass through the lower atmosphere, they get reflected iving cells. The ozone layer absorbs these radiations
back by gas molecules. Low lying clouds also reflect from the sun and prevent them from reaching the
them back to the earth. These radiations heat up the earth's surface and causing damage to life. Moreover,
objects on the earth's surface and so keep the earth's it also keeps the earth warm by trapping infrared
surface warm at night. radiation.

VERY SHORT ANSWER CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1. What is displacement current due to ? Problem 4.If you find closed loops ofB in a region in
Solution. Displacement current exists due to a space, does it necessarily mean that actual charges are
time-varying electric field or changing electric flux. flowing across the area bounded by the loops ?
Problem 2. Is the steady electric current the only Solution. Not necessarily. A displacement current
source of magnetic field ? Justify your answer. (such as that between the plates of a capacitor that is being
[CBSE D13C] charged) can also produce loops of B, where charges do
Solution. No, displacement current also produces a not flow actually.
magnetic field between the capacitor plates. Problem 5. A variable frequency a.c. source is
Problem 3. A capactor of capacitance C, is being connected to a capacitor. How will the displacement
charged up by connecting it across a d.c. voltage source current change with decrease in frequency ?
of voltage V. How do the conduction and displacement [Exemplar Problem;CBSE OD 15C)
currents, in this set-up compare with each other Solution. With the decrease in frequency, the
1
(a) during the charging up process ? reactance X = increases.
(b) after the capacitor gets fully charged ? 2rfC
[CBSE D 13] This decreases conduction current. As I, = , the
Solution. By the property of continuity, displacement current will also decrease.
(a) Conduction current Problem 6. Why is the quantity dd called the
= Displacement current
=a non-zero value, during the charging up process. displacement current ?
(b) Conduction current Solution. This is because the quantity dÙg Idt has
= Displacement current the dimensions of current and this current exists due to
=0, after the capacitor gets fully charged. displacement of chargesacross the capacitor plates.