CY3151-ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

UNIT I: WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

PART A

1. Define taste and odour

Taste is the sensation of flavor perceives in the mouth on contact with a substance.
Odour is the smell caused by some compounds

2. What is meant by turbidity?

It is the measure of light transmitting property of water.

3. What is the significance of pH?

pH determines the solubility, biological availability & level of chemical pollution (by acid rain).
4. Define hardness of water.
Hardness is the property of water which does not produce lather readily with soap solution.

5. What is hard water & soft water? OR Distinguish between hard water & soft water
Water, which does not produce lather readily with soap solution but produces white precipitate,
is called hard water.
Water, which produces lather readily with soap solution is called soft water.

6. What are carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness?

Carbonate hardness: This is due to the presence of bicarbonate salts of calcium and
magnesium. It can be removed by simple boiling process.
Non-carbonate hardness: This is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. It cannot be removed by boiling.

7. Why does carbonate hardness is called temporary hardness?

Carbonate hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonate salts of Ca 2+ & Mg2+ and it can be removed
by simple boiling. Therefore it is also called as temporary hardness

8. What are the salts responsible for temporary and permanent hardness of water?
Temporary hardness: Ca(HCO3)2 , Mg(HCO3)2
Permanent hardness: CaCl2 , CaSO4 , MgCl2 , MgSO4
9. What happens when temporary hardness water is boiled? Give equation.
Boiling removes temporary hardness.
boiling
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

10. Why do we express hardness of water in terms of CaCO3 equivalents?

Reason: 1. CaCO3 is the most insoluble salt. 2. Its mol.wt is 100 and eq.wt is 50, so easy for
calculations.

11. What are the units for hardness?

Ppm = parts per million, mg/L = milligrams per litre, Clarks degree =0.07ppm, French degree = 0.1ppm.

12. Explain the role of EBT in the EDTA titration.

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 To find out the endpoint through colour change (wine red to steel blue)

13. Why buffer is used in EDTA titration?

In order to maintain the pH 8-10, Buffer solution (NH4Cl + NH4OH) is added. Only at this pH,
complexation is possible.

14. Define alkalinity.

Alkalinity is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize the acid.

15. What are the constituents responsible for alkalinity of water? OR what is the cause for
alkalinity of natural water?
It is due to the presence of soluble i) carbonate, ii) bicarbonate and iii) hydroxide ions.

16. Differentiate BOD &COD

S.No BOD COD
1 Amount of O2 required for biological Amount of O2 required for chemical
breakdown of the pollutants through micro breakdown of the pollutants using acidified
organisms K2Cr2O7
2 BOD is always lower than COD COD is always higher than BOD
3 Determined for duration of 5 days at 20 oC Determined for duration of 2 to 3 hrs at 20 oC
(slow process) (fast & accurate process)

17. What is the significance of fluoride in humans?

1ppm: prevents dental cavities
>1ppm: decolouration of teeth
>1.5ppm: weakening of bones: fluorosis

18. What are the problems associated with TDS?

The problems associated with TDS are scaling in pipes, heaters and boilers.

19. What are the requisites of drinking water?

 Water should be free from pathogenic microorganisms. The hardness should not exceed 125 ppm.
 pH should be 7 to 8.5. The total dissolved solid should be less than 500 ppm.

20. What is the purpose of aeration?

Aeration is done to remove a) gases like CO2, H2S, etc. b) Salts like Fe+2 & Mn+2

21. What are coagulants? Give an example.

Coagulants are certain chemicals used to remove the impurities like finely divided silica, clay and
organic matter in water. Example: Al2(SO4)3

22. What is meant by sterilization of water? OR what is disinfection? Give two examples
The process of destroying harmful bacteria to make water safe for drinking is called sterilization. (1)
Ozonization & (2) Chlorination

23. How is water sterilized by ozone?

O3 O2 + [O]
Nascent oxygen released due to decomposition of ozone acts as a powerful disinfectant.

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24. What is chlorination?
The process of adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. It can be done by adding- chlorine
gas, chloramines and bleaching powder.
25. What is break point chlorination?
Break point chlorination is the point at which all the impurities and bacteria are removed and free
chlorine begins to appear.

26. What is meant by desalination?

The process of removal of dissolved solids (NaCl) from water is called desalination.

27. What is reverse osmosis? OR what is super filteration?

When the hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on higher concentration side,
solvent flows from the region of higher concentration to lower concentration. It is also called as
super filtration.

28. What are the membranes used in reverse osmosis?

Cellulose acetate, Cellulose butyrate

29. What is boiler feed water?

Water fed into the boiler for the production of steam.

30. List out the requirements of boiler feed water.

Boiler feed water must have zero hardness. It should be free from dissolved gases like O2 & CO2.

31. Why is water softened before using in boilers? OR why is hard water unsuitable for
boilers? OR What are boiler troubles? OR list two disadvantages of using hard water in
boilers. OR Why is water softened before using in boiler?
If hard water obtained from natural sources is fed directly into the boilers, the following troubles
may rise: i) Scale and sludge formation, ii) priming and foaming, iii) caustic embrittlement and
iv) boiler corrosion.

32. What are scales and sludges?

Sludge: It is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed during the production of steam and is formed
by substances like MgCl2, MgSO4.
Scale: It is a hard and adherent coating on the inner walls of the boiler and is formed by substances
like Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4.

33. What is blow down operation?

It is process of removing a portion of concentrated water and adding fresh water frequently from the
boiler during steam production.

34. How is scale formation prevented in boilers?

It is prevented by
i) External treatment methods – demineralization or lime soda process.
ii) Internal treatment methods – by adding suitable chemicals inside the boiler itself.

35. What is priming and foaming?

Priming: It is the process of production of wet steam due to high steam velocity.

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Foaming: It is the process of formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water due to presence
of oil, grease and fine particles.

36. What is caustic embrittlement?

The intercrystalline cracking of boiler metal when the concentration of sodium hydroxide is above
100 ppm in the boiler feed water.

37. Mention any two compounds that cause caustic embrittlement in boilers.
Alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates like Na2CO3, K2CO3, NaHCO3 & KHCO3
38. What is boiler corrosion?
Corrosion in boilers due to the presence of dissolved gases such as oxygen, carbondioxide, hydrogen
sulphide and salts like magnesium chloride in water.

39. Name the gases dissolved in water that cause corrosion? How can it be prevented?
The presence of dissolved gases such as oxygen, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide causes corrosion.
It can be prevented by mechanical de-aeration.

40. Define softening of water. What are the methods of softening?

The process of removing hardness producing salts from water is known as softening or conditioning
of water. Softening of water can be done in two methods:
1. External treatment and 2. Internal conditioning

41. Distinguish between internal and external conditioning of water

External conditioning: removing the hardness producing salts from water before feeding into boiler.
Internal conditioning: removal of scale forming substance by adding chemicals directly into the boiler.

42. What are boiler compounds? Give examples.

The chemicals added directly to the boiler to remove scale forming substances.

43. Name an internal treatment method used for high pressure boiler and explain
Phosphate conditioning is used in high pressure boilers.
 Phosphate forms non-adherent soft sludges with calcium and magnesium salts, which can be
removed by blow down operation.
3MgCl2+ 2Na3PO4 Mg3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl

44. What is phosphate conditioning?

Sodium phosphate added to boiler feed water reacts with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ salts to give soft sludges
[Ca3(PO4)2], which can be removed by blow-down operation.
3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

45. What is calgon? How does it function in water treatment?

Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6] which interacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
present in hard water forming highly soluble complex.
2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] → Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
46. Calgon is better than phosphate conditioning? Why?
In phosphate conditioning, soft sludges (phosphates) formed are removed by blow down operation. In
calgon conditioning, there is no problem of precipitates or sludge disposal.

47. Distinguish between soft water and demineralized water

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Soft water does not contain Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions, but it contain other ions like Na +, K+,SO4-2, Cl- etc.
On the other hand demineralized water does not contain both anions & cations.

48. What are ion exchange resins?

Resin is a long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymer with a microporous structure.

49. What is demineralization process? Mention the advantages of demineralization.

The process of removal of all the ions (both anion and cation) present in water is called as
demineralization or deionization.
Advantages: i) Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated.
ii) The water obtained by this process has very low hardness (nearly 2 ppm).

50. What are the disadvantages of ion-exchange process?

i) The turbid water cannot be treated by this method because turbidity blocks the surface of
resins.
ii) The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.
iii) Water containing Fe and Mn cannot be treated as they form stable compound with the resins.

Part B

1. Water quality parameters

Water quality parameters are very important to decide the type of treatment required for water.
The following are some important parameters of quality of water.

I. Physical parameters
1. Colour: primary concern for aesthetic view
Due to suspended particles, inorganic and organic matter
Sources:
Organic: Algae, tannins, dyes, etc.
Inorganic: Fe and Mn compounds, chemicals from industries.
 Light to dark brown: Fe
 Yellowish tinge: Cr
 Light to green: Algae/ organic matter.
Significance: Objectionable in Dyeing and laundry.
Removed by: Coagulation, settling, adsorption and filtration techniques.

2. Taste and Odour: both go together and are inseparable

Odour is produced by gas production due to
a) decay of organic substances (foul smell) b)decay of inorganic substances (earthy smell)
Sources:
Organic: Algae and decaying vegetation.
Inorganic: mercaptans, amines and sulphides, etc.
Significance: Objectionable in food and bevarages, textile and paper industries.
Removed by:
 Aeration and activated carbon for organic sources.
 Oxidation, chlorination / precipitation for inorganic sources.
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 3. Turbidity and sediments: it is the measure of light transmitting property of water.
Sources:
Organic: vegetable matter, microorganisms, etc.
Inorganic: clay, silt, silica, etc.
Problems in: boilers, water softening process and disinfection process.
Significance:
 Affects the taste and odour, affects growth rate of algae.
 Blocks sunlight to aquatic plants, increases temperature of water due to absorption of heat.
Removed by: coagulation, settling and filtering.

II. Chemical parameters

1.pH: it is negative logarithm of H+ ions concentration. –log[H+]
Measure of how acidic or basic the water is.
pH scale: 0 to14

Limit: 6.5 to 8.5 for drinking water

Waters from areas rich in Na & K are alkaline
Rain water contaminated by SOx & NOX is acidic.
Problems: digestive problems and pipe line corrosion.
Significance: pH determines – solubility, biological availability & pollution.

2. Alkalinity: means basicity of water.

It is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize an acid.
Due to the presence of HCO3-, CO3-2 & -OH ions.
Expressed interms of CaCO3 in mg/l or ppm
Sources: rocks, soils, salts, industrial waste waters, etc.
Significance: harmful to aquatic organisms, caustic embrittlement of pipes.

3. Total dissolved solids (TDS): Measure of all inorganic and organic substances present in
water.
Significance:
Impacts salinity of water, potable water-300ppm, >1200ppm impacts colour, odour and taste.
Problem: scaling in pipes, heaters and boilers.

4. Fluoride: Found in Ground waters from geologic formulations

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 Sources: Minerals (fluorapatite, cryolite) and domestic sewage and farm land runoff.
Limit: 1 to 1.5ppm
Significance:
 1ppm : prevents dental cavities
 >1ppm: decolouration of teeth
 >1.5 ppm: weakening of bones (fluorosis)
Removal:
 precipitation using Al salts in alkaline medium
 Using Strong basic anion exchange resin & adsorption on activated carbon

5. Arsenic :Metallic element- forms poisonous compounds

Source: natural deposits, runoff from agriculture, mining and industries.
Significance: cancers of skin, kidney & bladder; Hypertension and reproductive disorders.

6. Hardness: property of water which does not produce lather with soap.
Due to presence of Ca+2/Mg+2 ions in water.
Expressed interms of CaCO3 in mg/l or ppm
Types of hardness
1) Temporary hardness or Carbonate hardness or alkaline hardness:
 Due to presence of bicarbonates of Ca+2/Mg+2 ions.
 Removed by simple boiling and addition of lime.

2) Permanent hardness or Non-Carbonate hardness or Non-alkaline hardness:

 Due to presence of sulphates and chlorides of Ca+2/Mg+2 ions.
 Removed by lime soda process and zeolite process.
 Significance: lather formation; scale formation in boilers & pipes; mitigates metal toxicity in fish

III. Biological parameters

1. Biological oxygen demand (BOD): Amount of oxygen required for biological breakdown of
the pollutants through microorganisms.
BOD is always lower than COD
Determined for duration of 5 days at 20oC (slow process)

2. Chemical oxygen demand (COD): Amount of oxygen required for chemical decomposition of
the pollutants using acidified K2Cr2O7
COD is always higher than BOD
Determined for duration of 2 to 3 hrs at 20oC (fast & accurate process)

7. How the water can be treated for the use of domestic purpose?
Treatment of water

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 Sources of water- Rivers / Lakes
Screening – removing the floating materials by using screens.
Aeration – mixing air with water to remove gases (CO 2 & H2S) and
salts (Fe+2& Mn+2)
Sedimentation – removing the suspended impurities (75%) by
allowing the water to stand for 2-6 hrs (due to forces of gravity)
Coagulation – sedimentation by chemicals called coagulants.eg)
Alum, Al2(SO4)3, etc.
Al2(SO4)3 + water Al(OH) 3 entraps finely divided
and colloidal impurities and settle to bottom.
Filtration – process of removing bacteria, colour, taste, odour and
suspended particles by passing the water in filter beds (sand filter)
containing fine sand, coarse sand and gravel. Figure
Disinfection – destroying the harmful bacteria is called sterilization.
Chemicals used for this purpose is called disinfectants
Sterilization/ Disinfection Methods
1. Boiling: water is boiled for 10-15mins to kill the bacteria (not for large scale).
2. Ozonization: Nascent oxygen released due to decomposition of ozone (unstable) acts as a
powerful disinfectant.
O3 O2 + [O]
Disadvantages: costly, not for large scale and unstable (cannot be stored)
3.Ultraviolet radiation: Using mercury vapour lamp as a source for UV radiation.
Used in swimming pools.
Disadvantages: costly, not used for turbid water.
4. Chlorination methods:
(a) Chlorine gas: Chlorine gas bubbled in the water.
(b) Chloromine (Cl NH2): Chloromine decomposes slowly to chlorine.
Cl2 + NH3 Cl NH2 + HCl
(2:1)

( c) Bleaching powder (CaOCl2): Chlorine is produced on hydrolysis of CaOCl2 . Cl2 in water

releases hypochlorous (HOCl) acid, which kills bacteria.
CaOCl2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl
8. Give the principle involved in Break Point Chlorination.
Sources of water: Bacteria, organic impurities, reducing substances and free ammonia
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i) Stage I: Initially the applied chlorine is
used to kill the bacteria and oxidizes all
the reducing substances present in the
water
ii) Stage II: When the applied chlorine
increases, the amount of combined
chlorine also increases due to the
formation of chloramines and other
chloro compounds.
iii) Stage III: On further chlorination,
destruction of chloramines and chloro
compounds starts and there is a fall in the
combined chlorine content.
iv)Stage IV: The combined chlorine decreases to a minimum point at which oxidation is complete and free
residual chlorine begins to appear. This minimum point is known as break point chlorination.

9. What is meant by reverse osmosis? Explain the purification of water by RO process

Osmosis: when two solutions having different concentrations are separated by the semi-permeable
membrane, the solvent (water) flows from the region of lower concentration to higher
concentrations.
The driving force of osmosis is osmotic pressure.
Figure:

Reverse osmosis: when the hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on higher
concentration side, solvent flows from the region of higher concentration to lower concentration. It
is also called as super filtration.
Examples of membranes: Cellulose acetate, Cellulose butyrate
Advantages
 The lifetime of membrane is high and it can be replaced within few minutes
 It removes ionic as well as non-ionic colloidal impurities
 Low capital and simple equipment.

10. What are the essential requirements of boiler feed water

1. Boiler feed water should be free from oil and turbidity
2. It should have zero hardness
3. It should be free from dissolved gases like O2, CO2, H2S, etc.
4. It should be free from total dissolved solids.
5. It should be free from suspended impurities.
6. It should be free from dissolved salts and alkalinity.

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11. Explain the boiler troubles suggesting the remedial methods.
Boiler troubles:
a. i) Scale & Sludge formation: when water is continuously
converted into steam the concentration of dissolved salts
reaches the saturation point and they are thrown out in
the form of precipitates.
Sludge: The loose and slimy precipitate.
Can be removed by blow down operation
eg) MgSO4, MgCl2, MgCO3 and CaCl2
Scale: The hard and adherent precipitate coated on the
inner walls of the boiler
Can be removed by external and internal treatment.
eg) CaSO4, Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(OH)2
ii) Priming and foaming: Due to rapid boiling, some droplets of liquid water (with impurities) are
carried along with steam. This steam is wet steam and the phenomenon is Priming and foaming.
Priming: process of production of wet steam
 Caused by high steam velocity & sudden boiling
 Controlled by controlling steam velocity & using treated water
Foaming: formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water.
 Caused by oil, grease and fine particles
 Prevented by coagulants & antifoaming agents

Caustic embrittlement: means intercrystalline cracking of boiler material (rivets, bends & joints)
due to accumulation of caustic substances.
As water evaporates in the boiler, concentration of Na 2CO3 increases (undergoes hydrolysis). Also
it may be left behind in the boiler water after lime soda process (softening)
Hydrolysis: Na2CO3+ H2O 2NaOH + CO2
Dissolution of boiler material (Fe): Fe + 2NaOH Na2 FeO2
Decomposition: 3Na2 FeO2 + 4 H2O 6NaOH + Fe3O4 (rust) + H2
Prevention:
 Replacing Na2CO3 by Na3PO4
 Adding tannin or lignin or Na2SO4 to block hair line cracks.
iv) Boiler corrosion: due to the presence of dissolved O2, CO2 and salts.
Dissolved O2:
4 Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 4Fe(OH)3
Removal by chemical method:
2Na2SO3+ O2 2Na2SO4
N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
Mechanical deaeration: by applying high
temperature and low pressure
Dissolved CO2: CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Removal by chemical method:
NH4OH + CO2 (NH4)2CO3 + H2O
Mechanical deaeration: by applying high temperature and low pressure
Dissolved salts: like MgCl2
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 MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2 + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Removal chemical method: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

12. Explain the formation of scale and sludge and give the differences.
a. i) Scale & Sludge formation: when water is continuously
converted into steam the concentration of dissolved salts
reaches the saturation point and they are thrown out in
the form of precipitates (scales & sludges).
Disadvantages:
(1) Wastage of fuel: as they act as thermal insulators,
overheating of the boiler is required for the production of
steam.
(2) Decrease in efficiency of boiler.
(3) Boiler explosion: due to overheating, scales crack
and cause sudden contact of boiler material with water.
Thus, large amount of steam is produced and develops
high pressure leading to explosion.

Scales Sludges
1. The hard and adherent precipitate coated on 1. The soft, loose, slimy and non-adherent
the inner walls of the boiler precipitate.
2. It is formed by substances like CaSO4, 2. It is formed by substances like MgSO4, MgCl2,
Ca(HCO3)2, etc. etc.
3. It is a thermal insulator. 3. It is a poor conductor of heat
4. Can be prevented by using soft water produced 4. Can be prevented by using soft water produced
from external and internal treatment. from external and internal treatment.
5. Can be removed by 5. Can be removed by blow down operation
a. wire brush in initial stage Blow down operation: It is a process of removing a
b. thermal shocks if scales are brittle portion of concentrated water and adding fresh
c. dilute acids, for CaCO3 scales water to the boiler during steam production.

13. Distinguish between internal and external treatment

Internal treatment External treatment
1. Removal of scale forming substance by Removal of scale forming substance from water
adding chemicals directly into the boiler. before feeding into the boiler
2. Boiler compounds are used for treatment. Ex: zeolite and ion exchange process.
Ex: carbonate, phosphate, calgon, colloidal
conditioning, etc.
3. Formation of soft sludges due to reaction between No formation of soft sludges
the scale forming substance and boiler compounds
4. Boiler compounds are chosen depending on the Generally high pressure boilers require external
pressure of the boilers (generally low P boilers) treatment.
5. Treated water may cause boiler corrosion Treated water does not cause boiler corrosion
14. Give an account of internal treatment of water.
Removal of scale forming substances, by adding chemicals directly into the boiler is called internal
treatment.
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The chemicals added directly to the boiler to remove scale forming substances are called boiler compounds.

a. Colloidal conditioning:
 Used in low pressure boilers.
 Colloidal agents (Agar Agar, gelatin, kerosene etc.,) form coating on scale forming particles and
make them non-adherent, loose precipitates (soft sludges), which can be removed by blow
down operation.

b. Phosphate conditioning:
 Used in high pressure boilers.
 Phosphate forms non-adherent soft sludges with calcium and magnesium salts, which can be
removed by blow down operation.
3MgCl2+ 2Na3PO4 Mg3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl

3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

Type of phosphate
S.No. Used in
Name Nature
1. Na3PO4 : Tri Sodium phosphate Too alkaline Acidic water
2. Na2HPO4: Di Sodium Hydrogen phosphate Weakly alkaline Weakly acidic water
3. NaH2PO4: Sodium di Hydrogen phosphate Too acidic Alkaline water

c. Calgon conditioning: Sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6] is known as calgon.

2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6]+ 2Na2SO4

calgon Highly soluble complex
 Calgon forms highly soluble complex with scale forming salts.
 Hence, no problem of sludge disposal.
 For this reason, calgon conditioning is better than phosphate conditioning.

d. Sodium Aluminate conditioning (NaAlO2) :

Step 1: Hydrolysis of NaAlO2
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
Step 2: NaOH precipitates some of magnesium ions of hard water as Mg(OH)2
MgCl2+ 2NaOH 2NaCl + Mg(OH)2
 The precipitates of Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 entrap all the finely suspended and colloidal
impurities (oil drops and silica), which can be removed by blow down operation.

15. Explain the softening of water by demineralization process.

Ion exchange process or demineralization process
Ion exchange resin: long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers with a microporous
structure.
Based on functional groups: two types.
Cation exchanger: Resins containing acidic functional groups.
 Capable of exchanging their H+ ions with other cations
 Represented as RH2.
 e.g) sulphonated coals, sulphonated polystyrene

Anion exchanger: Resins containing basic functional groups

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  Capable of exchanging their anions with other anions
 Represented as R(OH)2.
 e.g) Urea formaldehyde resin, Cross linked quaternary ammonium salts

Ion exchange process:

Cation exchange column:
RH2+ CaCl2 RCa + 2HCl
RH2+ MgSO4 RMg + H2SO4
RH + NaCl RNa +HCl
Anion exchange column:
R(OH)2 + 2HCl RCl2 + 2H2O
R(OH)2 + H2SO4 RSO4 + 2H2O

Regeneration:
RCa + 2HCl RH2+ CaCl2
RNa +HCl RH + NaCl
RCl2 + 2NaOH R(OH)2 + 2NaCl

Advantages:
 Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process
 The water obtained by this process will have very low hardness
Disadvantages:
 Water containing turbidity (reduces output), Fe and Mn (form stable compounds with
resin) cannot be treated.
 The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.

11. What are zeolites? How are they used in softening of water?
 Zeolites are naturally occurring hydrated sodium alumino silicate.
 Its general formula is Na2OAl2O3.xSiO2.yH2O. (x = 2-10, y =2-6).
 These are green sand and non-porous in nature.
 Synthetic zeolites are called permutit.
 These are porous and have gel like structure, therefore used in water softening process.
These are represented as Na2Ze.

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 Process:
Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + MgCl2 MgZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 CaZe + 2NaHCO3
Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 MgZe + 2NaHCO3
Na2Ze + CaSO4 CaZe + Na2SO4
Na2Ze + MgSO4 MgZe + Na2SO4
Regeneration:
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2

Advantages:
 Water obtained by this process has low hardness(2ppm)
 It is less expensive
 No sludge formation
 Equipment is compact and operating is easy
Disadvantages:
 Turbid water cannot be treated because it blocks the pores of zeolite.
 Water containing Fe and Mn cannot be treated because regeneration is difficult.
 Acidic water cannot be treated because it destroys zeolite structure.
 The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts and produces boiler corrosion
and caustic embrittlement.

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