INTERNET OF THINGS

CourseCode 21CS735 CIEMarks 50

TeachingHours/Week(L:T:P:S) 3:0:0:0 SEEMarks 50
TotalHoursofPedagogy 40 TotalMarks 100
Credits 03 ExamHours 03
Module-1
Emergence of IoT:Introduction, Evolution of IoT,EnablingIoT and theComplex Interdependence of
Technologies, IoT Networking Components, Addressing Strategies in IoT.

Textbook1:Chapter4–4.1to 4.5

Teaching-LearningProcess Chalk and board, Active Learning, Problem based learning

Module-2

IoTSensingandActuation: Introduction, Sensors, SensorCharacteristics,SensorialDeviations,Sensing

Types, Sensing Considerations, Actuators, Actuator Types, Actuator Characteristics.

Textbook1:Chapter5–5.1to 5.9

Teaching-LearningProcess Chalk and board,Active Learning, Demonstration

Module-3

IoT Processing Topologies and Types: DataFormat, Importance of Processing in IoT, Processing
Topologies, IoT Device Design and Selection Considerations, Processing Offloading.

Textbook1:Chapter6–6.1to 6.5
Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Problem based learning, Demonstration

Module-4

IoT Connectivity Technologies: Introduction, IEEE 802.15.4, Zigbee, Thread, ISA100.11A,

WirelessHART,RFID,NFC,DASH7,Z-Wave,Weightless,Sigfox,LoRa,NB-IoT,Wi-Fi,Bluetooth

Textbook1:Chapter7–7.1to7.16

Teaching-Learning Process Chalk &board, Problem based learning

Module-5

IoTCommunicationTechnologies:Introduction,InfrastructureProtocols,DiscoveryProtocols,Data Protocols,
Identification Protocols, Device Management, Semantic Protocols

IoTInteroperability:Introduction,Taxonomy of interoperability,Standards,Frameworks

Textbook1:Chapter8–8.1,6.2,8.3,8.4,8.5,8.6,.7
Textbook1:Chapter9–9.1,9.2,9.3

INTRODUCTION
The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular
paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT).
Each second, the present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through
it.
This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text, numbers, binary
codes, machine status, banking messages, data from sensors and actuators, healthcare
data, data from vehicles, home automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more.
This huge variety of data is generated from a massive number of connected devices,
which may be directly connected to the Internet or connected through gateway devices.
According to statistics from the Information Handling Services. the total number of
connected devices globally is estimated to be around 25 billion.
This figure is projected to triple within a short span of 5 years by the year 2025. Figure
4.1 shows the global trend and projection for connected devices worldwide.
The traffic flowing through the Internet can be attributed to legacy systems as well as
modern-day systems.

The miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability of technology is resulting in

a surge of connected devices, which in turn is leading to an explosion of traffic flowing
through the Internet.

“The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain embedded
technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the
external environment.”
One of the best examples of this explosion is the evolution of smartphones. In the late 1990’s, cellular
technology was still expensive and which could be afforded only by a select few. Moreover, these
particular devices had only the basic features of voice calling, text messaging, and sharing of low-
quality multimedia.
Within the next 10 years, cellular technology had become common and easily affordable. With time,
the features of these devices evolved, and the dependence of various applications and services on
these gadgets on packet-based Internet accesses started rapidly increasing.
The present-day mobile phones (commonly referred to as smartphones) are more or less Internet-
based. The range of applications on these gadgets such as messaging, video calling, e-mails, games,
music streaming, video streaming, and others are solely dependent on network provider allocated
Internet access or WiFi

IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in Figure 4.2) network of Internet-connected
physical devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed environment
intelligently. This is generally achieved using low-power and low-form-factor embedded processors
on-board the “things” connected to the Internet.
. In other words, IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices, machines, and tools;
these things are made up of sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to the Internet through
wireless technologies
Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features
• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-IP devices.
• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.
IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as compared to electricity
and telephony. These speculations are not ill placed as evident from the various statistics shown in
Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5.
4.2 Evolution of IoT

The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts over a
few decades. The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by
achieving easy integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive
benefits by using connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for the
development of IoT.
Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements for shaping the IoT as it
is today. These sequence of technical developments toward the emergence of IoT are
described in brief:

• ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of
a user and their account through a specially coded card. The central concept behind
ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even when banks were closed
beyond their regular work hours. These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers. The
first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.
• Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform.
The Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively
responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing and communication.
• Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became
operational in early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating remotely
with the power grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and
eased the process of billing and power allocation from grids.
• Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at
connected home-automation systems. Present-day digital locks are so robust that
smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as locking and unlocking
doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists, can be easily
performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.
• Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and
relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The
devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse of
the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals. The connected
nature of these systems makes the availability of medical records and test results much
faster, cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.
• Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with
other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it. These vehicles
self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
• Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and
actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves
enables unified and synchronized operations and information dissemination. Some of
the facilities which may benefit are parking, transportation, and others
• Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they
can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For
example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose
problems in the human body.
• Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines,
distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction in mishaps
due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is drastically reduced.
• UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust publicdomain
solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance,
deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies
The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications. The major
highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology
enabler.
Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over IoT-based
platforms. Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms, along with
modern developments, makes IoT quite robust and economical for commercial,
industrial, as well as consumer applications.
IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as
smart parking,
smartphone detection,
traffic congestion,
smart lighting,
waste management,
smart roads,
structural health,
urban noise maps,
river floods,
water flow,
silos stock calculation,
water leakages,
radiation levels,
explosive and hazardous gases,
perimeter access control,
snow level monitoring,
liquid presence,
forest fire detection,
air pollution,
smart grid,
tank level, photovoltaic installations,
NFC (near-field communications) payments,
intelligent shopping applications,
landslide and avalanche prevention,
early detection of earthquakes,
supply chain control,
smart product management, and others.
Figure 4.7 shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and
networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of people
(IoP), and Industry 4.0. Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but the
omnipresent nature of IoT implies that these domains act as subsets of IoT. The paradigms are
briefly discussed here:

(i) M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of

connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without
human intervention. The communication between the machines can be for updates
on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task
completion, overall knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.
(ii) CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control
loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback
mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the
feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the
system keeps on actuating and sensing. Humans have a simple supervisory role in
CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level operations are automated
(iii) IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing
the ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment
[3]. The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming,
sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of
systems and processes, and others. In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect
of IoT that concerns and affects the environment, falls under the purview of IoE.
(iv) Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial
revolution pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The previous
revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and the
industrial revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the
 concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another without much
human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT. The digitization and
connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce
management, optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep
and lifetimes of industrial systems.
(v) IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to
decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks
while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data. A famous site for
IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the power of
banks and governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of
corporations, governments, and their spy agencies [4].

IoT versus M2M

M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and
interactions between various machines and devices.
These interactions can be enabled through
 a cloud computing infrastructure,
 a server,
 or simply a local network hub.

M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling
device management and device interaction.
Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M, and
technically emphasized on machine interactions via one or more
communication networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains, as
shown in Figure 4.7.
M2M standards occupy a core place in the IoT landscape. However, in
terms of operational and functional scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and
comprises a broader range of interactions such as the interactions between
devices/things, things, and people, things and applications, and people
with applications;
M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows comprising such
interactions within IoT. Internet connectivity is central to the IoT theme
but is not necessarily focused on the use of telecom networks.
4.2.2 IoT versus CPS Cyber physical systems (CPS)
CPS encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback as a complete package.
In other words, a digital twin is attached to a CPS-based system. As mentioned
earlier, a digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in which the system signifies
a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery, while the model represents
the mathematical model or representation of the physical system’s behavior or
operation.
Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as
it allows for the comparison of the physical system’s output, performance, and health.
 Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given
corrective directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.
In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback or a digital twin
system.
IoT is more focused on networking than controls.
Some of the constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as those formed by
CPS-based instruments and networks) may include feedback and controls too. In this
light, CPS may be considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT, as shown in Figure
4.7

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access and
control over IoT resources and applications.
These resources and applications are generally built using technologies such as HTML 5.0,
JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and others.
REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT. The use of RESTful
principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables both developers and
deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance, and maturity of existing web
technologies without having to redesign and redeploy solutions from scratch.
Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability and security
challenges, especially when trying to build a globally uniform WoT.
As IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems, and
applications, which often do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of the
Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT into the
existing Web is really invaluable.
Technically, WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat added over the network
layer. However, the scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also which includes non-
IP-based systems that are not accessible through the web.

Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both legacy and
modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm.
Regarding Figure 4.8, we can divide the IoT paradigm into four planes:
 SERVICES,
 LOCAL CONNECTIVITY,
 GLOBAL CONNECTIVITY,
 AND PROCESSING
If we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered fall Emergence of IoT under the
control and purview of service providers.
The service plane is composed of two parts:
1) things or devices and
2) low-power connectivity.
Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and lowpower
connectivity. For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed
by rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is
mainly built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart glasses,
factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other such contraptions
(which may even be just a sensor).
The immediate low-power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things in
local implementation, may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular. In
contrast, modern-day technologies are mainly wireless and often programmable such as
Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH, Insteon, and others.
The range of these connectivity technologies is severely restricted; they are responsible for
the connectivity between the things of the IoT and the nearest hub or gateway to access the
Internet.

For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is mainly built
upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol. The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones,
household appliances, smart glasses, factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs,
robots, and other such contraptions (which may even be just a sensor).
IoT Networking Components
An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with their
application domains,
Broadly 6 types of IoT Networking Components are
1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT WAN, 5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy
(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of these
devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside
it). The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means
of a common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are through
gateways and proxies.
(ii) IoT Router: An IoT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily
tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network; it
keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A router can be repurposed
as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the
purview of a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity
technologies.
(iv) IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet. Generally, they are
localized within a building or an organization.
(v) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments
such as LANs. They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with
their operational range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the segments they
are connecting.
(vi) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a
WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs. Their
primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer
using only layer 3.
(vii) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application
layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer
proxies are a means of providing security to the network entities under it ; it helps
to extend the addressing range of its network.

Addressing Strategies in IoT

 IPv4, which relies more on reliable delivery of packets between source and
destination, an IPv6 packet is more address-oriented.
 Due to the increasing rate of devices being connected to the Internet, the
early developers of IPv6 felt the need for accommodating addresses as
more crucial than the need for reliable transmission of packets (which was
the main feature of IPv4-based routing of packets).
 The first three blocks are designated as the global prefix, which is
globally unique.
 The next block is designated as the subnet prefix, which identifies the
subnet of an interface/gateway through which LANs may be connected
to the Internet. Finally, the last four blocks (64 bits) of hexadecimal
addresses are collectively known as the interface identifier (IID).
 IIDs may be generated based on MAC (media access control) identifiers
of devices/nodes or using pseudo-random number generator algorithms
[2].
 The IPv6 addresses can be divided into seven separate address types,
which is generally based on how these addresses are used or where they
are deployed.
(i) Global Unicast (GUA): These addresses are assigned to single IoT
entities/ interfaces; they enable the entities to transmit traffic to
and from the Internet. In regular IoT deployments, these
addresses are assigned to gateways, proxies, or WANs.
(ii) Multicast: These addresses enable transmission of messages
from a single networked entity to multiple destination entities
simultaneously.
(iii) Link Local (LL): The operational domain of these addresses are
valid only within a network segment such as LAN. These
addresses may be repeated in other network segments/LANs,
but are unique within that single network segment.
(iv) Unique Local (ULA): Similar to LL addresses, ULA cannot be
routed over the Internet. These addresses may be repeated in
other network segments/LANs, but are unique within that single
network segment.
(v) Loopback: It is also known as the localhost address. Typically,
these addresses are used by developers and network testers for
diagnostics and system checks.
(vi) Unspecified: Here, all the bits in the IPv6 address are set to zero
and the destination address is not specified.
(vii) Solicited-node Multicast: It is a multicast address based on the
IPv6 address of an IoT node or entity.