Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Advent of arabs and turks

Arbas settled in malabar and the coromandel coast , those who married malabar
women and settled their were called mapillas

Sultanate period Slave dynasty - 1206-1290

Khilji dynasty- 1290-1320

Tughlaq dynasty - 1320-1414

Sayyid Dynasty 1414-1451

Lodhi dynasty 1451-1526

Sources Al beruni- Tarikh al hind

ziauddin barani- tarikh i firoz shahi

Amir khusrao- Miftah ul futuh

Tughlaq nama- history of tughlaq in persian

Ferista- history of muslim rule in india

Muhammad bin
kasim Led army against dahar ruler of sind and sent plunder to caliph
Mahmud of
ghazni
(Ghaznavid ) Arab empire collapsed into different provinces one being samanid empire
Turkish slaves who had served as samanids as their governor in Khurasan (Iran)
seized the city of ghazni in eastern afghanistan and established an independent
kingdom.
He ruled for 32 years and led as many as 17 military campaigns into india. He targeted
hindu temples with the motive to loot.

He went as far as somnath and mathura (1025)

Turks has permanent and professional army

Later ruler of ghaznavid dynasty could exercise their authority only in lahore region
Al beruni, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer came to india along with
mahmud of ghazni. Composed kitab ul hind and translated greek work of euclid into
sanskrit, translated aryabhatta .
Muhammad
Ghori (Ghurids) He invested in the territories which he seized .

1190 Ghori established garrisons in the modern provinces of punjab, sind and haryana

Chalukyas of gujrat inflicted a crushing defeat on muhammad ghori at mount abu

First battle of terrain - Ruler of ajmer prithviraj chauhan defeated ghori in 1191 but
failed to consolidate his position

Second battle of tarain- 1192 . Prithiviraj suffered a crushing defeat

Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Ghori trusted general qutub ud din aibak was appointed as deputy in india

Ghori returned to defeat jaya chandra of kannauj - who stood against prithviraj .

Rajput kingdoms by the beginning of 10 the century gurjara pratiharas and rashtrakutas lost their power
Tomars- Delhi,Chauhans- Rajasthan,Solankis Gujarat,Paramaras
malwa,Gahadavalas kannauj and chandelas - bundelkhand
Chandelas built the khajuraho temple - lakshmana temple,vishwanatha temple and
kandariya mahadeva temple.
Turkish cavalry was superior to india , turkish horseman had great mobility and were
skilled mounted archers.

Slave
dynasty(1206-
1290) After death of ghori , qutb ud din aibak ascend to throne in delhi

Qutb ud din aibak (1206-1210), died in lahore while playing chaugan(polo)

Iltutmish (1206-1236)- Slave of aibak

Iltutmish gave turkish tiles to all his slaves

He appointed elite military slaves (Bandagan) to the post of governors and generals.

He put down internal rebillians of rajputs, ranthambore ,ajmer and jalore

Saved india by refusing support to khwarizmi shah jalauddin of central asia against
chengiz khan

He completed qutub minar

Introduced copper and silver tanka

Succeeded by razia sultana , son , grandson within 10 years

Ugugh khan a newly purchased slave in iltutmish reign , commander of shivalik
territories in north west seized throne as sultan ghiyas al din balban in 1266

Balban (1265-1287)
During his reign new forest were cleared and roads constructed given to afghans and
others as rent free land (mafruzi) and brought under cultivation

Colonies of afghan soldiers were established

He was ruthless in dealing with rebellions

He appointed his favourite tughril khan as governor of bengal. When he turned
rebellion , he was beheaded by balban

Bengal carved out as an independent kingdom after his death

He maintained a good army and fortified bhatinda, sunam and samana against mongol
threat. He succeeded in obtaining the assurance from hulagu khan (grandson of
chengiz khan) that mongol would not advance beyond satluj
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Balban was the first sultan who created a separate military department diwani-i-
arz under Ariz-i-mamlik. Though sultan was the real commander

The khaljis
(1290-1320) Jalal ud din khalji (1290-1296)
Nobles were plotting against each other , afghnaised Turk jalaluddin ascended to
throne.

Faced opposition on the ground that he was a afghan and not turk.

Ala ud din khalji (1296-1316)

Son in law and nephew of jalal uddin khalji ascended to throne by murdering him

He was particularly severe with nobles.

Mongol threats continued . Fought several wars with them

Unable to harness agricultural resources of northern india , they depended on loot and
plunder
Campaigned into devagiri Gujarat, ranthambore, chittor,malwa to loot defeated
kingdom
He sent malik kafur to raid the south who invaded pandya capital madurai. Pandya
state was defeated and a muslim satte subordinate to delhi sultan was established in
madurai

He deprived the nobles of the wealth collected by them

Marriage alliances amongst noble family was to be done only with the consent of
sultan

Prohibited liquor and banned used of intoxicating drinks, gambling was forbidden

Collected land tax directly from cultivators.Tax pressure was on the rich

Set up a postal system to keep in touch with all parts of the empire

He was the first sultan to pay soldiers in cash rather than in booty

Established the prices of commodities and stopped black marketing

He was succeeded by malik kafur

Tughlaq dynasty
(1320-1414) Ghiyas ud din tughlaq

Followed a policy of reconciliation with nobiles

Muhammad bin tughlaq (1324-1351)

Had a reputation of being cruel and unjust. Repulsed the mongol army that had
marched up to meerut.
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Shifted capital from delhi to devagiri (daulatabad) because it was difficult to rule south
india from delhi. This failed and capital was transferred back to delhi.

Introduced token currency but failed due to fake currency leading to hyperinflation

Established a separate department diwan i amir kohi to take care of agriculture

Offered loans for the purchase of cattle seeds and digging of wells

He tried to annex the land he conquered , therefore faced series of rebellions

Firuz shah tughlaq(1351-1388)

Followed conciliatory policy towards nobles , restored the property of owners who
have been deprived.
Introduced system of hereditary appointment to offices and increased salaries of
government officials

Established a separate department for the welfare of slaves

Followed a policy of no war for annexation

Favoured orhodox islam and called his state as islamic state to satisfy theologians
Imposed jaziya a head tax on non muslims. Made it a separate tax and refused to
exempt brahmins

first ruler to get the Hindu religious translated from Sanskrit to Persian and Arabic

He banned inhuman punishments such as cutting of nose, hands,

A dug a canal from satluj river to hansi and another in jumna

Last tughlaq ruler was nasir ud din muhmmad shah whose reign witnessed invasion of
timur from central asia who claimed blood relationship with changiz khan ransacked
delhi without any opposition
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Sayyid Dynasty
(1414-1451) Timur left khizr khan to oversee his interest, who established sayyid dynasty

Composition of tarikh i mubarak shahi by ayhiya bin ahmad sirhindi

At the ned their empire to largely confined to delhi

Lodi Dynasty Bahlol lodhi (1451-1489) - His reign witnessed the conquest of sharqi kingdom
(1451-1526) (Bengal)

His son sikandar lodhi(1489-1517)- shifted capital from Delhi to agra

Last lodhi ruler - Ibrahim lodi was defeated by babur in first battle of panipat

Administration of Largely islamic state with allegiance to caliph however sultan was the supreme
the sultanate political head also the military head.

No well defined rules of accession to power

Sultans required the holders of iqtas (called muqtis or walis) to maintain troops for
royal service out of the taxes.

Certain areas under the direct control of the sultan were called khalisa.

tax rent- half of the value of produce

Fiscal claims of the hereditary intermediaries (chaudharis) and village headmen
(khots) were curtailed
Turko afghan political conquest was followed by large scale migration from central
asia
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Afghans, Iranians and indian muslims were excluded from the nobility for a very long
time.
Monitheism of islam influnced hinduism - In 13th century the virashiva or lingayat sect
of karnataka founded by basava beleived in one god (parashiva).Caste distinctions
were denied
A parallel movement in tamil nadu was in the composition of siddhars who sang in
tamil of one god and criticized brahmins .
The qazis dispensed civil law based on Muslim Law (Sharia). The Hindus were
governed by their own personal laws which were dispensed by the Panchayats and
Guilds in the villages and by leaders of the various castes. Criminal Law was based on
regulations framed for the purpose by the rulers.

Economy Payment of land tax to the level of rent in cash led to urbanisation '

Delhi and daulatabad emerged as great cities of the world

Revival of internal trade due to demand for luxury goods by nobles.

Gold coins rarely issued after gupta empire become to appear once again

Though no evidence of trade guilds.

Gujaratis and tamils dominated sea trade , hindu multanis, muslims khurasanis ,
afghans and iranians dominated the overland trade with central asia .
Paper making and spinning wheels technology introduced in india .Sericulture was
established in bengal by 15th century

Education Traditions of education implanted from islamic world

Maktab- where children were taught to read and write

Institutionalized form of higher education widely established in central asia and iran -
Madrasa

Secular sciences and historiography came to india with persian influence

In 13 and 14 th century 2 orders emerged among sufis- Shrawardi centered at Multan
Sufism and chisti at Delhi

The Shankracharya school of thought was also gaining momentum at the same time .
Caste and
women Slavery grew substantially in the 13 and 14 century
In upper class muslims women have to observe purdah but they could inherit property
and get divorced. their condition was better than hindu women

Syncretic culture Architecture

Arch dome , vaults and lime cement , use of marbles, red sandstone and yellow
sandstone added grandeur
Buildings of firuz shah tughlaq especially his pleasure resort hauz khas combined
india and saracenic features in alternate storeys displaying a sense of integration
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Buildings with animals and human figures were considered unislamic

Floral and geometric designs , arabesque- decorating with quranic verses inscribed
with calligraphy

Qutub minar completed by iltutmish was increased and repaired by Firuz shah tughlaq

Music

rabab and sarangi introduced in india

Sufi practice of sama , recitation of love poetry to the accompaniment of music

Literature
Amir khusrau emerged as major figure of persian prose and poetry , wrote Nu siphur
(nine skies) in praise of india

Persian literature was enriched by the translation of sanskrit words

Tuti nama is a collection of sanskrit stories translated into persian by zia nakashabi ,
mahabharata and rajatarangini were also translated into persian

Sanskrit continued to be a language of high intellectual thought.

Sanskrit inscription in Palam baoli

Later cholas and Pandyas

CHOLAS

From the sangam period to 9th century CE no records about them

They realised substantial revenue from agriculture

Reemergence of chola began with Vijayalaya in 850 CE conquering the kaveri delta
from muttaraiyar. He built the city of thanjavur

They claim their ancestry to karikala , well known chola of sangam age
Rajaraja 1 who built the famous brihadeeswarar temple at thanjavur and his son
rajendra 1 whose naval expeditions extended as far as sri vijaya
Copper plate inscriptions of land grants , temple inscriptions , copper plates also
Sources contain the royal orders

Rajaraja 1 - most celebrated chola king- Led naval expeditions and emerged victorious
in west coast , sri lanka and conquered maldives

Temples were built in these annexed regions. Temple in sri lanka -Rajarajeshvara
Rajendra 1 son of rajaraha conquered sri lanka . In 1023 he led expedition in northern
india upto godavari river and asked his general to continue beyond
Gangaikonda cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in northern
india
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

They controlled both malabar and coromandel coast

they has trade relation with sri vijaya (southern sumatra)

Administration Hereditary monarchy .king was compared to god

Chola rulers appointed brahmins as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus and granted huge
estates to brahmins as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams

Army Three conventional divisions - Infantry, cavalry and elephant corps

Cantonments established in the capital city called - padaiveedu

Local Ur-Numerous peasant settlements , urar was the landowner , entrusted with upkeep of
organisation temples , tanks
Brahmadeya - brahmin settlement . Sabha - to maintain brahmedya assets and
maintaining irrigation tanks in temples

Nagaram- settlement of traders

Nadu- group of several ur excluding brahmadeya formed around irrigation sources
such as canals and tanks

Nattar- assemblies of landholders of ur in nadu

Uttaramerur inscriptions- Process of electing members to various committees that
administered the affairs of brahmin settlements

Economy Agriculture

Expansion of agriculture and people started settling in river valleys

Chola state collected land tax on the agrarian surplus

Elaborate department of land revenue - puravurari tinaikkalam

Kudimai- tax paid by the cultivating tenants to the government and to the landlords

Opati- tax levied by the king and local chief

Temples and brahmins are exempted from paying the taxes.

At the village level urar and at nadu level - nattar were responsible for remitting taxes

Rajaraja standardised the collection of tax using unit called - Kalam(28Kg)

Vativaykkal- tradional way of harnessing rainwater , vati - a drainage channel

Vetti and amanji were the forms of free labour related to public works at village level

eriyam- tax collected by village assemblies for repairing irrigation channels.

Religion Cholas were ardent followers of saivites

Shiva was displayed in 2 forms- Lingodhbhava and nataraja idol in human form
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Repeated reperestation of tripurantaka- destroyer of 3 mythical cities of asura form of
shiva in sculpture give him warrior aspect

Representation of natraj was a motif of tamil music , dance and drama

Highly evolved philosophical system - saiva siddhanta

Temples serve as a hub for social activities

A play called rajarajnatkam based on the life of raja raj1 was performed in thanjavur
temple
Temple functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing and receiving
endowments and donations , also became educational centers
Brihadeshwara temple/Rajarajeshwara temple - epitome of chola art.The figures of
lakshmi, vishnu,ardhanarishvara and bikshadana, mendicant form of shiva on the
outer walls.walls of sanctum shows miniature sculpture from the puranas.

Gangaikondacholapuram was built on the model of brihadeshwara temple

Jala stamba (water pillar) in the town

Darasuram temple built by rajaraja 2 is

Items exported from chola land - sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious gems,
Trade pepper, oil, paddy , grains and salt , Imports included - camphor, copper,tin ,mercury

Learning Supported sanskrit

Great literary works - kamba ramayana and Periyapurnam belonged to this period .
Due to increase in power of local chiefs , Chola territories passed into the hands of
pandyan king

PANDYAS

Sources Megalithic burials

Sangam literature
Copper plates- royal orders, genealogical list of kings , donations to brahmins and
temples

Marco polo , wassaf and ibn battuta

Revival of pandyas took place in 600 CE after the disappearance of kalabhras

Rise of pandyas gains (1190-1310) in the wake of vacuum created by cholas.

Madurai was their capital, kayal was their great port

Marco polo , travellor from venice visted kayal , he also noticed sati and polygamy
practised by kings.

Sadaivarman sundarapandyam
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

1251-1268

Brought entire tamil nadu under his rule and exercised authority upto nellore AP
Invasion of malik kafur - When he reached madurai in 1311 he found city empty and
vira pandyan already fled.Madurai temple was deserected

Muslim state subordinate to delhi sultanate was established

Pandyas derived their military advantage over their neighbours by means of their
State horses which they imported through their connection to a wider arab commercial

Prime minister was called uttar mantri

Pandya mandalam or pandya nadu consisted of many valanadus which in turn were
divided into many nadus and kurrams

Salobogam- Land assigned to brahmins

Taccu maniyan -Land for carpenters

tattakarni- land from the ironsmith.

Promoted sanskrit and tamil

Busiest port- kayalpattinam

Sluice a device to distribute water from the water resources . It is called kumili, madai
and madagu in inscriptions

Religion Pandyas were jain initially but later adopted to shiavism

Pandyas built rock cut temple in anaimalai , sittanavasal, jain sculptures -
kalugumalai

Bahmani and vijayanagar kingdom

Deccan and south india was divided into Yadavas of Devagiri(Western deccan ),
Hoysalas of Dvarasamudras (karnataka), Kakatiyas of warangal, Pandyas of madurai

During 2 expeditions of malik kafur these old states faced defeat

Zafar khan who declared independence in 1345 at devagiri took the title of Bahman
shah and inaugurated bahamani dynasty
Vijayanagara empire was found by sangama brothers harihara and bukka at hampi
(karnataka)
Raja Krishna deva of kakatiya dynasty with warangal as its capital built a golkonda
fort on a granite hill.It was famous as a diamond market . It gave the world the best
diamond including kohinoor

Sources Texts
Ibn battutah a moroccon traveller , abdur razzak from persia , nikitin a russian ,
portuguese visitors
Vijayanagara king issued a large number of gold coins called varaha/pon/honnu.
Have images of hindu deities, animals like bull , elephant , and gandaberunda
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Bhamani
kingdom Alauddin hasan bahman shah (1347-1358)
Rivalry with Vijayanagara kingdom over fertile raichur doab lying between krishna and
tungabhadra river. In east with rulers of warangal and orissa

Divided kingdom into 4 independent regions called taraf each under a governor
he emerged victorious in all his expeditions , assumed the title of second alexander
on his coins

Mohammaed 1 -1358-1375
He established good system of government that was followed by all his successor and
marathas
Appointed a council of 8 minister of state
Vakil us sultana-lieutenant of the kingdom / immediate subordinate to the sovereign
Waziri kull- supervised the work of other ministries
Amir i jumla- minister of finance
Wazir i ashraf - minister of foreign affairs

Nazir-assistant minister of finance

Peshwa- associated with lieutenant of kingdom
Kotwal-Chief of police and city magistrate
Sadr i jahan- chief justice and minister of religious affairs

Built mosque at gulbarga

In 1429 capital was shifted from gulbarga to bidar

Mohammaed gawan
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Used persian chemist to teach the preparation and the use of gunpowder

In his war against vijayanagar kings in belgaum he used gunpowder

He was executed in a conspiracy

Sultanate broke up into 4 independent kingdom 0 Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, berar and
golkonda .Bidar where bahmani king ruled became the 5th one

Bijapur became powerful by annexing bidar and berar

Ahmednagar and golconda joined bijapur against vijayanagara empire and routed
them in battle of talikota . in 1565

Vijayanagar
empire Harihara bhukka laid the foundation of vijayanagara empire

Adopted the emblem of chalukyas , the boar or varaharas

It was ruled by 4 dynasties over a period of 300 years

sangama dynasty 1336-1485

Saluva dynasty 1485-1505

Tuluva dynasty 1505-1570

Aravidu dynasty 1570-1650

Constant fighting with the bahmani kingdom over control of raichur doab and goa
which was important for horse trade.
Vijaya nagar could not make much headway until the time of devaraya 2 1422-1426
who defeated orissan army in some battle
He strengthened his army by recruiting trained msulim calvary for his army and giving
archery training to his soldiers.

Krishna deva raya 1509-29

Greatest of vijayanagara king

He had to fight on two front - against bahamani kings and gajapati kings of odisha

He put a victory pillar at simhachalam

Very large donations to shiva and vishnu temple - Srisailam, tirupati, kalahasti,
kanchipuram

He added towering gopurams to many of these temples

Author of famous poem- Amuktamalyada- story of andal

After his death kingdom declined and defeated in battle of talikota

Administration King is the ultimate authority and commander in chief

Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Chief minister is called maha pradhani. he led a number of officials
Dalavay- commander
vassal-gaurd of the palace
Rayasam- secretary accountant
Adaippam- Personal attendant
Karkiya karta-executive agent
Administrative divisions called the rajyas or provinces each under a governor called
pradhani

Rajyas lost their relevance under tuluva dynasty and developed of nayak system
Nayak system - Assigning the revenue of a particular territory to a military official in
return for his service. This is similar to the iqta system in Delhi sultanate. it established
in the reign of krishnadevaraya
Nayak system - similar to iqta system of north india. It was a hereditary
system.Nayaks enjoyed both military and revenue power.

After the talikota battle these nayak chiefs became more or less independent

Cultural syncretism: Bhakti movement

Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional surrender to a supreme god for

attaining salvation
Bhakti
movement in
south india It originated among the landholding castes and it was critical of buddhism and jainism

Royal patronage received by bhaktiism led to the downfall of buddhism and jainism
Idea of renunciation which is central to buddhism and jainism was adopted by
shaivites and vaishnavites

Flourished from 7th century

From the 15th century there was an extraordinary outburst of devotional poetry in
North india north india

Sufism developed in north india

Transcended communal and religious distinctions , worked for promoting interest of
Sufism humanity at large
Sufism crystallised into various order or silsilas - Chistes,Suhrawardins, qadiriyahs
and naqshbandis

Took root in both rural and urban areas

rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy
Features of
bhakti movement Preached principles of monotheism

Believed in freedom from cycle of life and death

Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Self surrender for obtaining the bliss and grace of god

Gurus could act as guide and preceptors

Advocated the principle of universal brotherhood

Criticized idol worship

Stressed on signing of hymns with great devotion

Strongly denounced caste system

Condemned rituals, fasts and pilgrimages

Did not consider any language as sacred and composed songs in language of
common people
Proponents of
bhaktism Kabir

Said to be discipline of ramananda, learned vedanta philosophy from him

He denounced the sectarianism of both hindu and islam

His message appealed to lower caste

Denounced caste, idolatry and polytheism

Ravidas

He was poet saint of bhakti movement in 15-16 th century

One of the disciples of ramananda

His devotional songs are included in sikh scriptures

Spoke against social division of caste and gender

Guru Nanak 1469-1539

Sikhims emphasized on the oneness of god and adherence to strict morality

His writings resulted into strong sense of community

Guru govind was the last guru, after him granth sahib is considered guru

advocated a form of nirguna (without attributes) bhakti.

rejected sacrifices,ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both
Hindus and Muslims.

expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad” and started langar

Chaitanya mahaprabhu 1485-1533

Bengal and orissa

His aspect of the bhakti movement is different from the teachings of kabir . His
concern was to exalt the superiority of krishna over all other deities

In other words it was a revivalist movement and not syncretic

Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Bengal Vaishnavites did not try to reform hinduism rather emphasized devotion to
krishna

His disciples were from all classes

He popularised the practice of group devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic
dancing

Namadeva

Maharashtra

Staunch devotee of vitthal of pandharpur

Wrote many abhangas (songs composed and sung by saints )

Travelled as far as punjab where his teaching became popular and absorbed in guru
granth

Ramananda 1400-1470

Joined the school of ramanuja as a preacher

Visited holy places of north india and preached vaishnavism

Made changes in vaishnavism by founding his own sect based on the doctrine of love
and devotion to rama and sita.

Preached equality before god

rejected caste system and supremacy of brahmins

People from the lower strata became his follower

His disciples included kabir and ravidas

First to preach doctrine of devotion in india

Mira bai 1498-1546

Born in rajasthan
She became devotee of Lord krishna left the palace and began singing her songs and
preaching the pat of love on god

Sur Das

Lived at the court of akbar and known as blind bard of agra

He preached religion of love and devotion to personal god

Wrote inspiring poem in hindi about lord krishna

Krishna bal leela constitute his theme of poetry

His popular work - sur sagar, sur saravali and sathiya lehari

Tuka ram

Maharashtra
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

contemporary of maratha shivaji and saint like eknath and ramdas

Lord vitthal of pandharpur

He believed in formless god

He wrote his abhangas in marathi

Lal Ded Kashmiri Muslim poetess

Shaiva school of thought, her verses known as vakhs

Bengal
Chandidas

Jnaneswar Maharashtra
Narasimha Gujrat
Mehta

Mughal Empire

Mughals descended from the mongol chenghiz khan and tukish timor

Zahiruddin muhammad babur 1526-1530

Uzbeks , safavids and ottomans forced babur towards India .He inherited the throne of
samarkand(uzbek city)
He received embassy from daulat khan lodhi a principle opponent of ibrahim lodhi, and
rana sangha ruler of mewar and the chief of rajput confederacy with a plea to invade
india
First battle of Panipat 1526-Babur won against Ibrahim lodhi with the help of strategic
positioning and artillery . No instances of artillery being used before babur

Battle of khanwa 1527-Babur defeated rana sangha forces

Battle of chanderi 1528- Against medni rai at chanderi

Battle of ghagra -1529-last battle babur fought against afghans

He was a scholar of persian and arabic .His memoir baburnama considered a world
classic

Humayun 1530-1540 and 1555-1556

He was not a soldier like his father .

Faced problem of weak financial system and predatory afghans.Bahadur shah ruler of
gujarat also posed a threat

Growth of afghans under sher khan (sher shah) made humayun to initiate action

He constructed new city in india dipanah

Battle of chausa 1539- Battle won by sher shah due to his superior military and
political skills
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Battle of kannauj-1540- Won by sher shah and his army was completely routed

Sher shah
dynasty From battle to kannauj to regaining power in 1555 delhi was ruled by sur dynasty

His name was farid, got the title of sher shah after killing a tiger
Succedded by his son islam shah who ruled till 1553. Humayun used this to regain
delhi and agra

Reforms

Highly centralised government

Local administrative structure of delhi sultanate was followed with certain changes

Land was survey and revenue settled according to the fertility of the soil

Jagirdari and zamindari system of delhi sultanate allowed to continue

Jagirdari- Collection of revenue of an estate and power of governing it were bestowed
upon an official of the state
Zamindari-Means landowner. They were drawn from the class of nobles.Akbar granted
lands to nobles as well as a class of descendants . Zamindars collected revenue from
the tenant and cultivators and remitted a fixed amount to the state

He simplified trade imposts , collecting tax only at entry and point of sale
Standardised content of gold, silver and metal coins . His currency system
continued till mughals and used by british

Maintained a robust highway system by repairing old roads and laying new ones
grand trunk road from the indus in the west to sonargaon in bengal , roads
connecting seaports to agra and jodhpur

highways were equipped with rest houses called sarais

Stern punishment for robbers and zamindars

He built a new walled city in Delhi, which came to be known as purana Qila

Akbar 1556-1605

He was crowned at the age of 14 , bairam khan was his guardian and protector
Second battle of panipat -Hemu general of displaced afghan king , successor of sher
shah . hemu died when an arrow struck in his eye

Bairam khan was dismissed by akbar when he turned against him

One by one he conquered empires , also defeated mirza hakim of kabul with help of
raja man singh and bhagwan das

Rajput policy He abolished jaziya on non muslims and pilgrimage tax

Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Practice of sati was abolished

Practice of make slaves of war prisoners was discontinued

Married harkha bai

Raja todar mal and birbal were companion of akbar

Mewar and marwar were 2 rajput kingdoms who defied mughal empire . Rana pratap
singh refused to accept akbar suzerity

Battle of haldighati in 1576 between mughal forces and rana pratap singh
At the time of Akbar karkhanas formed a regular department under Mir Saman (Khan-
i-Saman).

Akbar capital was at agra in the beginning , later he shifted his capital at fatehpur sikri
Nobles , military and civil officials combined into one single service with each officer
receiving the title of mansabdar. Mansabdar rank was divided into zat and sawar. Zat
Mansabdari determined the number of soldiers each mansabdar received ranging from 10 to
system 10000. Sawar decide the number of horses under a mansabdar
Mansabdari system diversified the ethnic base of his nobility They included rajputs and
indian muslims

Mansabdars salary was paid in cash by assigning him a jagir .

Rank of mansabdar was not hereditary and immediately after the death of
mansabdar the jagir was resumed by state

Religious policy Adopted an accommodative approach under influence of sufism

Interested to learn all religion and propagated the philosophy of sulh i kul - Peace to
all

he invited christians, hindus and zoroastrians for discussion in ibadat khana

He formed a new sufistic order called tauhid i illahi namely din i ilahi .thousands of
people enrolled as his disciples
He set up a big translation department for translating work of sanskrit, arbaic , greek
into persian . Ramayan mahabharta quran athraveda were translated into persian

Jahangir 1605-1627
His reign witnessed the visit of 2 englishmen - William hawkins and sir thomas
roe.Latter got the consent of the king to establish factory at surat

More interested in art painting and garden and flowers than in government

His persian wife mehrunissa/ nur jahan became real power behind the throne

Shah Jahan 1627-1658

Deccan was brought under effective control in his reign

In 1638 shah jahan made political intrigues in the persian empire and annexed
kandhar which was conquered by akhar and lost by jahangir
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Ordered the mughal governor of bengal to drive out the portuguese from the
settlement in hugli
Taj mahal- blend of india, islamic and persian style Built by shah jahan in memory of
his wife . Chief architect was ustad Ahmad lahauri an indian persian descent . 20000
workers were employed from india, persia , the ottoman empire and europe to
complete it

He was a contemporary of louis 14 of france

Peacock throne was made for the king.

His son aurnagzeb imprisoned him and crowned himself as emperor

Aurangzeb 1658-1707

His war in the northeast and northwest drained the treasury

Peasantry was heavily taxed

He retained shah jahanabad as the capital

In north there were 2 uprising against aurangzab- Jats (Mathrua district), satnamis
(haryana) and sikhs

He reimposed jaziya tax on hindus which agitated chiefs of rajasthan

he interfered in the internal matters of rajput kings

He was in constant fight with the Adil shah dynasty of gujarat. They are famous for
their magnificent buildings and dargahs.gol gumbaz was the mausoleum of the 7th
ruler of dynasty of mohammed adil shah. Dome is second largest in the world
Aurangzeb sent his 2 generals shaista khan and jai singh to capture shivaji. jai singh
captured shivaji but he managed to escape

Death of aurangzeb mughal empire virtually came to an end

He had a grudge against sikhs for supporting his rival brother dara shikoh to the
throne. Guru teg bahadur was killed on his command
Towards his early days the empire began to disintegrate , he did not have trustworthy
men at his command
He discontinued abwab- tax levied on the land over and above rent not
recommended by shariah
He also ordered new temples not to be constructed but the repair of old temples
continued
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

The muqaddam - privileged headman of the village formed the panch(panchayat) an

Mughal society administrative body of the village

Panch was responsible for collection and maintenance of accounts at village level
Middle class consisted of small mansabdars, petty shopkeepers , hakims, musicians
and petty officials . They were salaried individuals and received grants called madad i
mash
Most zamindars were upper caste hindus and rajputs in certain localities muslim
zamindars existed. Zamindars has the right to evict the peasant in case of default
Despite the bhakti movement leading the banner of revolt against discrimination the
deprived and disadvantaged class who were landless were subject to forced labor
Hindu women have limited right of inheritance and widow remarriage was not
permitted
Muslim women have the right to mehr (money mandatorily paid by the groom) and
also right to inherit property

Mughal administration discourage the practice of sati

Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Mir bakhshi is the head of the military department, Intelligence officers (barids),Mir
saman was in charge of the imperial household,the minister in charge of religious and
charitable patronage (Sadr-us sudur),

Economy Forest based agriculture economy

Landless agricultural laborers without the right to property formed almost quarter of the
population

Ain i akbari lists various crops cultivated during rabi and kharif season

Tobacco and maize introduced in 17th century

Chilli and groundnut came later

Pineapple introduced in 16th century , tomato and potato came later

Indigo was imp commercial crop

sericulture went spectacular growth in bengal and india became chief supplier of silk
Akbar introduced the zabti system - promulgated by todar mal -money revenue
rates were fixed on each unit of area according to the crops cultivated . Schedules
containing these rates for different localities applicable year after year were called
dasturs
Cotton textile industry employed large number of people , iron copper ,diamond mining
and gun making were other chief occupations
Bengal was the chief exporting center of rice sugar muslin silk and food grains ,
coromandel coast for its textile production , kashmir for its shawl and carpets

Movement of goods were facilitated by letters of credit called hundi

Mughal empire was not a naval power

Trade with the west was controlled by europeans

Europeans imported spices indigo muslin calico and chintz , saltpetre , india obtained
large quantities of gold

Road cesses or rahdari were declared illegal.

Mughal rupee became a standard coin in India and abroad and thus helped India's
trade.
16 th and 17th centuries were centuries of vaishnavism . tulsidas -
Ramcharitramanas a great proponent of ram cult in his popular verses of devotion
Religion portrayed rama as god incarnate
Bhakti movement flourished , rather than employing use of sanskrit language for
expressing devotion they used common language
Dasakuta movement a bhakti movement in karnataka popularised by vyasaraya
turned out to be lower class movement

Eknath and tukaram were bhakti poets from maharashtra

Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Kabir propounded absolute monotheism and condemned image worship and caste
system
Sikhism originated as a popular monothestic movement .Guru Nanak believed in a
god which is formless and omnipresent . holy book of sikhs contained the sayings of
msulim saint shaikh farid ,and bhakti poets like namdev, kabir, sain and ravidas

Sufism and christianty spread

Science and No institution in india noted by french traveller bernier to the standards of college and
technology universities in europe
Method of water lift based on pin drum gearing known as persian wheel has been
introduced during babur time

Akbar is credited with popularizing the device of cooling using saltpetre

Continued to use bronze cannon due to inability to cast iron

Sur dynasty left behnind spectacular specimens - Purana kila at delhi, tomb of sher
Architecture shah and islam shah.

Agra fort - with red sandstone , rajput architectural styles were incorporated
Mausoleum of akbar at sikandra near agra started by akbar and completed by jahangir
includes some buddhist architectural elements

Influence of persian architecture can be seen

Mughal architecture reached its height during shah jahan- Taj mahal, red fort Delhi
,new township shah jahanabad (Old delhi )

Shalimar gardens of jahangir and shah jahan are showpieces of indian horticulture

Bridge over gomti river in jaunpur

West yamuna canal which provide water to delhi

Paintings Dawant and baswana were famous painters in akbar court

Paintings depicted literary works

During jahangir period - portrait painting and painting of animals were introduced

Famous for mughal miniatures

Aurangzeb was opposed to painting

Music and dance Tansen of gwalior - composed many rags was patronised by akbar

Jahagir and shah jahan were patrons of music

Literature Persian, sanskrit and regional languages developed during mughal time

Persian was the language of administration in the mughal and deccan

Abul Fazl patronised by akbar composed akbar nama and described akbar
administration in ain i akbari
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

Padshahnama - Biography of shah jahan

Persian literature was enriched by transfer from sanskrit

Translation of upanishads by dara shukoh entitled 0 Sirr i akbar

Sanskrit literature of this period is known for its kavyas and poetry

Urdu developed as a common language

Abdur rahim khan e khana composed bhakti poetry with a blend of persian ideas of
life and human relations in brij form of hindi

Awadhi - tulsidas

Marathi-Eknath,tukaram and ramdas and mukteshwar

Krishnadevaraya- vijayanagara- Amuktamalyada

Malayalam which had separated from tamil as language received separate literary
identity

Chaitanya cult promoted krishna bhakti in bengali literature

Sikh gurus promoted punjabi language

Marathas

SHIVAJI
Causes of Physical features and nature of people - surrounded by hills which gave them a
maratha rise strategic advantage over mughals , they claimed long tradition of military prowess

Bhakti movement and its impact - spirit of oneness in marathas

External causes-degeneration of bijapur and golconda

Shivaji 1627-
1680 In 1646 he captured the fortress of torana from the sultan of bijapur

Forts of baramati, inapura , purandandhar and kondana came under his direct control

Confrontation between shivaji , aurangzeb and bijapur sultan continued

SHivaji attacked surat the major mughal port in arabian sea and plundered the city in
1664

Jai singh was sent by aurangzeb to defeat shivaji

Treaty of purandar 1665- Shivaji yielded the fortress which he had capture and
agreed to serve as mansabdar and assist mughals in conquering bijapur
In 1672 the marathas imposed chauth or the one fourth of the revenue as annual
tribute on surat

Shivaji was crowned at raigad in 1674 and assumed the title of chatrapathi
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
At the time of his death his kingdom comprised of western ghats and the konkan
between kalyan and goa , provinces in the south included western karnataka
extending from belgaum to the bank of tungabhadra

Shivaji was succeeded by sambhaji who gave refuge to aurangzeb rebellious son
akbar

After sambhaji death tara bai led the revolt on behalf of her infant son
After aurangzeb death sambhaji son shahu was released from the prison and this led
to a civil war with tara bai , shahu emerged victorious and ascend to throne in
1708
Shahu appointed balaji vishwanath as the peshwa in 1715. In course of time peshwa
became the real ruler

Administration central government

Shivaji was assisted by council of 8 members known as ashta pradhan

Mukhya mantri or peshwa

Anshul Hindal AIR 48

amatya or finance minister

walkia nawis or mantri maintained the records of king activities

Summant or dabir or foreign secretary

Sachiv or shuru nawis - home secretary - to look after the correspondence of the king
with the power to revise the drafts

Pandit rao or danadhyaksha or sadar - incharge of religion , ceremonies and charities

nyayadhish - chief justice for civil and military justice

sari naubat- commander in chief in charge of recruitment , organization and discipline

Provincial government
Shivaji divided the kingdom into 4 provinces each under a viceroy. provinces were
divided into number of pranths

Practice of granting jagir was abandoned and all officers were paid in cash .

No office was to be hereditary

Revenue system 30% of the produce to be paid in cash or kind , later raised to 40%

In times of famines government advance loans to the cultivators

Shivaji collected 2 taxes from the adjoining territories of his empire

Chauth - It was the one fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by marathas
Sardeshmukhi-10% of the additional revenue collected by shivaji by virtue of his
position as sardeshmukh

Military discouraged the practice of granting jagirs and making hereditary appointments

Army consisted of 4 divisions- infantry,cavalry ,elephant corps , and artillery

Infantry divided into regiments, brigades and divisions . The smallest unit with nine
soldiers was headed by naik (corporal)

Each unit with 25 horsemen placed under havildar

5 havildar placed under one jamaldar

10 jamaldar under one hazari

Sari naubat was the supreme commander of cavalry

Cavalry was divided into 2 classes-

Badgers-soldiers whose horses were given by the state

Shiledars- mercenary horseman who had to find their own horses

No regular courts and regular procedures , panchayats functioned in villages , appeals
in both criminal and civil cases heard by nyayadhish with guidances of smritis , hazir
Justice majlim was the final court of appeal
Anshul Hindal AIR 48

RULE OF PESHWA
Balaji
vishwanath
1713-1720 Practice of granting jagir was revived and office of peshwa made hereditary
Baji rao 1720-
1740 Defeated nizam of hyderabad , rajput governor of malwa and governor of gujarat
Balaji baji rao
1740-1761 Also known as nana sahib

Marathas did not help siraj ud daula in the battle of plassey in 1757
Third battle of Nadir shah ruler of afghanistan invaded india from the north west , kohinoor diamond
panipat 1761 was taken away by nadir shah

After nadir shah ahmad shah abdali became independent ruler of afghanistan
He left mir bakshi as his agent in delhi who was ousted by malhar rao holkar and
raghunath rao and captured sirhind and lahore

Abdali returned in india and captured punjab

Marathas could not find allies in the northern power

Maratha army was completely routed

Shah alam 2 was recognised as the emperor of delhi by Abdali

Peshwa madhav
rao 1761-1772 Tried to gain maratha power lost in battle of panipat

His expeditions against hyder ali of mysore were successful

Narayan rao
Sawai madhav
rao

Baji rao 2

First anglo
maratha war
1775-1782 Company supported raghunath rao against madhav rao
Treaty of salbai - raghunath rao was pensioned off , following this peace prevailed for
2 decades
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
Second anglo
maratha war baji rao 2 was dethroned , he has to accept the help british , wellesley the then
1803-1806 governor forced subsidiary alliance on peshwa

Treaty of bassein was signed

Third anglo
maratha war New treaty at poona-Peshwa resigned the headship of maratha confederacy , ceded
1817-1819 konkan to british and recognised the independence of gaikwar

British abolished peshwai

Baji rao 2 was prisoned

Elphinstone became governor of bombay

Administration
under peshwa Central secretariat at poona - dealt with revenue and expenditure of all districts

Larger provinces were under the provincial governors called sarsubahdars

Division in provinces were called subhas and pranths

Mamlatdar and kamavisdar were peshwa representative in the district

Deshmukhs and deshpande s were district officers who were in charge of accounts
and to observe activities of mamlatdar and kamavistars
Maratha government collected heavy sum 0 raised from the mamlatdars and their
officials
Patel was the chief village officer and responsible for remitting revenue collection to
the center , not paid by the government , his post was hereditary

Patel was helped by kulkarni or accountant and record keeper

In towns and cities chief officers are called kotwal.Maintenance of peace , settling civil
disputes.

Land revenue was the main source. Fertility of land was assessed for fixation of
Revenue revenue
Land was divided into 3 classes - according to the kind of crops,facilities for irrigation
,productivity of land

Chauth and sardeshmukhi

CHauth - 25% went to the ruler ,66% for the maratha officials and military heads for
the maintenance of troops

Other taxes include

Tax on land held by deshmukhs and deshpande s

tax on land kept for the village mahars

Anshul Hindal AIR 48

tax on land irrigated by wells

house tax from all except brahmins and village officials

annual fee for testing weights and measures

tax on remarriage of widows

tax on sheep and buffaloes

Pasture fee

succession duty

tax on melon cultivation

Duty on sale of horses

Krja patti or tasti patti - a tax equal to one year income of taxpayer in times of
difficulty

Army Based on the lines of mughals

Peshwas recruited soldiers from all parts of the india and from all social groups
Cavalry was the main strength , every jagirdar has to bring a stipulated number of
horseman for a general muster every year

They had a navy for security of the ports

Martha rule in Troops from bijapur led by maratha general venkoji defeated nayak of madurai and
tamil country captured thanjavur

Serfoji 2 was the last ruler of the bhonsle dynasty of maratha principality of thanjavur
Educated by german christian missionary , her was a practitioner of western science
and education
He established printing press - the first press for marathi and sanskrit and enrichment
of saraswati mahal library
Establishment of free modern learning school run by his court for instruction in english
and vernacular language

He established navavidya (modern or new learning ) in the state run schools

Also established dhanvantri mahal , a research institution that produces herbal
medicine for human and animals
He authored - kumarasambhavam, champu,devendra kurvanji, mudra
rakshchaya
Introduced western instruments like clarinet and violin in carnatic music and
popularised thanjavur style of painting

Music
● Khayal Music - Means idea of imagination - Amir Khusrau, songs called bandish
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
● Dhrupad denotes both verse form of the poetry and the style in which it is sung.It
reached its zenith during Akbar
● Thumri Music - Slower variety in Poorabi style , fast in Punjabi
● Thumri and tappa- hindustani music
● Carnatic Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri
● Pandavani, Chhattisgarh
● Laman, Himachal Pradesh
● Mando, Goa
● Villu Pattu, Tamil Nadu
● The Kamaicha is a bowed flute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan.
● Purandaradas-"Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha".
● Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) was a contemporary of Balban, Jalaluddin Khilji and
Alauddin Khilji.
○ He introduced many new ragas such as Ghora and Sanam.
○ Evolved new style of music called Qawwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems.
○ Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin Khilji’s conquests.
○ Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik.

Administration
● Iqtadari system
○ as a way of financing operations and paying civil and military officers.
○ The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land nor was it hereditary though the
holders of iqta tended to'-acquire hereditary rights in Feroz Tughluq's reign.
○ The Iqta system was provided institutional status by Iltutmish
○ Revenue assignments in lieu of cash given to nobles
○ Assignes known as muktis and walis collected land revenue
● Reforms by Alauddin Khilki
○ He introduced the system of branding of horses (dagh)
○ abolished the Jagir system and paid the salaries in cash to soldiers.
○ He fixed the pay of soldiers at 234 tankas a year
○ The scientific method of measurement of land for the assessment of land
revenue.special officer called “Mustakhraj” was created to collect land revenue
from peasants in doab area and khalisa lands.
○ deprived the Khuts, Maqaddams, and Chaudhuris of their privileges.
○ He imposed heavy taxes on the Sardars, Jagirdars and Ulemas.
○ Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims. They had to pay it along with other taxes
like pilgrim tax,octroi etc.
○ increased the salaries of revenue officials to check bribery and corruption.
○ Khilji introduced the market regulations to help soldiers and to make ends meet.
○ strict price control mechanism
○ abolished the iqta system in Doab region and brought that region under khalisa.
● Reforms By Akbar
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
○ stopped sati, the burning of a widow, unless she herself, of her own free will,
persistently desired it.
○ Widow remarriage was also legalised.
○ more emphasis on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects
such as agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history,
etc.
● Irrigation
○ Rahat- Water Wheel used for irrigation

Cultural
● In the late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva emerged as one of the leading proponents
of Vaishnavism in Assam. His teachings, often known as the Bhagavati dharma because
they were based on the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, focused on absolute
surrender to the supreme deity, Vishnu.His major compositions include the kirtana-
ghosha.
● Ravanachayya of Odisha is a form of shadow puppetry.

Paintings
● Tanjore paintings - special feature : conical crown
○ Chola period - Lord krishna
○ Then under marathas 18-19 centuries
● Warli paintings - maharashtra - Folk paintings resemblance to bhimbetka
● Pattachitra or Patachitra- cloth based scroll painting - Odisha and west bengal
● Kalamkari-hand painting done on cotton or silk fabric- AP and telangana
● Kishangarh school of paintings
○ Depicts radha krishna
○ Bani thani is associated with it
○ Nihal chand
●

Religion
● Sikhism
○ Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru Nanak's hymns along with those of his four
successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the
Adi Granth Sahib.
○ These hymns called ''gurbani'', are composed in Punjabi, Persian, Sanskrit, Braj
Bhasha and various other languages.
● Natha Panthis, are a Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism.
○ saint Matsyendranath & his disciple Gorakhnath are considered as the originator
○ denounced the caste system and privileges claimed by the Brahmanas.
● Virashaiva tradition
○ 12th century led by basvana , minister in the court of kalachuri king
○ challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution”
○ questioned the theory of rebirth.
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
○ Virashaiva tradition is derived from vachanas (literally, sayings) composed in
kannada
○

Architecture
● Bijapur school - Adil shah - Gol gumbaz
● Malwa school(Pathan school of architecture) - European influence
○ Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.
● Jaunpur school - sharqi rulers
○ Atala Mosque, Jaunpur.
● Bengal School
○ Use of black marble
○ Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gour, Adina Mosque in Pandua, etc.

Dances
● Singhi chham- mask dance in sikkim
● Saraikella Chhau in Jharkhand,
● Mayurbhanj Chhau in Odisha (no mask)
● Purulia Chhau in West Bengal.
● Bihu- Assam
● Butta Bommalu-Andhra pradesh
● Padyani - Kerala - dancers wear huge masks called kolams
● Folk dances
○ Maand - rajasthan
○ Khongjom Parba- Manipur
○ Wanawan- Jammu and kashmir
○ Baul- bengal
● Martial arts
○ Thoda- HP
○ Gatka- Sikhs of Punjab
○ Mardani khel - Maharashtra
○ Sarit sarai- Manipur

Ports
● Tamralipti - Bengal
● Chaul and Dabhol- Bahamani kingdom
● Masulipatnam- AP

Travellers
● Ibn Battuta-Tughlaq dynasty
○ Rihla is an account of his travels.
● Marco Polo-1289-1293 during the reign of Kakatiya Dynasty.
● Niccolo Conti-Vijaynagar Kingdom
Anshul Hindal AIR 48
●