Earth’s Materials and Resources (Outline)

1. Minerals and Rocks

A. What is a mineral?
- Characteristics of minerals
- What are the physical and chemical properties of minerals
- What are common rock-forming minerals?
- Mineral groups according to their chemical composition
B. Rocks
- Rock cycle
- 3 basic Types of Rocks
- Magma’s composition
- Rate of cooling and crystal’s size
- Igneous Rock – Intrusive or extrusive
Classification of IR in terms of texture and composition
I. Texture based on grain size, grain shape and grain pattern or the arrangement of the interlocking
crystals (Phaneritic, Porphyritic and Aphanitic)
Special textures.
II. Mineral composition based on chemical makeup of the parent magma (felsic and mafic).
Mineral composition is divided according to light-colored, medium-colored, and dark-colored)
Color index
- Sedimentary Rock
a. Type of SR according to Formation (clastic, nonclastic and bioclast)
Stages in Coal Formation
b. Classification of SR based on Chemical composition
c. Type of SR based on their source (detrimental, chemical)
d. Classification of SR based on Particle size (coarse, medium, fine and very fine)
Importance of sedimentary rocks
- Metamorphic rocks
- Agents of metamorphism
- Kinds of MR – foliated and non-foliated
- Kinds of metamorphism – contact and regional
- Different common metamorphic rocks

- Common metamorphic rocks (slate, gneiss, marble)

 C. Important Minerals in
the Society
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS AND THEIR MINERALS
On the other hand, minerals can also cause harm among humans. Talc might contain asbestos that can cause
certain cancer which is why some cosmetic companies discontinue using it. Nuclear power plant that uses
radioactive minerals produces radioactive waste. Burning of coals releases high amount of carbon dioxide and
other gases that contributes to the global warming. Over using of synthetic fertilizer causes eutrophication of
bodies of water.

2. Mineral Resources
Learning Competency: Describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use.

Important Terminologies
1. Mineral Occurrence
2. Mineral Deposit
3. Ore
4. Ore deposit
5. Aggregate

HOW and WHERE DO MINERAL

DEPOSIT OCCURS?
A. How are mineral deposits
found?
1. Geologic investigation
 2. Geophysical exploration
3. Geochemical investigation
4. Satellite imagery
Characteristics of a rock or mineral to be called an ORE
a.
b.
c.
Types of Mineral Resources
a.
b.

B. Where do mineral deposits occur?

DIFFERENT MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGINS
1. Magmatic ore deposits
2. Hydrothermal ore deposits
a. Vein-type
b. Disseminated
c. Massive sulfide
d. stratabound
3. Sedimentary ore deposits
4. Placer ore deposits
5. Residual ore deposits

C. MINING AND EXPLORATION OF ORES

1. Mining
2. General steps in mining
3. 3 possible extraction methods of ores
4. Steps in Mineral exploration
5. 2 Main Methods of Mining

6. Mine Processing
7. Ores and Their Minerals

8. Environmental effects of mining

a. Erosion (mine dumps, tailings and siltation)
b. Sinkhole
c. Water pollution
d. Air pollution (arsenic particles, cadmium)
e. Acid rock drainage
f. Heavy metals
g. Effect on biodiversity (destruction of habitat, pollution and climate change, poisoning)
h. deforestation
i. Waste materials (tailings, spoil tip)
j. Health (chronic asthma, pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases)

3. Energy Resources
Describe how fossil fuels are formed
Watch - Fossil Fuels 101 at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zaXBVYr9Ij0&t=83s
A. Components of a fossil fuel.
1. Coal
2. Oil or Petroleum
3. Natural gas
 B. describe how fossil fuels are formed
4. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal 101 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFQrE91kZwk
How heat from inside the Earth is tapped as a source of energy for human use?
- What is geothermal energy?
- Ways of harnessing geothermal energy
a. Piping system
b. Deep wells
a1. Geothermal heat pump (Write the steps in the harnessing of geothermal energy)

b1. Geothermal Power plants

(See figure on the right and write the steps in

harnessing energy using GPP)

- Three Basic Types of GPP

 dry steam power plants (use steam resources)
flash steam power plants (use high pressured hot water from deep inside the earth)
binary cycle power plants (heat is transferred from geothermal hot water to another (binary) fluid)

- Direct use and district heating systems are systems which use hot water from springs or reservoirs

located near the surface of the earth.

- Uses of Geothermal energy
a. Ancient Roman, Chinese and Native American cultures used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking,
and heating. Today, many hot springs are still used for bathing, and many people believe the hot,
mineral-rich waters have health benefits.
b. It is also used to directly heat individual buildings and to heat multiple buildings with district heating
systems. Hot water near the earth’s surface is piped into buildings for heat. A district heating system
provides heat for most buildings in Reykjavik, Iceland.
c. Industrial applications of geothermal energy include food dehydration (drying), gold mining, and milk
pasteurizing.
5. Hydroelectric Energy
Hydropower 101 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8HmRLCgDAI&t=1s

-Terminologies
Hydropower – power generated by the energy of falling water or fast running water.
Hydroelectricity – the use of hydropower to generate electricity
Hydroelectric energy – energy made by flowing or moving water
- Parts of a hydroelectric plant
a. Dam c. Generator
b. Turbine d. Transmission lines

- How does a hydropower plant work?

a. Hydropower plants capture the energy
of falling water to generate electricity.
b. Water enters the intake at the bottom of
the reservoir and flows into a tunnel
(penstock).
c. The water pressure causes the turbine to
rotate and generate electricity.
d. The transmission lines distribute
electricity to the community.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ON THE USE OF FOSSIL FUELS, GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

Fossil fuels Geothermal Hydrothermal

Air pollution Induced Seismicity or Earthquake Ecosystem damage and loss of land
Increasing atmospheric activity Water loss by evaporation
temperature Impact on Wildlife and Vegetation Siltation and flow shortage
Melting of polar ice caps presence of steam plumes Methane emission
Ozone depletion Subsidence Relocation
Concentration of acid rain Failure risks
4. Water Resources
 A. Identify the various water resources on Earth
B. Explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use.
- How is water distributed on Earth?

- Different
water resources
1. Saltwater reservoir
Three major zones in the oceans:
a. Surface layer – consists relatively of warm,
low-density water. It is about 2% of the
water in the ocean but is home to most
marine plants and animals
b. thermocline – where temperature
decreases rapidly with depth.
c. Deep zone – where temperature is
uniformly low. It is where 80% of the water
in the ocean is found
- - Importance of ocean
- Provides voluminous marine food sources
- Used in transportation and recreation
- Plays a vital role in regulating the climate
- Absorbs and circulates heat, water and chemicals
-
2. Surface water reservoir - includes streams, rivers, lakes and wetlands
- harnessed for irrigation, recreation, transport, fishing, drinking and hydropower
- 3. Freshwater reservoir - stored in polar regions and high mountains
- a. Glaciers and ice sheets, permafrost
- b. groundwater
 Aquifer
- Activities Affecting the Quality and Availability of Water
a. Population growth, particularly in water-short regions.
b. Movement of large number of people from the countryside to towns and cities.
c. Demands for greater food security and higher living standards.
d. Increased competition between different uses of water resources.
e. Pollution from factories, cities and farmlands.
f. Degradation of ecosystem (changes in the landscape)
g. Deforestation (conversion of landscapes into farms or residential areas)
h. Urban growth
i. Road-building
j. Surface mining
 k. wetland conversion to fishponds for aquaculture – promotes flooding and aggravates
excessive groundwater withdrawal
l. Waste produced by humans pollute the air, land and water (acid rain and eutrophication
m. Overexploitation of the surface and groundwater resources often causes irreversible effects.
- reduced yields
- diminished river flows
- poorer water quality
- damage to natural habitats
- land subsidence
n. Natural phenomena like climate change contributes also to existing stress in water resources.
- Extreme conditions like drought and floods and global warming

- Ways of conserving and protecting our water resources

1. Dispose of chemicals and wastes properly.
2. Take used motor oil to a recycling center.
3. Limit the amount of fertilizer used on plants.
4. Take short showers.
5. Shut water off while brushing teeth.
6. Run full loads of dishes and laundry.
7. Check for leaky faucets and have them fixed.
8. Abandon all wells that are not needed.
9. Keep a pitcher of drinking water in the refrigerator.
10. Get involved in water education.
11. Adopt a rainwater harvesting technique.
- Philippine Laws on water resources protection
a. PD No. 424 of 1974 – created National Water Resources Council ( NWRC) to coordinate and
integrate water resources development.
b. PD No. 1067 (1976) – instituted the Water Code which consolidated the laws governing the
ownership, utilization, exploitation, conservation and protection of water resources as
regulated by the NWRC.
c. EO No. 222 of 1995 – established the Presidential Committee on Water Conservation and
Demand Management which is tasked to prepare a Water Conservation Plan.
d. RA No. 8041 (National Water Crisis Act of 1995) – address the country’s water problems
through an integrated water management.
e. The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 – provided a comprehensive water quality
management

5. Soil Resources
- Identify human activities such as farming, construction of structures, and waste disposal that
affect the quality and quantity of soil.
- Give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations.

Soil - a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and

organisms that together support life. It is form when rock
weathers. The processes (slow or rapid) on its
formation depends on factors at play.
Soil Profile - the sequence of soil horizons from the surface to
the underlying bedrock
O – organic matters – on the surface
A – surface horizon – composed of mineral matter with some dark organic humus
B – subsoil – accumulated clay and other nutrients
C – substratum – composed of partially altered parent material
E – eluviation – characterized by a significant loss of mineral (eluviation) and leaching
R – hard bedrock – not a soil
regolith – a collective term which refers to the layer of loose, heterogenous, superficial materials
covering the bedrock
 Soil Triangle

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Importance of soil
Arable land for agriculture
Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants
Nutrient cycling
Foundation and support
Mineral deposits
- Factors affecting soil formation
a. Parent material – due to chemistry and type
b. Climate – temperature, rainfall and moisture
- affects the type of organisms, biological activity and rates of chemical reactions.
c. Topography- refers to the gradient of the slope which affects water flow and erosion
- results to different types of soil from different landforms.
d. Biological factors – refers to organisms like plants, animals, microorganisms and humans
e. Time – Soil formation is a long and continuous process which may take hundreds to thousands
of years depending on the climate and environment
- Specific Human Activities that affect the quality and quantity of soil
Farming
Construction of Structure
Waste disposal
Mining
- Ways of Conserving Soil Resource
Increasing soil organic matter.
Keeping the soil covered and vegetated.
Avoiding excessive tillage
Manage pests and nutrients efficiently.
Promoting crop rotation
Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction.

REMARKABLE WAYS OF PROTECTING AND CONSERVING THE SOIL

- Forest trees - monitor grazing - fertilizers
- Buffer strips - terrace planting - no soil compaction
- No-till farming - water the soil - control storm water
- Fewer concrete surfaces - maintain pH - monitoring growth dams
- Plant trees - indigenous crops - promote helpful organism
- Crop rotation - planting foliage -
 - plant windbreak areas - dams
6. Wastes
- Describe how people generate different types of waste (solid, liquid, and gaseous) as they make
use of various materials and resources in everyday life.
- Explain how different types of waste affect people’s health and the environment.

WASTE - be defined as material for which no use or reuse is intended.

Environmental wastes -generated from the natural processes and anthropogenic activities which pollute the
environment and make the earth an unhealthy planet.

TYPES OF WASTES
SOLID WASTE – wastes in solid (from domestic, commercial, and industry) such as plastics, Styrofoam, papers,
scrap iron, and sludge from wastewater treatment plant or air control facility.
LIQUID WASTE – wastes such as chemicals, oils, and wastewater from ponds and manufacturing industries. It
also includes sewage as well as wastewater from industrial processes and agricultural processing.
GASEOUS WASTE - usually originates from chopping and dissolution operations. Burning waste can facilitate
harmful and toxic gases.

Types of Solid Waste

1. Municipal/Domestic waste – includes materials that people in the community no longer want because
they are broken, spoiled or useless. They came from household, commercial establishments,
institutions and some industrial sources.
2. Agricultural waste – derived from farming and poultry. Too much agri waste are in the form of
fertilizers as they are deposited into bodies of water (eutrophication).
3. Industrial solid waste – comes from industrial sources other than mining. Includes demolition waste,
scraps, and ash from combustion
4. Mining waste – generated in 3 ways:
a. In most mining operations, large amount of rock and soil are removed to extract the valuable ores
and waste materials are left outside the mining site.
b. In milling operations, the grinding and sorting of materials produce solid waste called tailings,
which are dumped and stored in ponds near the milling site.
c. Water that is pumped from mines flows from piles of waste rock or tailings that contain hazardous
materials.

Liquid wastes - are the liquid part of the waste material.

- includes effluents of industries, fertilizer and pesticide solutions from agricultural fields, leachate
from landfills, urban runoff of untreated wastewater and garbage, mining wastes etc.
- may contain nontoxic inorganic substances or toxic organic substances.
Gaseous wastes - are generated in the environment mainly due to anthropogenic activities.
- include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of sulfur (SOx) etc.
- can cause serious environmental hazards.

Classification of Waste
Biodegradable Non-biodegradable Hazardous Non-hazardous
These wastes These wastes cannot Substances unsafe to use Substances safe to use
can be be degraded. commercially, industrially, commercially, industrially,
degraded. Examples: bottles, agriculturally or economically, agriculturally or
Examples: plastics, machines, and have the following economically. These
paper, woods, can properties: ignitability, substances usually create
fruits corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity disposal problems.

Type of Waste According to Generation (Origin)

1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES. Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish, construction and
demolition debris, sanitation residues, packaging materials, trade refuges, and others managed by any
municipality.
 2. INDUSTRIAL WASTES. Liquid and solid wastes that are generated by manufacturing and processing
units of various industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal, gas, sanitary, and papers.
3. AGRICULTURAL WASTES. Wastes generated from farming activities. These substances are mostly
biodegradable.
4. FISHERY WASTES. Waste generated due to fishery activities like fish viscera, fish bones, and scales.
These are extensively found in coastal and estuarine areas.
5. RADIOACTIVE WASTES. Wastes containing radioactive materials which are commonly by-products of
nuclear processes. Some industries not directly involved in nuclear activities may also produce
radioactive waste such as radioisotopes and chemical sludge.
6. E-WASTES. Electronic wastes generated from any modern establishments. They may be described as
discarded electrical or electronic devices. Some electronic scrap components such as CRTs may
contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium and beryllium or brominated flame retardants.
7. BIOMEDICAL WASTES. Solid or liquid wastes including containers, intermediate or end products
generated during diagnosis, treatment, and research activities of medical sciences.

Methods of Waste Disposal

1. Landfill – constructed above an impermeable clay later, lined with impermeable membrane. Every
deposit is covered with layer of soil to prevent being blown around.
2. Incineration – involves burning in a controlled manner using an incinerator. The waste material is
burned and converted into gas, particles and heat.
3. Mulch and compost – simplest method to dispose waste at home.
4. Source reduction – method of designing, manufacturing, purchasing, using and reusing materials to
reduced amount and toxicity of waste.
5. Recycling – method of collecting throwaway materials and turning them into useful products.

Some important products obtainable from solid wastes

1. Electricity can be generated from incinerated plastics.
2. Synthetic oil can be produced from plastic wastes.
3. Waste papers and cardboards from sugar cane bagasse can be used for the preparation of unbreakable
dolls, packing cardboards etc.
4. Metals can be recycled from the industrial scrap.
5. Ethyl alcohol can be produced from agricultural wastes.
6. Heavy metals can be extracted by bioleaching technology.
7. Waste glasses can be used for the preparation of new glass bottle.
8. Bricks and concretes can be prepared by using ash generated by power plants, slit from water works and
red mud from aluminum industry.

Effects of Waste on Health

1. Birth defects and reproductive disorders
2. Cancer - gastrointestinal, esophageal, stomach, colon and rectal cancer
3. Self-reported health symptoms- include respiratory symptoms, irritation of the skin, nose and eyes,
gastrointestinal problems, fatigue, headaches, psychological problems and allergies

Effects of Waste on the Environment

1. Soil acidification due to deposition of acid gases
2. Contamination of ground and surface water with metals, organic compounds
3. Bioaccumulation of toxic materials in flora and
fauna
4. Contamination of groundwater or surface
waters
5. Air Pollution

Waste Management
1. Reduce waste at the source
2. Reuse and recycling
3. Treatment of waste

- The main objective of waste management is to reduce the quantity and type of hazardous
substances used to avoid adverse impact on human health and environment.
- Transformation of waste into usable secondary products can be done through recycling, reusing,
repurposing, reducing, and recovering.
- Thus, the waste generated from different industries and societies must be classified in order to
apply the correct form of management.

The 3R’s of WASTE MANAGEMENT