My Final Notes Medieval History

Foundation Notes
EDU TERIA
MEDIEVAL
HISTORY
FOR BPSC EXAMINATION
English
Medium
Foundation Course Material (ECONOMICS) |1|
Subject list
1. EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD ------------------------------------------------------------ 01-16
2. DELHI SULTANATE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 17-28
3. REGIONAL EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 29-31
4. VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------- 32-37
5. BAHMANI EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 38-41
6. BHAKTI MOVEMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------ 42-48
7. SUFI MOVEMENT--------------------------------------------------------------------- 49-52
8. MUGHAL ERA ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53-66
9. THE MARATHA STATE ---------------------------------------------------------------- 67-70
10. MARATHA EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 71-72

History of Medieval India |1|
EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 01
North India: Rajputana Period
• After the death of Harsha, there was no political unity in North India for about five centuries,
the process of decentralization in North India intensified and the country was divided into many
states. The Rajput’s emerged as a powerful force in North India and dominated the Indian
political scene for about 500 years from the 7th century.
A. Gurjar-Pratihara (730-1036 AD.)
• The Gurjara-Pratiharas are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style
temples.
• The greatest development of their style of temple building took place at Khajuraho – a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
• The Sanskrit poet and playwright Rajashekhara lived in the court of Mahendrapala I, son of
Mihir Bhoja I.
• They were finally wiped out from the political map by the Ghaznavids in the 11th century AD
and were succeeded by the Chahamanas or Chauhans in Rajputana, the Chalukyas or Solankis
in Gujarat and the Parmaras or Pawars in Malwa.
• Foreign traveler Al-Masudi visited the Pratihara Empire.
Nagbhatta– I • The most famous king, known for stopping the Arab armies.
(730-760 AD.) • Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
• He made Kannauj in western Uttar Pradesh his capital.
• The expansionist policy brought him into conflict with the Pala
king Dharmapala and the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva, thus
Vatsaraja– I
beginning the "Tripartite Struggle" and continuing for about 350
(780-805 AD.)
years.
• Vatsaraja defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and the
Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga for the control of Kannauj.
• He expanded the Pratihara Empire into the Gangetic plains and

reached Pala dynasty-ruled Bihar and also repelled Muslim
Nagbhatta– II
invasions in the west.
(805-833 AD.)
• He rebuilt the Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had
been destroyed in an Arab invasion from Sindh.
• The greatest ruler of the Pratiharas conquered the Palas and the
Rashtrakutas.
• He proved to be the most successful and popular ruler among the
Bhoja-I/Mihir Bhoj
Pratiharas.
(836-885 AD.)
• Established the capital at Kannauj, also known as Mahodaya.
• Worshiper of Vishnu and assumed the title of 'Adivarah'.
• Al-Masudi, an Arab trabeller gave him the title “King Baura”
• The Pratihara Empire reached the zenith of its prosperity and
Mahendrapa Pal-I power under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I.
(885-910 AD.) • The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III invaded North India around 963
AD and defeated the Pratihara ruler.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi invades Kannauj; the Rajyapala flees the
battlefield.
• He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings of
Rajyapala
northern India) of Aryavarta. His court was adorned by
(960-1018 AD.)
Rajasekhara, a noted Sanskrit poet, dramatist and critic who wrote
Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mimansa, Vidya Shalabhanjika, Bhrinjika,
Bala Ramayan, Prapancha Pandava, Balabharati, Bhushan Kosh etc.
Yashpal • The last ruler of this dynasty.
(1024-1036 AD.) • By 1090 AD, the Gahadavals conquered Kannauj.
• He ruled the Bundelkhand region.
• There were two capitals – Mahoba and Khajuraho.
Chandella • Yashovarman made them an independent power.
• Ruled between the 9th and 13th centuries.
• Weakened by attacks from Muslim dynasties.
• He ruled the Malwa region with Dhara as the capital.
• The early rulers were vassals of the Rashtrakutas.
• Siyaka or Shri Harsha captured Manyakheta, the capital of the
Parmaras
Rashtrakutas.
• Parmara Bhoja: Important king of this dynasty, known as patron
of arts, literature and science.
• Ruled Gujarat for 300 years, their capital was at Anhilwara.
• Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the Somnath temple in 1025 AD
during the reign of Bhima I.
Solanki Dynasty
• Hemachandra, a popular Jain scholar, lived in Kumarpal's court.
• During the reign of Bhima II, in 1178 AD, Mohammad Ghori
attacked Gujarat.
• Prithviraj Chauhan III: Capital – Ajmer

• He fought two battles at Tarain/Thaneshwar (Kurukshetra).
• He defeated Mohammad Ghori in the first battle in 1191 AD.
Chauhan Dynasty
• He lost the second battle in 1192 AD and Qutubuddin Aibak was
appointed the governor.
• Later Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate.
• In India, western type of feudalism is found in Rajput societies.
• Women used to commit self-immolation (Jauhar) on burning
pyres.
Socio-religious • Female foeticide and early marriage of girls was prevalent.
• It failed to assimilate foreign elements.
• Vaishnavism and Shaivism were patronized by the rulers.
• Buddhism declined and Jainism existed to some extent.
Sanskrit scholar Rajashekhara lived in the court of Mahendra Pala I.
• He wrote Karpuramanjari, Kavyamimsa, Bhuvanakosha and
Harvilasa etc.
• Parmara Bhoja wrote 24 Sanskrit kavyas and assumed the title of
Kaviraja.
literature • Major works: Ayurveda Sarvasya, Samarangana Sutradhara (on
architecture), Champu-Ramayana, Yukti Kalpataru (on statecraft).
• Bhoj built Bhojshala, a Sanskrit college.
• Books written by Hemchandra in the court of Kumarapala:
Kumarapalacharita, Naminatha, Parishishtha Parvana,
Abhidhamma Chintamani.
• The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts of Chittor, Mandu,
Jodhpur and Gwalior are excellent examples of Rajput
architecture.
• The Dilwara Temples, Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi in Mount
Abu were built by the Solankis of Gujarat.
• The Khajuraho Temples (UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built
by the Chandela rulers.
Art and • Rani ki Vav (UNESCO World Heritage Site), a multi-storey well built
architecture by Queen Udaymati.
• The painting of the Rajputs is divided into the Rajput School of Art
and the Pahari School of Art. The Rajasthani school flourished in
Mewar, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer and specialized in
painting scenes from Krishna Lila, Nayika Bheda and Ritu Charitra.
• The Pahari school was patronised by the rulers of the Himalayan
states, especially in the areas of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and
Garhwal.
Palas of Bengal (750-1150 AD.)
• Around the 8th century AD, Gopala laid the

foundation of the Pala dynasty.
• As the names of all the succeeding kings
ended with 'Pala', which meant protector in
the ancient language of Prakrit, this dynasty
came to be known as the 'Pala' dynasty.
• Capital: Muddagiri/Munger (Bihar).
• Pala Empire: Major cities in Bengal and
Bihar included Pataliputra, Vikramapura,
Ramavati (Varendra), Monghyr (Munger),
Tamralipti and Jaggadala.
• The Palas were followers of Mahayana
Buddhism and the Tantric tradition of
Buddhism.
• Palas had close cultural relations with Tibet. Famous Buddhist scholars Santaraksita and
Dipankara were invited to Tibet. They introduced a new form of religion there.
• They had close trade contacts and cultural ties with South-East Asia.
• The Sailendra dynasty (Buddhist) who ruled Malay, Java, Sumatra sent several embassies to the
Pala court.
• The Pala period is considered the golden period in the history of Bengal.
• Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increasing trade between Bengal
and the Middle East.
• The Pala armies were famous for their large war elephant cavalry.
• Arab trader Suleiman visited the Pala kingdom.
• The power of the Palas was destroyed by the Sena dynasty under Vijayasen.
Chero Dynasty
Introduction
• Chero emerged as a tribal state after the fall of Pala dynasty in Bihar.
About the Dynasty
• The Cheros established their powerful kingdom in Bhojpur, Saran, Champaran,
Muzaffarpur and Palamu districts.
• They ruled for about 300 years and had four regions in Shahabad district.
• Kumkumchand Jharap was the chief of the Cheras of Bhojpur between 1587-1607 and
chased away the Ujjainis from Bhojpur.
• Conflict between Cheros and Ujjainis: A decisive battle was fought between the Cheros and
Ujjainis in 1611 A.D. in which the Ujjainis under the leadership of Narayan Mal defeated the
Cheras.
• Jagdishpur Fair: It was started by Phoolchand.

• Medini Rai was the most famous ruler of the Cheras and his territory extended to Gaya,
Daudnagar and Arwal.
• He was succeeded by his son Pratap Rai, during whose reign a series of Mughal invasions
took place and the Cheros were finally annexed to the Mughal Empire.
Rashtrakutas (Deccan): (752-973 AD)
• Meaning of Rashtrakuta – Chief of a Rashtra

• They were considered vassals of the Chalukyas.
• Capital: Manyakhet or Malkhed.
• He achieved great military successes in the north and south and defeated most of the Palas
and Pratiharas in the tripartite conflict.
• The Rashtrakutas fought continuous battles against the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the
Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• Krishna- III was the last great ruler of the Rashtrakutas. In 972 AD, the capital was burnt to
ashes by united opponents. This marks the end of the Rashtrakutas.
• They were tolerant in their religious views and patronised Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.
• Rashtrakuta rule lasted in the Deccan for about 200 years, until the end of the 10th century.
• Vassal of Chalukya king Kirtivarman II.
Dantidurga • Founded the Rashtrakuta kingdom in 753 AD.
(753-756 AD.) • The name Dantidurga also indicates his military prowess and
achievements.
• Its empire/control included present-day Karnataka and Konkan.
Krishna I • Rock-cut Kailashnatha (Shiva) temple at Ellora Caves (monolithic,
(756-774 AD.) dedicated to Lord Shiva)
• It was built during his reign.
Dhruva • He led successful campaigns in Kannauj, defeating Nagabhata II
(780-793 AD.) (Pratihara) and Dharmapala (Pala).
• He is called the "Ashoka of the South". He is also compared to the
Gupta king Vikramaditya.
• Established a new capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkhed).
• Assumed the title of "Veeranarayan".
• Defeated the Eastern Chalukyas and maintained friendly relations
with neighbours.
Amoghavarsha- I • He composed Kavirajamarga (Kannada) and Prashnottara Ratna

Malika (Sanskrit).
(814-878 AD.)
• He was a follower of Jainism.
• He Composed Kavirajamarga - the earliest Kannada work on poetics
and Prashnottara Ratna Malika in Sanskrit, which is considered a
writing of high caliber.
• After his death all his opponents united against his successor and
in 972 A.D. the Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed was destroyed and
burnt to ashes. This marks the end of the Rashtrakutas.
• The system of administration in all three dynasties was based on

the ideas and practices of the Gupta Empire.
• The king was the head of the administration and the commander
of the armed forces. He also performed the work of justice.
• The king was assisted by a number of ministers, usually from
prominent families and their position was hereditary.
• The directly administered territories were divided into: Rashtra
(provinces) and Vishayas (districts) and Bhuktis.
• The head of the Rashtra was the President and functioned in the
Administration same manner as the Uparika (Governor) did in the Palas and
Pratiharas.
• The village was the smallest unit. The village headman performed
the duties with the help of the Grama-Mahattara (village elders).
• There were also committees for the management of schools, ponds,
temples etc. in the villages.
• The Kostapal or Kotwal was responsible for law and order in the
towns and their surrounding areas.
• The Nad-Gavundas or Desa-Gramakutas were hereditary revenue
officers.
• The society was divided into various castes and on the basis of
profession.
Socio-religious • Guilds occupied an important place in the society.
• They were tolerant towards different religions.
• Amoghavarsha supported Jainism.
• They patronised Sanskrit and popularised Kannada.
• Amoghavarsha assumed the title of "Kaviraja" and wrote two books:
• Kavirajamarga: The first book written in Kannada as a grammar
book.
• Ratnaloka: A Sanskrit book on Jainism.
• They patronised Sanskrit Jain scholars.
• Jinasena: Wrote Parsvabhudhya and Adipurana which are on
Adinatha.
Literature
• Mahaveeracharya: Wrote Ganita Saar Sangraha, a book on
mathematics.
• Shaktayana: Wrote Amoghravruthi, a grammar book in Sanskrit.
Others
• Halayudha - Kavirahasya
• Veeracharya - Ganitasaram
• Trivikram Bhatt - Nalachampu
• Pampa - Vikramasenavijay • Ponna - Shantipuraan.
• Instrumental in establishing the Karnataka Dravidian style.

• Construction of the rock cut cave Kailash temple at Ellora.
• Construction of the Ellora and Elephanta caves.
Art and • The Kashi Vishwanath Temple and the Jain Narayana Temple at
architecture Pattadakal in modern Karnataka – both UNESCO World Heritage
Sites.
• The great Apabhramsa poet Swayambhu and his son lived in the
court of the Rashtrakutas.
South India
A. Cholas: (850-1279 AD.)
• The Chola dynasty is known as the Imperial

Cholas of Thanjavur.
• The founder of the Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya,
who was earlier a vassal of the Pallavas.
• The greatest Chola kings were Rajaraja and his son
Rajendra- I.
• The use of the agrahatta (Persian wheel) also
facilitated the functioning of an already
established system of tanks, canals, wells and
sluices.
• Important Rulers:
• The Greatest Chola Ruler: Who helped establish the Chola Empire
as the largest dominion in South India.
• Titles: Sashipadashekhara, Jayakonda and Mummidi Chola.
• He defeated the Cheras, Pandyas and conquered the Maldives

islands.
• Naval campaign against the Sailendra Kingdom (Malay Peninsula).
Rajaraja– I • Expanded trade with China.

• In 1010 AD, the Rajarajesvara or Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated
(985 – 1014 AD.)
to Shiva was built in Thanjavur.
• Rajaraja Chola built the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, one
of the largest Hindu temples, which is currently a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
• Developed a revenue system in which the land was surveyed and
then revenue was assessed. Hence, he was known as Ulakalanada
Perumal (the great one who measured the earth).
• Son of Rajaraja I, he defeated and conquered entire Sri Lanka.

• Made the Chola navy the strongest in the region and converted the
'Bay of Bengal' into the 'Chola Lake'.
• He assumed the title of “Gangaikondachola” and built a city-
Rajendra – I
Gangaikondacholapuram”.
(1014 – 1044 AD.)
• He was a great patron of learning and was known as Pandit-Chola.
• Encouraged local self-government.
• Rajendra- III was the last king. Later, the Pandyas conquered the
Chola Empire.
• The power of the king was centralized and assisted by a council of
ministers.
• The Chola Empire had a strong standing army.
• The empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces), Valanadu
(districts).
• Officials were usually given revenue bearing lands.
Administration
• The Cholas were known for village administration through-
• Two assemblies - Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha.
• Ur was a general assembly of the village.
• Mahasabha was the assembly of adult males in Brahmin villages
(agrahara).
• Election system was present.
• A network of roads was laid.
• Expansion of agricultural economy, use of Agraharatta (Persian
wheel) for facilitated irrigation.
Economy • Ponds were built for irrigation.
• A detailed survey of the land was carried out to make government
assessments.
• Revenue Sources: Land tax, trade tax, plunder tax, etc.
• The society was based on the Varnashram system.
• Sub-castes like Kaikalla, Chetti, Gaal etc. spread.
• Division of sub-castes into Valangai and Idangai.
Society
• Devdasi system was prevalent in the society.
• Rise of trading castes Garvaras (northern traders moved to the
south), Gowdas/Gavundas (originally farmers).
• The Chola rulers were staunch Shaivites.
• The Ekambareshwara temple was built by Parantaka Chola in 650
AD.
• Rajendra I built the Shiva temple in Ceylon.
Religion
• They were tolerant towards other religions.
• Vaishnavism spread in Chola society.
• Saint Ramanujan was a contemporary of the Chola kings.
• Chola temples served as important centres of cultural life.
• Major capitals: Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc.

• Many cities, lakes, ponds etc. were constructed.
• The Chola kings built tall temples and carved long wall inscriptions
describing their achievements. They also depict the socio-economic
conditions of the period.
• The Dravidian style of temple architecture reached its zenith
under the Cholas.
• Dravidian Temple Architecture:
1. Garbha Griha - This was the main deity chamber, in which
many stories were mentioned.
2. Dravidian style temples are multi-storeyed.
3. The characteristics of Dravidian style are - Prakara
Art and
(boundary wall), pyramidal peak, octagonal or square
architecture sanctum (chariot), gopuram (entrance gate), mandap (Nandi
mandap), large concentric courtyard and octagonal temple
structure.
• Example: The Kailashnatha temple of Kanchipuram was built in
the 8th century. Brihadeeswara temple (Tanjore), Airavateswara
temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram are famous.
• The Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur was built by Rajaraja I,
dedicated to Shiva.
• The Chola period is also notable for bronze sculptures. The best
example of this can be seen in the dancing posture of Nataraja.
• Bharatanatyam and Kathakali are two types of dances performed
during the Chola period.
• Shivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi
dates back to the 10th century.
• Ramayana composed by Kamban and Periyapuranam or
Thiruthondar Puranam composed by Sekkilar are two
masterpieces of this era.
• The Telugu version of the Mahabharata was started by Nannaya
and completed by Tikkana.
• Jayanakonda's Kalingattupaarani narrates the Kalinga war fought
Literature by Kulothunga- I.
• Moorula, written by Ottakuthar, depicts the lives of three Chola
kings.
• It was written by Nalvenba Pugalendi.
• Tamil grammars such as Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yperungalambi
Amrithasagara by a Jain Nannul, Pavanandhi and Veerasoliyam by
Buddhamitra were written during the Chola rule.
• Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are considered the 3 gems of Kannada
literature who belonged to the 10th century.
• Kaikkolaperumpadai : Royal army.
• Velaikaarar : Personal troops to protect the kings.

Important terms
• Kadagrama : Military cantonment.
and meaning
• Puruvuvanithi Naikkalam : Revenue department.
• Peruvazhis : Trunk roads.
B. Western Chalukya-Kalyani: (973-1200 AD.)
• The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled between 973-1200 AD.

• Origin: Kannada state (present day Kerala)
• Followed the traditions of Rashtrakutas and Vatapi Chalukyas.

• Ruled over the Karnataka region and surrounding areas.
• Tailapa- II (973-97 AD.)
1. Defeated Rashtrakuta vassal Krishna III.

2. Credited with victories over Chedi, Orissa, Nepal and Kuntala.
• Someshwara- I (1042-68 AD.)

Famous Rulers
1. Titles – Ahava Malla and Trailokyamalla.
2. He established Kalyan Nagar.
3. Vikramankadevacharita of Vihlana is related to Someshwara- I.
• The last ruler Tailapa- III was defeated by the Kalachuris.

• At this time agriculture, trade and commerce were the backbone of
the economy.
• Irrigation facilities were provided by the state.
Economy • Cultivable land was classified into dry land, wet land and garden
land.
• Private ownership existed alongside joint ownership of land.
• Guilds were active and had autonomy.
C. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
• The dynasty was founded by Vishnuvardhana, brother of Pulakeshin II, and established its
capital at Vengi in Andhra Pradesh, but later shifted its capital to Rajamahendra Varman
(modern Rajahmundry).
• Vijayaditya-III (848-892 AD) is credited with victories over the Pallavas, Pandyas and
Rashtrakutas. In the 10th century AD their power waned and they became allies of the Cholas.
Kulothunga Chola took over this kingdom in 1076 AD.
• The founder of the Chalukya dynasty of Vengi was Vishnuvardhan. Its capital was in Vengi
(Andhra Pradesh). The most glorious king of this dynasty was Vijayaditya III, whose commander
was Pandarang.
D. Chalukya dynasty (Vataapi)
• Jai Singh founded the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi, whose capital was Vatapi (near Bijapur). The
prominent rulers of this dynasty were Pulakeshin I, Kirtivarman, Pulakeshin-II, Vikramaditya
Vinayaditya and Vijayaditya. The most glorious king among them was Pulakeshin-II.
• The Meguti temple of Jinendra was built by Pulakeshin-II.
• Pallava dynasty ruler Narasimha Varman I defeated Pulakeshin II around 642 AD and captured
his capital Badami. Probably Pulakeshin II was killed in this war. After this victory, Narasimha
Varman assumed the title of 'Vatapikonda'.
• Kirtivarman is considered to be the builder of Vatapi.

• After conquering Malwa, Vinayaditya assumed the title of Sakalottarapathnath.
• During the reign of Vikramaditya-II, Arabs attacked the Deccan. Vikramaditya's nephew
Pulakeshi fought this attack. On the success of this campaign, Vikramaditya-II gave him the title
of Avanijanashraya.
• Vikramaditya-II's first wife Lokamahadevi built the Virupakshamahadeva temple in Pattadakal
and his second wife Trailokya Devi built the Trailokeshwar temple.
• The last king of this dynasty was Kirtivarman II. He was defeated by his vassal Dantidurga and
a new dynasty (Rashtrakuta dynasty) was established.
• Aihole is called the city of temples.
Arab invasions
• Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf (the Arab governor) sent two military expeditions against Dahir (the ruler of
Sindh) under the pretext of taking action against pirates. But both expeditions failed. Then, after
obtaining permission from the Caliph, Hajjaj again sent a full army with 6,000 strong cavalry
and a large camel contingent under the command of Muhammad bin Qasim (his son-in-law).
• He reached the coast of Sindh in 712 AD and advanced towards Brahmanabad fort where Dahir
was stationed with the army But Qasim was betrayed by his wazir. Due to lack of popular support
for Dahir, Qasim devastated Debal (near Karanchi) in 3 days. He called upon the people of Sindh
to surrender and promised them full protection of their faith.
• Chachnama is a book related to the history of Sindh. It describes the Sindh invasion or the
conquest of Sindh by the Arabs. It was translated into Persian in the 13th century.
• Reasons for the failure of Arabs to establish a permanent empire in India:
1. Muhammad bin Qasim imprisoned by the new Caliph.

2. The indifferent attitude of the new Caliph towards the desert of Sindh province.
3. Arab attention was distracted by the fighting over the Caliphate.
4. Power and valor of Indian rulers.
Turkish invasion
• The Ghazni Empire was founded (962 AD) by Alptigin (a slave of the Samanid amirs of
Bukhara). He served as the governor of Khurasan and captured the city of Ghazni. However, he
died soon after.
• Reasons for the success of Turkey in India:
1. The Rajputs lacked unity and organisation and were divided due to rivalry.
2. Lack of centralized government/administration.
3. Rajput states were small and scattered.
4. The Turks were better organised and took advantage of the lack of cooperation among the
Rajputs.
Mahmud of Ghazni
• He was considered a hero of the Islamic peoples by medieval Muslim historians because of his
strong military might against Central Asian Turkish tribal invaders.
A. Reasons for the invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi
1. Looting immense wealth and destroying idols.
2. Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked India not only to spread Islam but also to loot the
immense wealth stored in the temples.
3. Due to the political instability in India, he did not want to give time to the princes in
India to regroup and unite forces against him.
B. The result of Mahmud Ghaznavi's invasions
1. Contact between Hindus and Muslims brought forth two distinct aspects.
i. He had a greed for plunder which resulted in Mahmud's successors invading the
Ganga valley and Rajputana.
ii. Muslim merchants strengthened India's trade with Central Asian countries. Lahore
emerged as a centre of Arabic and Persian languages.
2. Muslim religious preachers known as Sufis emerged during this period, who preached
the message of humanity and love to all and received widespread support from both
Hindus and Muslims.
3. The Seljuk Turks emerged as a powerful medieval Perso-Turkic power and controlled a
vast area of Syria, Iran and Trans-Oxiana and this empire fought with the Ghaznavids
for the control of Khorasan.
4. Mas'ud (son of Mahmud of Ghazni) was defeated by the Seljuks and fled to Lahore for
refuge, leaving his empire limited to Ghazni and Punjab only.
5. After the Seljuks, two new powers emerged: the Khwarizmi Empire based in Iran and the
Ghurid Empire based in Ghur in northwestern Afghanistan.
Muhammad Ghori (1173-1206 AD.)
• Muhammad Ghori or Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam ascended the throne at Ghazni in 1173
CE, while his elder brother was ruling Ghor.
• Muhammad Ghori conquered Multan (1175 AD) and Uch (in Upper Sindh) from the Bhatti Rajputs
and established a fort there.
• In 1178 AD he attacked Gujarat, but Ghurids were completely repulsed by the Solanki ruler
Bhima II in the Battle of Kayadara (1178 AD) near Mount Abu.
• Muhammad Ghori (Ghor prince) invaded Punjab and captured Lahore in 1186 A.D. Khurab Shah
(the last ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire) was assassinated in 1192 A.D. With his death Mahmud
of Ghaznavi's dynasty came to an end.
• By 1190 AD, he had conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot and was ready to move towards Delhi
and the Gangetic Doab.
• In 1192 AD, Ghori marched towards Delhi to conquer the whole of India and captured Sirhind.
Prithviraj Chauhan fought a brave battle with his troops against Ghori at Tarain.
• In this first battle of Tarain, Ghori was badly wounded and defeated. In 1192 A.D. Ghori defeated
Prithviraj. The ruler of Delhi was driven out and Delhi was made a base for further Turkish
advancement into the Gangetic valley.
First battle of • Ghori captured the fort of Bhatinda in 1189 AD and then advanced into
Tarain the kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan. In the First Battle of Tarain in 1191
(1191 AD.) AD, Prithviraj defeated Ghori and regained Bhatinda.
Second Battle • In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD) the combined army of Rajput
of Tarain rulers under Prithviraj was defeated by Muhammad Ghori. Prithviraj was
(1192 AD.) kept as a prisoner and later put to death. Turkish rule began for the first
time in Indian history with the end of the Second Battle of Tarain. Qutb-
ud-din Aibak was appointed as the commander by Muhammad Ghori.
1. Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD.)

• After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the conquered territories under his trusted
slave Qutbuddin Aibak.
• During the next two years, the Turks occupied parts of the Upper Doab without any
resistance from the Gahadavalas. In 1194 AD, Ghori returned to India and attacked Kannauj,
defeating Jaichand in the battle of Chandawar (near Kannauj).
• After this attack Qutbuddin Aibak was made the governor by Ghori.
• The two successive battles of Tarain and the Battle of Chandawar laid the foundation of
Turkish rule in North India.
• After this, Ghori went to Banaras and destroyed many temples there. He also captured the
forts of Gwalior, which protected the southern part of Delhi.
• Aibak conquered Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho from the Chandela rulers of the region.
2. Conquest of Gujarat, Bundelkhand, Bengal and Bihar (1195-1202 AD.)
• Qutubuddin Aibak was defeated by Bhima II (Solanki King). But later Aibak again defeated
Bhima II and looted and destroyed many cities.
• His next target was Bundelkhand, which was ruled by the Chandela Rajputs. He defeated
them too and conquered Bundelkhand.
• During this period, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, another general of Muhammad Gauri,
attacked Bihar in 1197 AD and Bengal in 1202 AD. He destroyed the universities of Nalanda
and Vikramshila. Khilji was appointed the governor of Bengal and Bihar.
3. Revolt of the Khokhars (1205 AD.)
• In 2015 AD, Ghori again came to India.
• In 1206 AD, when Ghori was returning to Ghazni, he was killed by khokars in Dhamayak
district near Jhelum river (now in Pakistan)
Important Foreign Visitors/Envoys
Important Foreign Visitors/Envoys
Al-Masudi • Arab Traveller

(957 AD.)
• His real name was Abu Rayhan Mahmud who came to India
with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote Kitab al-Hind and Tahqiq-e-
Hind.
• He came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni.
Al Biruni
• Alberuni was said to be the first expert on Indian history.
(1024 - 1030 AD.) • He was a Persian scholar, writer, theologian, scientist and
thinker.
• Alberuni's works are in Arabic, but apart from his mother
tongue Persian, he had knowledge of other languages - Sanskrit,
Syriac, Greek.
Firdausi • Persian poet, he is called the Homer of the East and he wrote
the book Shahnama.
Ibn Battuta • He was a traveller from Morocco.

(1333 - 1347 AD.)
Niccolo de conti (1420 • He was an Italian traveller and explorer who gave a description
- 1421 AD.) of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• A Persian traveller who stayed at the court of the Zamorin of

Abdul Razzaq (1443 -
Calicut. His account was about the Vijayanagara Empire,
1444 AD.)
especially the city.
• A Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya

Domingo Paes (1520 -
of the Vijayanagara Empire.
1522 AD.)
Minhaj-us-Siraj • He traced his genealogy to the royal house of Ghazni.

Juzzani
• Its description was Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi from the reign of Balban
Ziauddin Barani to the 6th year of the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• His other major work was the Fatawa-i-Jahandari, translated as
Principles of Government.
Abdul Malik Isami • Its account was composed under the patronage of Futuh-us-
Salatin Bahman Shah (founder of the Bahmani kingdom).
• A famous scholar of Persian.
Shams-i-Siraj Afif • Patronised by Firoz Tughlaq.

• In his book Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, he has given a timely description
of the historical events of Firoz Shah Tughlaq's reign.
Yahya bin Ahmad • Its description is Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi and belongs to the
Sirhindi reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1388 – 1434 A.D.).
Ferishta • A Persian historian who wrote Tarikh-i-Ferishta.
❖❖❖
DELHI SULTANATE 02
Delhi Sultanate
period
Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi dynasty

Slave Dynasty Khilji dynasty Tughlaq Dynasty
(1414 - 1451 (1451 - 1526
(1206-1290 AD.) (1290-1320 AD.) (1320-1413 AD.) A.D.)
A.D.)
Introduction
• In the history of India, the period between 1206 AD to 1526 AD is known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
• During this period of over 300 years, five dynasties ruled Delhi.
Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290 AD.)
• Qutubuddin Aibak founded the Slave Dynasty. It is also known as Mamluk (Arabic word meaning the
one who is owned) dynasty.
• Aibak is considered the real founder of Muslim rule in India.
A. Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206 – 1210 AD.)
• Established the first independent Turkish empire in India and assumed the title of Sultan.
• Qutubuddin Aibak founded the Qutbi dynasty.
• He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori.
• After the death of Ghori, he became free and started his rule in 1206 AD.
• He made Lahore his capital.
• He is known as Lakh Baksh or giver of millions because he gave many generous donations.
• Aibak issued gold, silver, billonons and copper coins. He stopped engraving the name of the Abbasid
Caliph on them.
Art and architecture
1. Aibak built two mosques:
a. Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi)
b. Adhai Din Ka Jhopra (Ajmer)
• Started construction of Qutub Minar (first floor only) dedicated to the Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki, later completed by Iltutmish.
• He patronised Fakhr-ud-Din, author of the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, and Hasan Nizami, who wrote
the Tajul-Maasir, the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
B. Aaramshah (1210 AD.)
• Aaramshah proved to be a weak and incompetent ruler and the people of Delhi and the powerful
chiefs of many provinces refused to recognize his sovereignty.
• Thus Iltutmish (Aibak's son-in-law) was invited to Delhi. After this he deposed Aaram Shah and
became the Sultan.
C. Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD.)

• Iltutmish defeated Qubacha, who had declared himself the independent ruler of Multan, and
captured Lahore and parts of Punjab.
• He was the first Sultan who introduced pure Arabic coins, introduced two important coins, the silver
Tanka and the copper Jetal, and introduced the Iqta system.
• He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• Minhaj us Siraj and Malik Tajuddin received patronage in the court of Iltutmish.
• Iltutmish completed the work of Qutub Minar, he is credited with building the first tomb in India.
• He nominated Razia as his successor. Thus, he introduced hereditary succession to the Delhi
Sultanate.
D. Razia sultan (1236-1240 AD.)
• The first and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India.
• The abandonment of female attire and veil and adoption of male attire was unacceptable to Muslim
theologians and nobles.
• Razia died on the way back to Delhi.
• In 1246, Balban succeeded in making Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of Iltutmish, the Sultan
and served as his naib (the next most powerful position after the Sultan).
• In 1266, Nasiruddin Mahmud died and Balban became the Sultan.
E. Balban (1266-1287 AD.)
• Also known as Ulugh Khan, he was one of the chief architects of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Second Ilbury dynasty founded by Balban.
• According to them, the Sultan was the recipient of God's shadow on earth (Zil-e-Ilahi) and divine
grace (Niyabat-i-Khudai).
• Balban introduced strict court discipline and new customs like sijda (prostration) and paboos/paibos
(kissing the Sultan's feet).
• Balban paid more attention to restoring law and order rather than expanding his kingdom.
• He broke the power of Chalisa (Chahalgani system).
• Started the Persian festival, Navroz.
• Called himself Nasir-Amir-ul-Momin (right hand of the Caliph).
Administration
• Diwan-i-Vizarat (Finance Department) was separated from Diwan-i-Arz (Military
Department).
• Justice was delivered with utmost fairness.
• He followed the policy of blood and iron.
• Excluded non-Turks from the administration.
• Indian Muslims were not given important positions.
• Spies were appointed to keep an eye on the activities of the rich.
• Balban implemented the intelligence system.
• To prove his superiority over the nobles, he introduced Sijda (prostration) and Paboos (kissing
the feet of the Sultan).
Khilji dynasty (1290–1320 AD.)
• Khiljis were Turks by origin. The establishment of the Khilji dynasty meant the end of the monopoly
of the Ilvari dynasty. This change of dynasty is known in history as the Khilji Revolution.
• The Khilji dynasty started the tradition of giving high positions to Muslims.
A. Jalauddin Khilji (1290–1296 AD.)
Founder of the Khilji dynasty
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi Sultanate who had a liberal attitude towards Hindus.
• It said the state must be based on the voluntary support of the governed and since the majority of
the population was Hindu, the state could not be truly Islamic.
• He adopted a policy of tolerance and tried to win the goodwill of the elites.
• In 1296, he was murdered by his son-in-law Alauddin Khilji, who took over the throne.
B. Jalauddin Khilji (1296-1316 AD.)
• Appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (chief of the officers supervising ceremonies) and Ariz-i-Mumalik (Law
Minister) by Jalaluddin Khilji.
• Jalaluddin's policy of tolerance was reversed by Alauddin Khilji; those who opposed him were severely
punished. He decided to revive Balban's policies of cruel rule.
• To maintain control over the nobles – he banned alcohol and drugs, to hold festivals, marry without
his permission, to avoid social gatherings, reorganized the spy services (barid).
• He was the first Sultan who separated religion from politics. He declared that kingship knows no
relationship.
• Barani wrote the book Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi.
• Gave shelter to poets like Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi.
• Although Jalaluddin was illiterate, he assumed the title of Sikandar-e-Azam and gave the title of
Tooti-e-Hind (Parrot of India) to Amir Khusro.
• He defeated the Mongols in the battles of Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), Amroha (1305), and Ravi (1306).
• Malik Kafur was his slave general who led a series of campaigns in the southern part of India against
the Yadavas (1308), Kakatiyas (1310), Hoysalas (1311) etc.
• Amir Khusro's Khazain-ul-Futuh tells about Alauddin's conquests.
• In 1303, when Jalaluddin defeated King Ratan Singh of Chittor, Rani Padmini and other Rajput women
committed Jauhar (self-immolation), which is mentioned in Padmavat by Jayasi.
• The Sultan had a large standing army and was paid in cash from the royal
treasury.
Military reform • Innovative: Face and stain system.
1. Chehra: Detailed description of each soldier.
2. Dagh: Identification of horses.
• Revenue was half of the produce and was based on the land under
cultivation.
Land revenue • The first ruler to fix land revenue in cash. This enabled him to pay his
administration soldiers in cash.
• The first Delhi Sultan to order measurement of land before fixing land
revenue.
• Biswa was a standard unit of measurement. One fifth of the produce was
levied along with house tax (Ghari) and pasture tax (Charai). Mukadas and
Khuts had to pay tax.
• Kismat-e-Khuti (head tax) was abolished. Religious endowments and free
lands (Inam and Waqf) were confiscated.
• He created the post of Mustakharaj to collect revenue.
• He placed the area around Delhi under the direct control of the state for
revenue purposes. Thus the Iqta system was not applicable there.
• In 1296, Alauddin constructed Hauz-e-Alai.
• Alauddin built the Siri Fort and camped at Siri during the Mongol invasion
in 1303.
Architecture • He built the Qastr-e-Hajar Sittun palace in the Siri Fort.
• He built the Alai Darwaza (the gateway to the Qutub Minar), the pond
known as Hauz Khas, the Hazar Pillars Palace, the Jamaat Khana Mosque,
the gateway known as Alai Minar and a new capital at Siri.
• Fixed cost for all goods. For this purpose he established four different
markets:
1. For the grain
2. For cloth, sugar, dry fruits and oil
3. For horses, slaves and cattle
4. For miscellaneous items.
• Each market was under the control of a high official: called “Shehna-i-
Market Reforms Mandi”.
• He also appointed Naib-i-Riyasat and Diwan-i-Riyasat to keep an eye on
these markets.
• He also received daily reports of the markets from the Barid (intelligence
officer) and muhaniyan (secret spy).
• It is not clear whether these reforms applied only to Delhi or to other
cities as well.
• Alauddin's market control system ended after his death.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD.)
• The Tughluqs were also known as the Qarauna Turks, as Ghazi Malik's father was originally a
Qarauna Turk.
A. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD.)
• Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
• The first sultan to introduce irrigation system.
• Built a strong fort named Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
• Amir Khusro's famous work Tughlaq Nama is related to the rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• He implemented the sharecropping system and reduced the land tax to 1/3.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq dug a canal for irrigation for the first time.
B. Mohammed bin tughlaq (1325-1351 AD.)

• Jauna Khan became the Sultan by the name of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• His reign saw the zenith of the Delhi Sultanate but also the beginning of disintegration.
• He defeated the Mongols.
• Appointed officers on the basis of merit.
• Advanced secular policies. Provided justice to the Ulema.
• Ibn Battuta (author of Safarnama Rehla) (a native of Morocco) was a contemporary of Muhammad
Tughlaq and his envoy to China.
• He was the only Delhi Sultan who received widespread literacy, religious and philosophical education.
• His ideas/decisions were ahead of his time so he did not succeed as a ruler.
• He built the Adilabad fort and the city of Jahanpanah.
• During the reign, three major kingdoms of South India emerged: Vijayanagara, Bahmani, and
Madurai.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.
Efforts of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
• The capital was shifted from Delhi to Daulatabad, but was shifted back after 2 years due to
lack of water supply.
• A token currency was introduced, probably due to the global shortage of silver. The Sultan
introduced new coins of bronze or copper in place of the tanka (silver coin) and declared their
value equal to the tanka, but this plan failed.
• He launched the Khurasan expedition aimed to establish more defensible frontiers in the west.
• Qarachil Campaign: Launched in Kumaon Hills to counter the threat of Chinese infiltration-
failed.
C. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD.)

• The policy was to try to please the nobles, the military, the theologians and to consolidate control
over areas that could be easily administered from the centre.
• Appointed Telugu Brahmin Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal as Wazir or Prime Minister.
• He extended the principle of heredity to the army and the aristocracy. Thus, the iqta system was not
only revived but also made hereditary.
• Malik Sarwar was a prominent noble and had been Wazir for some time. He claimed independence
and assumed the title of Malik-us-Sharq (Lord of the East).
• Malik ruled from Jaunpur, called Shiraz of the East.
• Firoz took the following decisions to please the theologians:
• Muslim women were prohibited from visiting shrines.
• Concessions were made to theologians.
• Jaziya was made a separate tax. Which was earlier a part of land revenue. Only children, women and
handicapped people are exempted.
• Old age pension was introduced, and a department named Diwan-i-Ishtiaq was established for this
purpose.
• Firoz Tughlaq established employment bureau for Muslim unemployed.
• Established new departments:

1. Diwan-i-Khairat: Making arrangements for the marriage of poor girls.
2. Public Works Department: For maintenance of roads.
3. Diwan-i-Bandagan: Department for slaves.
• Two new coins introduced:
1. Adha (50% Jital)
2. Bikh (25% Jital)
• He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal. Bengal was liberated from the control of the Delhi
Sultanate. He developed royal factories called karkhanas, which employed thousands of slaves.
• Four taxes were imposed:
1. Kharaj (Land tax),
2. khamas (1/5 of the property looted during wars),
3. Jaziya (religious tax on Hindus), and
1
4. Zakat (2 ) per cent of the income of Muslims which was spent for the welfare of Muslim subjects
2
and their religion).
• He was the first sultan to impose Sherb (irrigation tax).
• Repaired old monuments such as the Jama Masjid and the Qutub Minar (which had been struck by
lightning and the fourth floor was later replaced by two smaller floors).
D. Naseeruddin Muhammad (1390-1398 AD.)
• He was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
• During his reign, Timur's invasion (1398 AD) weakened the Sultanate.
• When Timur entered Delhi, there was no resistance. He went back from India in 1399.
• In the beginning of the 15th century, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated and many independent states
were established. Example - Malwa and Gujarat etc.
• The Tughlaq Empire ended in 1412 AD ??
Sayyid dynasty (1414-1450 AD.)
A. Khizr Khan (1414-1421 AD.)

• Before leaving India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as the governor of Multan.
• He captured Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty in 1414 AD.
• He died in 1421 A.D. and was succeeded by Mubarak Shah (1421-1433 A.D.).
• The next ruler, Alauddin Alam Shah (1445-1451 A.D.), was the weakest of the Sayyid princes. He handed
over the throne to Bahlol Lodi and retired to Badaun.
• The Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi for the shortest period (only 37 years) in the Delhi Sultanate.
Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526 AD.)
• The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan dynasty.

• It was the fifth and last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and was founded by Bahlol Khan Lodi.
A. Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1489 AD.)
• He was the founder of the Lodi dynasty and the first Afghan to become the Sultan of Delhi.
• He used to address the Afghan chieftains as Mansab-e-Ali.

B. Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD.)
• He was a contemporary of Mahmud Begada of Gujarat and Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• He founded the city of Agra and shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra.
• He abolished the custom duty on grains and established a new measure called Gaz-e-Sikandari.
• Sikandar was an orthodox and bigoted king. He re-imposed Jaziya tax on Hindus.
• He was a renowned poet, who composed under the pen name of 'Gulrukhi'.
• After Sikandar Lodi, his son Ibrahim Lodi ascended the throne.
C. Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 AD.)
• He was the last Lodi Sultan of Delhi.
• Ibrahim was defeated in the Battle of Panipat in 1526 AD.
• The First Battle of Panipat was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi on 21 April 1526 AD. Ibrahim
Lodi was defeated in this battle and was killed on the battlefield. With the death of Ibrahim Lodi,
the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate came to an end.
• This battle marked the end of the Lodi dynasty and the rise of the Mughal Empire in India.
Reasons for the fall of Delhi Sultanate:
• Financial instability.
• Faulty military organisation.
• The vastness of the empire;
• War of succession.
• Autocratic and military type of government.
• Invasion of Timur.
Overview of the Delhi Sultanate
• The Delhi Sultanate was a powerful and highly centralised
state, extending for a time over almost all of India as far as
Madurai.
• The Sultan regarded himself as the representative of the
Caliph in Baghdad (the Caliph's deputy)
• They included the name of the Caliph in the Khutba or prayer
Administration and inscribed it on their coins.
• The position of the Sultan was the most important and the
highest political, military and legal authority.
• He was also the commander in chief of the armed forces.
• He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and
justice.
• There was no clear law of succession during this period.
• Naib: exercised practically all the powers of the Sultan and
exercised general control over all departments.
Central government
• Wazir: Head of the finance department called Diwan-i-
Vizarat.
• Military Department: Diwan-e-Arz under the chairmanship

of Ariz-e-Mumalik. Responsibility- Recruiting soldiers and
administering the military department was the main task.
• Diwan-i-Rasalat: Department of religious affairs. This
department gave grants for the construction and
maintenance of mosques, tombs and madrasas.
• The head of the justice department was the Chief Qazi.
• In civil matters, Muslim personal law or Sharia was followed.
• Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their
cases were settled by it.
• The criminal law was based on rules and regulations made by
the Sultans.
• Correspondence Department: Called "Diwan-i-Insha". All
correspondence between the ruler and the officials was done
by this department.
• Wakil-i-Dar: Officer responsible for maintaining proper
decorum in the court.
• The provinces under the control of Muktis or Walis were
called Iktas.
• Their duty was to maintain law and order and collect land
revenue.
• The provinces were divided into Shiqs and Parganas.
Local administration
• The shik was under the control of the shikdar.
• A pargana consisting of several villages was headed by an
Amil.
• The head of the village was known as Mukaddam or
Chowdhary. The village accountant was called Patwari.
• The land was classified into three categories:
1. Iqta Land: Land assigned to officials as iqta in lieu of payment
for their services.
2. Khalsa lands: Lands under the direct control of the Sultan
and the revenue collected was spent for the maintenance of
the royal court and the royal household.
Economy 3. Inam Land: Land assigned or granted to religious leaders or
religious institutions.
• The peasants paid one-third of their produce as land revenue,
and sometimes even half.
• Sarais or rest houses were built on the highways for the
convenience of travellers.
• Silk production was started on a large scale.
• Bengal and Gujarat were famous for good quality cloth,

Cambay (Gujarat) was famous for cloth, gold and silver work.
Sonargaon was famous for raw silk and muslin.
• Indian textiles were exported to China.
• The royal factories supplied essential goods to the Sultan and
his family.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of
Alauddin Khilji after his conquest of South India. Copper coins
were few in number and dateless.
• The Turks introduced many new crafts (paper making) and
techniques like the use of iron stirrups, amours. This led to
the development of the metallurgical industry.
• The spinning wheel was introduced in India.
• There was little change in the structure of Hindu society
during this period.
• The practice of Sati was widely prevalent.
• Seclusion of women and the wearing of veils became common
among upper class women.
• Arabs and Turks introduced the practice of purdah to India
and it became widespread among upper class Hindu women
in North India.
• During the Sultanate period, Muslim society was divided into
Social life many ethnic and racial groups, such as Turks, Iranians,
Afghans and Indian Muslims etc. There were no inter-
marriages between these groups.
• A very small number of rich people were given high positions
in the government.
• Hindus were considered Jimmis or protected people for which
they were forced to pay a tax called Jaziya.
• The Turks built arches, domes, soaring minarets and
decorations using the Arabic script.
• The arch or dome was not a Turkish or Muslim invention.
They learnt it from Rome, developed it and made many
experiments in its use.
Art and architecture • Indians knew about the arch and the dome but they did not
use them extensively.
• The Turks also used slab and beam methods in buildings.
They also added colour to their buildings using marble, red
and yellow sandstone.
• They used geometric and floral designs with inscriptions.
• He also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the swastika.

• Temples and other structures were converted into mosques.
• The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was
built using material obtained from the destruction of several
Hindu and Jain temples.
• The palace complex Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake was
built during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq built Ghiyasuddin's tomb on a high
platform.
• The Kotla Fort in Delhi was the gift of Firoz Tughlaq.
• Features of Tughlaq architecture: sloping walls, combined
principle of arches, lintels and beams, like the Hauz Khas, use
of grey sandstone and minimal decoration.
• Lodis placed a building, especially tombs, on a raised platform.
• Some tombs are located in the middle of gardens, Lodi
Gardens in Delhi.
• Another feature of Lodi architecture was the double dome.
Example- Moti Masjid (built by Sikandar Lodi)
• New musical instruments like Sarangi and Rabab were
introduced during this period.
• Amir Khusro introduced many new ragas like Ghora and
Sanam.
• He developed a new style of music known as Kalis by
combining the Hindu and Iranian systems.
Music • He is also credited with inventing the sitar.
• The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into
Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq.
• Pir Bodhan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this
period. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music.
• He encouraged the composition of a great musical work called
Maan Kautuhal.
List of administrative and agricultural terms used during the Sultanate period
• Alai Tanka: Tanks of Alauddin Khilji. • Alamta-i-Sultanat: Insignia of the royal
family
• Aamil : Revenue officer. • Amir: Commander: Third highest
official grade.
• Amir-i-Da: Officer in charge of justice. • Amir-i-Akhur: Officer who commands
the horses.
• Amir-i-Hajib: Officer in charge of the royal • Amir-i-Koh: Officer in charge of

affairs. agriculture.
• Khalisa Darbar: (also called Barbeque in Turkish).
• Barbek (Amir-i-Hajib): Officer in charge
• Ariz: Muster, officer in charge of soldiers' of the royal court.
equipment and horses. • Galla Bakshi, Kankut: System of land
revenue collection.
• Barid: Intelligence officer appointed by the state • Diwan-i-Arz: Office of the Ministry of
to collect information. War.
• Daag: Branding marks on horses. • Iqtadar: A person in whose charge an
iqta is placed.
• Karkhana: Royal factories or enterprises; these • Hukm-i-Mushahida: Assessment (of
were of two types- ratibi, for looking after land revenue) by inspection only.
animals, and non-ratibi, for producing goods
required by the state.
• Khidmati: Service due. • Khalis: Land directly controlled by the
king.
• Madad-i-Maash: Grant of land or pension to • Khud: Village headman or revenue
religious or deserving persons. collector.
• Mukta: Governor: person in charge of an iqta or • Muhtasib: An official appointed to
medieval province. maintain law and order; village head;
actually the first or senior person.
• Ameer-i-Tarab: Entertain. • Mustawfi-i Mummalik: Accountant for
the entire empire.
• Mustawfi-i-Mumalik: Auditor for the entire • Haq-i-Shirb: Benefits from Canal
empire. Irrigation.
• Hukm-i-Masahat: Assessment of land revenue • Chungi-i-Galla: Tax on grains.
according to measurement.
Persian narrative
Author Persian Texts Governance/ Year of completion Rulers mentioned

Rulers of the book in the text
Fakh-e- Tarikh-e-Fakhral- Qutubuddin 1208 AD. Qutubuddin Aibak
mudabbbar Din Mubarak Aibak
Shah
Minhaj-us- Tabaqat e Nasiri Naseeruddin 1260 AD. Qutubuddin Aibak,
Siraj Jujjani Mahmood Iltutmish, Razia,
Bahram Shah,
Masood Shah and
Nasiruddin Mahmud
Ameer Miftah-ul-Futuh Jalaluddin Khilji 1292 AD. Jalaluddin Khilji

Khusro Khazain-ul-Futuh Alauddin Khilji 1312 AD. Alauddin Khilji
Nuh Sipihr Mubarak Khilji 1318 AD. Mubarak Khilji
Tughlaq Nama Ghiyasuddin 1320 AD. Ghiyasuddin Khilji
Tughlaq
Aamir Fawaid ul Fawad Sheikh 1322 AD. -
Hassan Sijji Nizamuddin
Auliya
Ibn Battuta Tughlaq Nama, Muhammad - Muhammad bin
Safarnama, Rehla bin Tughlaq Tughlaq
Hameed Khair-ul-Majlis Sheikh 1350 AD. Muhammad bin
Qalandar Naseeruddin Tughlaq
Khawaja Futuh-us-Salatin Alauddin Hasan 1350 AD. Muhammad bin

Malik Isami Bahman Shah Tughlaq
❖❖❖
REGIONAL EMPIRE 03
• The history of Assam is the history of the confluence of Tibeto-
Burman, Sino-Tibetan), Indo-Aryan and Austro-Asiatic cultures as well

as the peoples of the East, West and North.
• The Ahoms were a Mongoloid tribe from northern Burma (present-day
Myanmar) who succeeded in establishing a powerful kingdom in the 13th

Ahoms of century and later migrated to India. In fact the name Assam is derived
Assam Ahoms only.
• They suppressed the old political system of Bhuiyan (landlords).
• The Ahom state depended on forced labor called Paik.
• Almost all adult males served in the king's army during the war
• Buranji is the historical chronicle of Ahoms.
• Ahom society was divided into Clans or Gotras.
• The Gonds lived in the vast forest land known as Gondwana.

• Akbarnama mentions the Gond kingdom of Garh Katanga.
• The empire was divided into:
Gond 1. Citadel
2. Chaurasi (unit of 84 villages below the fort)
3. Bahot (division of Chaurasi into 12 villages)
• The famous queen Durgavati belonged to this dynasty.
• The word Gajapati means king with an army of elephants.

• The Gajapati dynasty was founded in 1435 AD by Kapilendra Deva after
the fall of the last Eastern Ganga king, Bhanudeva IV.

Odisha
• Narasimhadev of this dynasty had built the Konark temple.
• Gajapati rulers emerged in the middle of 15th century AD; They ruled Orissa
till the end of the Lodi period.
• Mewar or Udaipur kingdom was originally called Medhpat and with time
the name Medhpath became Mewar. Interestingly, the rulers of Mewar used
the title "Maharana" (Prime Minister or Patron) instead of the typical title
Maharaja (King).
• Rana Kumbha (1433-1468 AD) was the most famous ruler.
• Rana Kumbha wrote books like Sangeet Priya, Sudha Prabandha, Rasik
Priya, Kam Raja Ratisar etc.
Mewar
• Kumbha built a famous Vijay Stambha (Kirti Stambha) at Chittor, which
is a symbol of his Vijay.
• He also consididated the fortifications of Chittor and built a road passing
through its seven gates.
• He was acknowledged as Sangeet Shiromani and authored a classic treatise
on Indian music titled Sangeet-Raja as well as other works such as Sangeet
Mimamsa, Sangeet Ratlakar and Suprabhat.
• Rajatarangini (a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the middle of
the 12th century) states that the valley of Kashmir as river of kings.
• Zainul Abedin was the greatest ruler of Kashmir. He was also known as
Badshah (Great Sultan) and Akbar of Kashmir. And he was also
philanthropic, generous and an enlightened ruler.
• He contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by building
Budshah
dams and canals and introduced the maintenance of agricultural records.
• He also built the artificial island Jain Lanka on Wular Lake.
• Many Sanskrit works like Rajatarangini, Mahabharata were translated into
Persian under him.
• In 1586 AD, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal
Empire.
• Malik Sarwar laid the foundation of Sharqi dynasty.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the author of "Padmadyavat" was its court poet.
Sharqi dynsty • Jaunpur developed a distinctive architecture known as the Shaki style
of Jaunpur of architecture. Jaunpur was called Shiraz of India.
• The most notable examples of the Sherko style of architecture in Jaunpur
are the Atala Masjid, the Lal Darwaza Masjid and the Jama Masjid.
• Malwa state was situated on the central highland plateau between the
Narmada and Tapi rivers. It commanded the main route between
Gujarat and northern India.
• Right from the beginning. The states of Gujarat and Malwa were bitter
Malwa
rivals and were often found in opposite camps on almost every occasion.
• Dilawar Khan (governor of Malwa province during the decline of the Delhi
Sultanate) renounced his allegiance to Delhi after the invasion of Timur. He
shifted his capital from Dhar to Mandu.
• Bengal was an important regional state under the Pala ruler in the 8th
century and the Sena ruler in the 12th century. The extreme distance,
harsh climatic condition climate and poor means of communication made
it difficult for the Delhi Sultanate to control this province. Therefore, it was
Bengal easy for Bengal to claim its independence.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq divided Bengal into three independent
administrative divisions: Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon.1342
• In 1628, Ilyas Khan unified Bengal and became its ruler under the title
Shamsuddin Ilyas Khan, founding the Ilyas Shah dynasty.
• Gujarat was one of the richest provinces of the Delhi Sultanate due to the
excellence of its handicrafts, ports and the richness of its soil.
• Zafar Khan (1407-1411 AD) who was a Rajput and later converted to Islam.
Gujarat After Timur's invasion, Zafar Khan declared himself an independent ruler
and assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah. He founded the Muzaffarid dynasty.
• Ahmed Shah-I and Fateh Khan (Mahmud Begada) were two important
rulers of this state.
❖❖❖
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
04
Introduction
• Four dynasties ruled under the Vijayanagara Empire. Sangama (1336-1458 AD), Suluva (1485
-1505 AD), Tuluva (1805-1570 AD) and Aravidu (late 17th century).
• It was founded in 1336 AD by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya)
of the Sangam dynasty, who were originally under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
• The Vijayanagara Empire was initially a type of cooperative commonwealth.
• The rulers of early Vijayanagara were followers of Shaivism. Land Virupaksha was their
family deity. Later he came under the influence of Vaishnavism. However, the worship of Shiva
continued.
• There was a constant conflict between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Empire over
the Raichur Doab (the fertile region between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra), the
Tungabhadra Doab (the fertile region of the Krishna-Godavari delta) and Marathwada.
• Its main rival in the south was the Sultan of Madurai.
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda and
Bidar defeated him in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 AD, ending the rule Vijayanagara Empire.
• The last ruler of Vijayanagara was Sriranga III.
• Copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plate of Devaraya II provide the
genealogy and achievements of the Vijayanagara rulers.
Dynasty Information
• The Sangam was the first dynasty to rule the Vijayanagara Empire. The
founders of the empire, Harihara I and Bukka belonged to this dynasty.
Sangama
He ruled from 1336 AD to 1485 AD.
(1336-1485 AD)
• The brothers founded a new city called Vidyanagara or Vijayanagara
(meaning city of victory) on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra
River.
• The Suluva dynasty, founded by Narasimha, succeeded the Sangam
Suluva
dynasty as the second dynasty of the empire. He ruled from 1485 AD to
(1485-1505 AD)
1505 AD. He ruled almost entire South India.
• The Tuluvas, founded by the heroic Narasimha, were the third dynasty
Tuluva that ruled the Vijayanagara Empire.
(1505-1570 AD) • The most famous king of the Vijayanagara Empire, Krishnadeva Raya,
belonged to this dynasty.
Aravidu • Aravidu, founded by Tirumala, was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty
(1570-1650 AD) to rule the Vijayanagara Empire in South India.
Important rulers of Vijayanagara Empire
• The most famous king of the Sangama dynasty.
Prauda • Title: 'Gajabetekara ', 'Dakshinapatha Chakravarti'.
Devaraya • Expansion of Vijayanagara from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka and from
(Devaraya II) Telangana to Kerala.
• His commander in chief: Lakkanna Dandesh.
• Was the most famous king of Vijayanagara Empire (from Tuluva
dynasty).
• It is also known as Andhra Bhoj.
• Waged war against the Bahmani kingdom and kept them under
control.
• Freed Mohammad Shah and assumed the title of “Yavana Rajya
prathishta Panacharya”.
• Allasani Peddanna, the author of Manucharitam, was the greatest of
the Ashtadiggas.
• Their empire extended from Krishna River in the north to Kaveri River
Krishna in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal
Devaraya in the east.
(1509-1529 AD) • They had cordial relations with the Portuguese.
• He composed Amukta Malyad (Telugu work on administration) and
Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit drama).
• Krishnadev Rai was also a great builder. He built Hazara Ram Temple
and Vitthalaswami Temple.
• He patronized Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit and Tamil scholars and
poets.
• His royal court was adorned by 8 eminent scholars of Telugu, who were
called Ashtadiggaj.
• He built a new city named Nagalapuram in the memory of his queen
Nagaladevi.
A group of eight scholars graced the court of Krishnadevaraya, they were:—
1. Allasani Peddanna- Author of Manucharita, he was also known as the
father of Andhra poetry.
2. Nandi Thimman-author of Parijataapaharanam
Krishna
3. Madayyagari Mallana
Devaraya
4. Dhurjaati
Ashtadiggajas
5. Ayyalaraju Rambhaghrudu
6. Pingali Suranna
7. Ramrajabhushan
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
Different aspects of Vijayanagara Empire
• The king had complete powers in executive, judicial and legislative
matters.
• Succession to the throne was hereditary.
• Administrative units: were divided into mandalams, nadus,
sthalas and finally in villages.
• The Amar-Nayak system was an important feature of the
Vijayanagara administration.
• Nayankar System: Top level officers of the army were known as
Nayaks/Poligars.
• In return for their services they were given land which was called
Amaram.
Administration
• Mandaleshwar or Nayak was the governor of Mandalam.
• He had considerable autonomy. He had the right to issue coins of
small denominations and the right to impose new taxes or abolish
old ones.
• Sources of income: were land revenue, gifts, gifts from jagirdars and
feudal chiefs, customs duties at ports, and taxes on various
businesses.
• Land revenue was generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce.
• Manyama was tax free land.
• A body of twelve officials, known as Iyangars, administered village
affairs.
• The Sangam rulers were mainly Shaivaites and Virupaksha was
their family deity.
Socio-
• Allasani Peddana in his epic Manucharita has mentioned the
Economic
four castes that were found in Vijayanagara society. Viprulu or
Conditions
Brahmin, Rajulu or Rachavaru, Matikaratalu or Veshya, Nalvajativaru
or Shudra.
• Women held a high position in society and took active part in the
political, social and literary life of the empire.
• The practice of dance of girls associated with temples was also
Status of prevalent.
Women • Women also went to wars.
• It was the only empire in medieval India that appointed women
in state services.
• The condition of widows was pitiful, but they could remarry.
• The practice of Sati or Sahagamana in the Vijayanagara Empire is
proved by both the inscriptions and foreign writings of that period.
• Untouchability existed and various classes like Kambaltar, Dombari,
Jogi and Maravar were considered untouchable.
• Slavery was often common and Niccolò de Conti says that those
who failed to repay debts became the property of moneylenders.
• The main features of Vijayanagara architecture were the construction
of high Raya Gopuram or gateway and Kalyanamandapam with
carved pillars in the temple complex.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive
features.
• The most common animal found in these pillars was the horse.
• Construction of the most important temples: Vitthalaswami and
Hazara Ramaswami temples, stone chariots at Hampi.
• Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples in Kanchipuram.
• Various languages like Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished
in the region.
• The conflict between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani
Empire continued for many years.
• The Vijayanagara army was highly organized and efficient. It
Army and included cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
Military • The port of Malabar was a center for trade in merchandise and other
Organization luxury goods.
• The Vijayanagara state was also familiar with the use of firearms and
employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train soldiers in the
latest weapons of war.
Nayaka System
• The word Nayaka was used to refer to a military leader in many Telugu and Kannada speaking
areas from the 13th century onwards. This system was similar to the Iqta system followed in
the Delhi Sultanate. Inscriptions refer to this system as Nayakattanam in Tamil,
Nayakattanam in Kannada and Nayankaramu in Telugu. This system is also mentioned in
the works of Nuniz and Payas and in the Telugu work, Rayavachakamu.
• Most of these heroes were Kannadigas and Telugu warriors. These chiefs controlled production
in their areas by building pettai (commercial centres). The most famous hero during
Krishnadevaraya was Chellapa.
• The Nayaks were also known as Palaiyagars or Poligars who had to maintain a certain number
? of soldiers, horses and elephants in the service of the state.
• After the Battle of Talikota, these Nayakas became largely independent from the dominant
Vijayanagara Empire. The 17th century was marked by the century of these great Nayak
kingdoms such as: Madurai, Ikkeri and Tanjore.
Land Revenue System
• Land revenue was the main source of income of the government. There was a separate land
revenue department. To assess the revenue, the entire land was classified into four parts
namely – wet land, dry land, gardens and forests.
• The government also imposed other taxes such as grazing tax, marriage tax, customs duty,
tax on gardening and taxes on the manufacture of various goods and even military
contributions in times of crisis.
• The rate of taxation was relatively high, but the taxes were never collected. The method of
payment of these taxes was both in cash and kind.
Tax
• The king of Vijayanagara collected a little more than one-sixth of the revenue in taxes.
• According to an inscription, the various rates of taxes were as follows:
1. 1/3rd portion of rice (pluruvai) during winter season
2. 1/4 part of sesame, ragi and horse gram.
3. 1/6th of millet and other crops.
4.6 Foreign travelers during the Vijayanagara Empire
Ruler Foreign Traveler
Harihar I Abu Abdullah/Ibn Battuta (Morocco)
Niccolò De Conti (Italy)

Devaraya II
Abdur Razzaq (Persia)
Virupaksha Raya II Adhanasius Nikilin (Russia)
Ludovico do Varthema (Italy)
Krishnadeva Ray Duarte Barbosa (Portugal)
Dominico Pius (Portugal)
Achyut Dev Ray Fernao Nuniz (Portugal)
Rudramma Devi Marco Polo (Italy)

Study Questions
1. During the reign of which king the Persian traveler 'Abdur Razzaq' came to India?
(a) Devaraya I (b) Krishna Devaraya I
(c) Devaraya II (d) Krishnaraya II
(e) None of the above/More than one of the above
B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2016
2. Who was the founder of Vijayanagara Empire?
(a) Devaraya I (b) Krishnadevaraya
(c) Harihar-Bukka (d) Veer Narasimha Rai
B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2022
3. With which king did Vijayanagara king Krishnadev Rai fight the battle of Golconda?
(a) Quli Qutub Shah (b) Qutubuddin Aibak
(c) Ismail Adil Khan (d) Gajapati
(e) None of the above/More than one of the above43 rd
B.P.S.C. (Pre) 1995

4. What was the main feature of the 'financial system' of the Vijayanagara Empire?
(a) Surplus rent (b) Land revenue
(c) Income from ports (d) Currency system
39th B.P.S.C. (Pre) 1994
5. Where are the remains of Vijayanagara Empire found?
(a) Bijapur (b) Golconda
(c) Hampi (d) Baroda
(e) None of the above/More than one of the above
B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2017
❖❖❖
BAHMANI EMPIRE 05
Introduction
• The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianized Muslim state in the Deccan in South India and one
of the major medieval Indian states.
• Although the region was ruled by a Muslim, it was not a distinct 'Muslim state'. Hindus were
also included in this.
• The nobles of the Bahmani Empire were classified into two categories: Afqquis and Deccanis.
• The Deccani selite were of native origin while the Afqquis were of foreign origin.
• It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (in 1347 AD), also known as Hasan Gangu,
in rebellion against the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• There were a total of 14 Bahman Sultans.
Bahmani Sultanate
Ruler
↓
Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah (1347-1358) (Founder)
↓
Mohammad Shah-I (1358-1377)
↓
eFiroz Shah (1397-1422)
↓
Ahmed Shah (1422-1435)
↓
Mahmud Shah (1458-1461)
↓
Mahmood Gawan (1482-1518)
Figure 5.1: Rulers of the Bahmani Empire

• After the transfer of the capital from Daulatabad to Delhi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Zafar
Khan conquered Daulatabad in 1345 AD, from where he shifted his capital to Gulbarga in
1347 AD for security reasons. Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah, also known as Hasan Gangu, became
the founder of this state, which extended throughout the Deccan.
• The history of the Bahmani Empire is divided into two parts:
1. First phase : Gulbarga as capital (1347-1422 AD)
2. Second phase : Bidar as capital (1422-1538 AD)
• The Bahmani Empire served as a cultural link between the South and the North.
• The empire extended from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and from east
to west from Bhongir to Daulatabad.
• The Bahmani Empire was always at war with the Vijayanagara Empire for control of the
Deccan.
• Firoz Shah invaded Vijayanagara and defeated Krishnadeva Raya I.
Additional information:—
• Three distinct and resourceful areas were the cause of constant conflict between
the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani Sultans:
1. Tungabhadra Doab
2. Krishna Godavari Delta
3. Marathwada Country
• Later Ahmed Shah Wali shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• Muhammad Shah-III became Sultan at the age of 9 after the death of his brother Nizam Shah
and Mahmud Gawan served as the Prime Minister.
• The Bahmani Empire reached its Zenith during the reign of Mahmud Gawan.
• Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.
Administration under Muhammad=I
He appointed a council of 8 ministers :—

• Vakil-us-Sultana/Lieutenant of the kingdom : Directly subordinate to the ruler.
• Waziri-kull : Supervisor of the work of all ministers.
• Amir-e-Jumla : Finance Minister.
• Wazir-e-Ashraf : Minister of foreign affairs and in-charge of ceremonies.
• Nazir : Assistant Finance Minister.
• Peshawa : Associated with the Lieutenant of the kingdom.
• Kotwal : Police chief and city magistrate of the capital.
• Sadr-e-Jahan : Chief Justice and Minister of Religious Affairs and Charity.
• He was Iranian by birth and was a trader. He was given the title of
Malik-ul-Tujjar (chief of merchants) by assigning a Shah.
Mahmud Gawan
• He dominated the affairs of the Bahmani kingdom for about 20 years.
(1482-1518 AD) The Bahmani Empire revived under his leadership.
• He divided the kingdom into eight provinces called Taraf. Each Taraf
was governed by a Tarafdar.
• Salaries were paid in cash or by assigning over jagir.
• A portion of land called Khalisa was set aside for the Sultan's expenses.
• Started the use of gunpowder in the war against the kings of
Vijayanagara.
• He built a college in Bidar in Persian style of architecture.
• The nobles of Deccan conspired against him. Hanged by Muhammad
Shah in 1481 AD.
After Gawan's execution, the Bahmani Empire disintegrated into five kingdoms (known as
the Deccan Sultanates):—
Nizam Shahi of • Founder: Ahmed Nizam Shah.
Ahmednagar • It was conquered and captured by Shahjahan in 1633 A

(1490-1633 AD)
• Founder : Yusuf Adil Shah.

Adilshahi of Bijapur
• Gol Gumbaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
1490-1686 AD)
• Aurangzeb conquered Bijapur in 1687 AD and annexed it to his
kingdom.
• Founder : Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah.
• He built the famous Golconda Fort and made it the capital.

Qutub Shahi of
Golconda • Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah founded the city of Hyderabad
(originally known as Bhagyanagar) and also built the

(1518-1687 AD)
Charminar.
• It was captured by Aurangzeb in 1687 AD.
Imad Shahi of • Founder: Fatullah Khan Imad ul Mulk.
Berar (1490-1574 AD) • Capital: Daulatabad

• Captured by the rulers of Ahmednagar.
Barid Shahi of • Founder : Ali Barid
Bidar (1528-1619 AD) • Captured by the rulers of Bijapur.

Glossary
• Turquoise: It is a semi-precious stone (sky blue in color). The Firoz Throne is one of
the royal seats of the Persian kings mentioned in the Firdausi’s Shahnama
• Pradhani (Vijayanagar) : Prime Minister
• Padikaval : Transfer of policing powers
• Talara : watchman
• Wazir-i-Kul (Bahmani) : Prime Minister
• Wazir Ashraf : Who controlled foreign affairs and the royal court.
Key words and their meanings
Pradhani Prime Minister
Raysani Recorded oral order of the King
Karnikam Accountant
Kadamal, Irai, Vrai Types of Taxes
Eighth Land Revenue Department
❖❖❖
BHAKTI MOVEMENT 06
Introduction
• It was a medieval religious reform movement that emphasized single-minded intense

devotion to God.
• The Bhakti movement was based on the principle that the relationship between God and
man is through love and worship. Not through any ritual or religious ceremony.
• The origin of Bhakti is found in the Vedas, but its real development took place after the 7th
century.
• It was started in South India by Shaiva Nayanars and Vaishnava Alvars, which later spread
to all regions.
• Emotional aspect of Vaishnavism presented by Alvars through collective songs –
Prabhandam.
• The intellectual aspect of Vaishnavism was presented by the Acharyas.
Nayanar & Devotee of Shiva Alvar & Devotee of Vishnu
Thirumarai—a compilation of the hymns Divya Prabandh – A compilation of hymns of
of the Nayanars by Nambiyandar Nambi, Alvar saints and poets.
the supreme priest of King Rajachola 1.
Saints and their lives are described in a Important saints : Andal (only female Alvar
work called Tevaram, which is also called saint known as 'Mira of the South'),
Dravidian Veda. Thirumazhisai Alvar, Thiruppan Alvar,
Important saints: Tiru Neelkantha, Nammalvar, Kulasekara.
Meiporul, Viral Minda, Amaranidhi,
Karaikal Ammaiyar (female)
• Bhakti saints were divided into Two Sects on the basis of praising God.
Nirgun Sagun
• Considering God as invisible, formless • To believe in God in form and
and devoid of attribtes. Attributes.
• The poetry of Nirguna Bhakta was • Saguna Bhakta's Poetry was
Jnanashrayi or had 'knowledge' as its Premashrayi, or based on 'love'.
origin. • Sagun Saint: Tulsidas Surdas, Meerabai
• Nirgun Saints: Guru Nanak, Ravidas,
Kabir
Features of Bhakti Movement
• Unity of God or One God known by different names.

• Condemnation of traditions, ceremonies and superstition.
• Rejection of idol worship.
• Surrender oue self to God.
• Emphasized both Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti.
• Salvation through Bhakti.
• Sublime thoughts regarding religious matters.
• Rejected caste discrimination and believed in equality of all human beings.
• Revolted against the dominance of upper caste and Sanskrit language.
• Use of local or regional languages for preaching.
• Creation of literature in local language.
Causes for the emergence of Bhakti movement
• Influence of Vaishnavism
• Rigid practices of Hindus
• Fear of spread of Islam
• Influence of Sufi sects
• emergence of great reformers
Vedanta saints and their contributions
Vedanta Saint Contribution

• Birth- Kerala, death Uttarakhand (Kedarnath).
• Guru-Govind Bhagwat Pad.
• Integrated the essence of Buddhism into Hindu thought and interpreted
the ancient Vedic religion.
Shankaracharya
• Propounded the theory of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism). God and
(788-820 AD)
the world created by him are one and the soul is not separate from
Brahma.
• Organizer of Dashnami monastic order and organized the Shanmata
tradition of worship.
• Birth- Tamil Nadu.
• Guru-Yadav Preksha.
• Propagators of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta or qualified monism, there
Ramanujacharya
exists a multiplicity and distinction between Atman (soul) and Brahman
(1017-1137 AD)
(metaphysics, ultimate reality).
• Proponent of Sri Vaishnava tradition within Hinduism.
• Literary works: Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Geeta Bhashyam.
• He was a contemporary of Ramanuja.
Nimbarka • He propounded the philosophy of Bheda-Abheda which means that
God, soul and the world are different even though they are the same.
• He was critical of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta and
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
Madhvacharya • He preached Dvaita or dualism, where divinity was separate from the
(1238-1319 AD) human rational soul.
• Salvation: Only by the grace of God.
• Book: Anu Vyakhyama.
• Criticized rituals and other aspects of traditional religion and social
systems using simple, logical arguments.
• He supported renunciation of the world.
Nathpanthis, • For them, the path to salvation lies in meditation on the formless God.
Siddhasand Yogi • To achieve this, he talked about intensive training of mind and body
through practices such as yoga asanas, breathing exercises and
meditation.
• These groups became especially popular among the lower castes.
Bhakti movement saints and their contribution
Saints Contributions
• He was a disciple of Ramanuja.
• Founder of the Sant-parampara (literally tradition of devotional saints)
in North India.
• Substitution of worship of Rama in place of Krishna.
Ramanand • He has 12 disciples – Avadhoots.
(14-15th century) • Disciples: Kabir (a Muslim weaver), Ravidas (cobbler), Bhagat Pipa,
Sukhanand, Sena (barber) and Sudhana.
• Literary works: Gyan-Leela and Yoga-Chintamani (Hindi), Vaishnav
Mata Bhajan Bhaskar and Ramarchanapaddhati (Sanskrit).
• His position is mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib.
• Disciple of Ramananda.
• He was the first person to establish harmony between Hinduism and
Islam.
Kabir Das
• He was a Nirguna saint and openly criticized the orthodox views of
(1440-1510 AD)
major religions like Hinduism and Islam.
• Rejected formal worship methods like idol-worship, fasting, pilgrimage
and religious superstitions, bathing in sacred rivers, chanting of names.
• His poems are called banis (utterances) or done. His works are compiled
in the famous book Bijak.
• Kabir says: Ram and Rahim are one.
• Birth: Talwandi village and death: Kartarpur (both in Pakistan).
• Founder of Sikhism and the first Guru among the ten Sikh Gurus.
Initially worked as an accountant.
• Preached the middle path and the need for a Guru for salvation.
• He composed and sang hymns with the help of an instrument called
Rabab played by his attendant Mardana.
Guru Nanak Dev • Travelled throughout Asia including Mecca and Baghdad and spread
(1469-1539 AD) the message of Ik Omkar (One God).
• Opposed idol worship, pilgrimage and caste system and emphasized on
purity of character and conduct.
• God is called Waheguru who is formless, timeless, omnipresent and
invisible (Nirguna Bhakti).
• He started Guru-ka-Langar (community kitchen).
• He promoted Tauheed-e-Wazidi.
• One of the major founder-exponents of South Indian classical music
Purandar Das
(Karnataka music).
(1483-1564 AD)
• He is often considered as Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha.
• Disciples of Kabir.
Dadu Dayal
• He was a supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity.
(1544-1603 AD)
• His followers were called Dadupanthis.
• Founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal.
• He was a Saguna saint and popularized Kirtan (religious songs) as a form
of worship of God.
• Popularized the chanting of Hare Ram, Hare Krishna.
• He popularized the practice of worshiping Radha and Krishna
together. He propounded the philosophy of unthinkable
discrimination.
• Did not reject the scriptures calling God Hari or idol worship.
Chaitanya
• He wrote a text in Sanskrit, Shikshastakam, where he explained his
Mahaprabhu
philosophy.
(1486-1533)
• He is the founder of the world famous ISKCON (International Society
for Krishna Consciousness), which was established in the 20th
century.
Shankaradeva • Spread Bhakti cult in Assam.
(1499-1569 AD) • Translated Ramayana and Mahabharata into Assamese.
• He started the Ekasaran movement (Neo-Vaishnav movement). He
believed in the worship of Ekasaran (one God) in the form of Krishna.
• He praised Krishna by various names like Hari, Narayana and Rama.
• His most famous work is Kirtan Ghosh, which is written in simple
language understood by the public.
• He wrote in Assamese and Brajavali (a mixture of Maithili and
Assamese).
• Exponent of Krishna cult.
Vallabhacharya • Propounded Shuddhadvaita (pure monism) philosophy and his
(1479-1531 AD) philosophy is known as Pushti Marga.
• He worshiped Krishna in the form of Shrinathji.
• He was a famous saint of Chhattisgarh and founded the Satnami
community there.
Guru Ghasidas
• He strongly believed in equality and criticized the oppressive caste
(1756-1836 AD)
system.
• He was a monotheist and against idol worship.
• Disciple of Vallabhacharya.
Surdas • He wrote Soorasagar and Soorasaravali.
(1483-1563 AD) • Had deep devotion towards Radha and Krishna.
• He is considered as an excellent devotional poet in Braj language.
• An ardent devotee of Lord Krishna.
Meerabai • Composition of songs and poems in praise of Krishna.
(1498-1546 AD) • He composed bhajans (short religious songs) which are sung even
today.
Haridas
• A great musician saint who glorified Lord Vishnu.
(1478-1573 AD)
Tulsidas • Portrayed Ram as an incarnation.
(1532-1623 AD) • Composed Ramcharitmanas.
• He was a devotee of Vithoba (Vishnu).
Namdev • Opposed the caste system.
(1270-1350 AD) • The only Nirgun saint in Maharashtra.
• He belongs to the Barkari tradition.
• He was the founder of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra in the
Jnyaneshwar 13th century.
(275-1296 AD) • Jnyaneshwari, wrote a commentary on Bhagavad-Gita.
• His other work is Amrutanubhava on yoga and philosophy.
• He was a worshiper of Vithoba (Viththal) who is considered a form of
Vishnu.
• He was a follower of the Nath Yogi tradition. He also took inspiration
from Upanishads and Bhagwat Geeta.
Eknath • Wrote commentary on the verses of Bhagavad Gita.
(1533-1599 AD) • Devotees of Vithoba. He criticized caste discrimination.
• Contemporary of Maratha king Shivaji.

• Devotees of Vithal.
Tukaram • He founded the Varkari sect.

(1598-1650 AD) • Founder of Maratha nationalism.
• His teachings are contained in the Abhangas.
• Author of Dasbodh.
Ram Das
• His teachings inspired Shivaji to establish an independent kingdom in
(1608-1681 AD)
Maharashtra.
Veerashaivism/Sharana movement
• The Veerashaiva movement began in Karnataka in the middle of the twelfth century.
• It was started by Basavanna and other Veerashaivas like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
• He fought for equality of all human beings and against Brahminical caste ideas and
mistreatment of women.
• He was also against religious rituals and idol worship.
• Challenged the caste system, questioned the theory of reincarnation.
• Marriage after puberty and widow remarriage were encouraged.
• Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, known as Vachana.
• He founded the Anubhav Mandap (the world's first democratic parliament) – an academy of
mystics, saints and philosophers of the Lingayat faith.
Varkari tradition
Varakari is a religious movement (cult) within the Bhakti spiritual tradition of Hinduism. It is
geographically associated with the Indian states of Maharashtra and North Karnataka. In the Marathi
language of Maharashtra, Wari means 'pilgrimage' and the pilgrim is called Varkari.
Vernacular Literature
Hindi Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas etc.

Marathi Jnanadeva, Namdev, Eknath etc.
Bengali Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Chandidas
Rajasthani (Braj) Meerabai, Bihari etc.
Punjabi Guru Nanak
Assamese Shankaradeva
Impact of Bhakti Movement
• The Bhakti saints were also social reformers. The evil practice of Sati and caste based rigidity
decreased.
• Women were encouraged to participate in kirtan. Meerabai, Laila (Kashmir) and Andal
composed verses which are still popular today.
• Instead of Sanskrit, Bhakti saints preached through local languages which were easily
understood. Surdas used Braj language. Tulsi Das composed his works in Awadhi.
• Shankardev popularized Assamese, Meerabai spread her message in Hindi and Rajasthani.
• Kirtan in a Hindu temple, qawwali (by Muslims) at a dargah, and singing of Gurbani in a
gurudwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India.
• It popularized the idea of equality and brotherhood.
• Preached the inclusive path of spiritual Salvation.
• The rulers adopted liberal religious policies under the influence of the Bhakti movement.
Major Prominent Sect
• Shri Sampradaya/Sect – Founder was Ramanujacharya.

• Rudra Sect – The founder was Vishnu Swami.
• Sankanik Sect – The founder was Nimbacharya.
• Radhaballabhi sect is based on Krishna cult. Which was established by Hari Vamsa in 1585
AD.
Brahmanical reaction against the Bhakti movement
• The sentiments of orthodox Hindus were echoed by Raghunandan of Nabadwip (Nadia in

Bengal). He insisted that only Brahmins had the right to read the scriptures and was the
influential author of the Dharmashastras.
• Ram Das of Maharashtra (regarded as a spiritual guru by Shivaji) pioneered the philosophy of
activism.
❖❖❖
SUFI MOVEMENT 07
Introduction
• Beginning in the 12th century AD, some religious people in Persia turned to asceticism due to the
increasing materialism of the Caliphate. They came to be called 'Sufi'.
• In India, The Sufi movement began in 1300 AD and came to South India in the 15th century.
• Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam. Sufis represent the inner side of the sect of Islam (Tasawwuf).
• Sufism (Tasawwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.
• Sufi means wool: Those who wear long woolen clothes are called Sufi.
• It was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It emphasized the elements of love and devotion as
effective means of attaining God.

• It is based on Peer-Murid (Teacher-Student) relationship.
• Sufism originated from the doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Wujood (unity of existence) propounded by Ibn-
ul-Arabi (1165-1240 AD).

• Early Sufi Saint-Rabiah, Mansoor bin Halal.
• Sufi sects are generally divided into two parts:—
1. Ba-Sara: Those who follow Islamic law.
2. Be-Shara: One who did not follow Islamic law
• In Sufism, self-discipline was considered a prerequisite for attaining knowledge of God. While
orthodox Muslims emphasize external conduct, Sufis emphasize internal purity.
• Sufism entered India between the 11th and 12th centuries. Al-Hujwiri was the first Sufi who settled
in India and died in 1089 AD, popularly known as Data Ganj Bakhsh (distributor of unlimited treasure).
• Multan and Punjab were the initial centers and later it spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and Deccan.
Essential Features of Sufism
• Fanna: Spiritual merger of the devotee with Allah.
• Insaan-e-Kamil: The perfect human being with all the good qualities,
• Zikr-Tauba: Remembering God every moment (Zikr),
• Wahdatul-Wujud: One God for the entire universe; Unity of God and creature.
Samaa: Spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts, although the music is non-Islamic.
Stages of Sufism
Phase Period Features

First phase: Khanqah 10th century It is also called the age of golden mysticism
Second phase: Tariqa 11-14th century When Sufism was being institutionalized and
traditions and symbols were being added to it.
Third phase: Taruta after 15th century The phase when Sufism became a popular movement.
Major Features of Sufism
• Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of conduct demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
• He believed that God is 'Beloved' and Sufis are lovers.
• Sufism was divided into 12 orders (Silsila) and each was under a mystic Sufi saint, the four most popular
of which were Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiriyya and Naqshbandi.
• Silsila is the continuous link between Murshid (teacher) and Murid (student). Lived in Khanqah-
Pooja's Dharamshala.
• The names of the Silsila were based on the names of the founders, for example, the Qadri Silsila was
based on the name of Sheikh Abdul Qadri and the place of origin was Chishti (place in Afghanistan).
• Sufism took root in both rural and urban areas and had a deep social, political and cultural impact
on the masses.
• Sufism believes that devotion is more important than fasting (roza) or prayer (naman).
• Sufism rejects the caste system.
• Sufism is widely influenced by the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.
• The major principles of Sufism include: complete surrender to the will of God: self-sacrifice; To be
an ideal person.
• These three fundamental principles together constitute the principle of fana which means the
assimilation of human qualities through union with God.
• In Sufism, an ideal person is also called a wali (saint), a word that literally means true friend.
Sufism and Music
• Sufism promotes music as a way to deepen one's relationship with God, remembering God through
Zikr (chanting the name), Sama (performance of mystical music).
• The Sufis also produced a rich literature in poetry and prose, including anecdotes and Stories, the most
eminent writer of this period being Amir Khusro, a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Sufi saints are credited with the invention of sitar and tabla.
• It contributed to the development of classical music.
• Khayal style was greatly enriched by Sufism.
• Amir Khusro was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. He Transforms Sama in to a new way of
mysticism .
• Khusro is also often called the parrot of India. His songs are sung in many dargahs across the country.
Khusro is considered the father of Qawwali.
Sequence of Sufis
• Founder: Khwaja Abdul Chishti

• Originated in Persia and Central Asia.
• Moinuddin Chishti started the Chishti order in India.
• Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganjshakar) was a disciple of Moinuddin and
Chishti Silsila’s his poems were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Nizamuddin Auliya was called Siddha/Parangata because of Yoga-
breathing exercises.
• Sama was mostly associated with Chishti.
• Are related to Be-Shara.
• Founder: Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardy.
• The main center was Multan.
• The saints of this order were also aristocrats and held important
Suhrawardi’s Silsila’s government positions.
• Associated with Delhi Sultanate.
• A famous saint is Bahauddin Zakaria.
• Are related to Ba-Shara.
• Founder: Baha-ud-din Naqshband Bukhari
• Khwaja Pir Mohammad started the Naqshbandi order in India
Naqshbandi’s Silsila’s
during the reign of Akbar.
• Orthodox sect.
• The Qadri/Qadiriyya order was famous in Punjab and was founded
Qadri Silsila’s
by Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad.
Sikhs in Bihar
• The tenth Guru of Sikhs, Shri Gobind Singh Ji was born in Bihar.
• There is mention of the visit of Guru Nanak Dev, the founder of Sikhism, to places like Gaya, Rajgir,
Patna, Munger, Bhagalpur, Kahalgaon etc. of Bihar, found in the annals of Sikhism.
• Guru Nanak Dev preached religion in these areas and also made disciples.
• The ninth Guru of the Sikhs, Shri Tegh Bahadur arrived in Bihar in the second half of the seventeenth
century.
• They reached Patna via Sasaram and Gaya.
• By that time there were many Sikhs in Patna and the followers of the Guru gave them a grand
welcome.
• Guru Shri Tegh Bahadur had to leave for Assam during his stay in Patna, where he had to help the
Rajput commander of Emperor Aurangzeb.
• At the time of departure from Patna, he left his wife Gujri Devi with brother Kripal Chandra ji as she
was about to become a mother.
• Guru Gobind Singh ji was born on 26 December 1666 in Patna, his childhood name was Govind Rai.
• Guru Gobind Singh ji got his biases for military life from his grandfather Guru Hargobind Singh.
• At the age of four and a half years, on the orders of his father, Guru Gobind Singh left Patna and went
to Anandpur in Punjab.
• After assuming the post of Guru, he sent his Masnads to the areas of Bihar.
• After the death of Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1708, the Sikhs of Bihar always supported his wife, Mata
Sahiba Devi.
• Between 1717 and 1730, these followers made regular arrangements to send money and other support
materials to his service.
• The birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh in Patna is one of the most important religious places of the
Sikhs. Takht Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji, Patna is considered the second most sacred Takht.
• Takht Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji, Patna is one of the five seats of temporal power of the Sikhs and was
installed by three Sikh Gurus.
Study Questions
1. Which Sikh Guru was born in Patna?
(a) Guru Nanak (b) Guru Hargobind
(c) Guru Tegh Bahadur (d) Guru Govind Singh
B. P. S. C. (Pre) 2015
2. Which of the following Sultans did Nizamuddin Auliya refuse to meet?
(a) Jalaluddin Khilji (b) Alauddin Khilji
(c) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
44th B. P. S. C. (Pre) 2000
❖❖❖
MUGHAL ERA 08
Introduction
• Babur: The founder of the Mughal Empire in India was related to Timur on the paternal side
and to Genghis Khan on the maternal side.
• Babur became the ruler of Fargana Uzbekistan after his father, but soon lost his kingdom.
• Financial difficulties, fear of Unbek's attack on Kabul and Rana Sanga's invitation to invade India
forced Babur to turn towards India.
Babar (1526-1530 A.D.)
• First Battle of Panipat (1526 A.D.): Babur decisively defeated Ibrahim Lodi. This ended the Lodi
dynasty and established the Mughal Empire in India.
• Reasons for Babur's victory: Resting one wing of the army alternately, services of two Turkish
gunners Ustad Ali and Mustafa, use of gunpowder, cavalry and artillery tactics, scientific use of
the Tulagam (Uzbek) and Ottoman (Rumi) methods, effective use of cannons.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527 A.D.): Babar defeated Rana Sanga and assumed the title of Ghazi.
• Battle of Chanderi (1528 AD): Medini Rai was defeated and the Rajputana resistance
disintegrated.
• Battle of Ghaghra (1529 A.D.): Babur defeated Mahmud Lodi who aspired to power in Delhi.
• Importance of Babar's arrival in India :-
1. Kabul and Gandhara became integral parts of the Mughal Empire.
2. Protection from external attacks for about 200 years.
3. Babur popularized gunpowder, cavalry and artillery in India. (Gunpowder was used in India
before, but Babur popularized its use.
4. Strengthened India's foreign trade.
5. Declared himself the King of Hindustan.
6. The arrival of Babur in India led to the establishment of the Timurid dynasty.
7. Babur introduced a new method of warfare i.e. Tulughma in India.
8. By defeating Sanga and Lodi he broke the balance of power and laid the foundation of an
all-India empire.
9. He had assumed the title of king.
10. Babur introduced charbagh and symmetrically laid out gardens.
11. Built mosques in Rohilkhand, Panipat and Sambhal.
12. Babur wrote Tujuq-e-Babri (Baburnama) and Masnavi.
13. Babar was a great scholar of Arabic and Persian languages.
Humayun (1530-1540 AD and 1555-1556 AD)
• Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530 AD.

• He had to deal with the rapidly growing power of the Afghans and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• In the Battle of Chausa (1539 AD) and the Battle of Kannauj (1540 AD), Sher Shah defeated
Humayun and forced him to flee from India.
• For a short time he took refuge with the Iranian king. In 1555 A.D. after the disintegration of the
Suri Empire he captured Delhi but died the next year.
• Humayun established a new city in Delhi which he named Dinpanah.
• Mosques: Jamali Mosque and Isa Khan's Mosque in Delhi.
• Humayun's sister Gul Badan Begum wrote the book Humayunnama.
• The foundation of Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was living in Persia.
• He brought with him to India two painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdussamad, who became
famous during Akbar's reign.
• His widow Hamida Banu Begum built Humayun's Tomb (UNESCO site).
Afghan rule in Bihar
• Afghan rule in Bihar

➢ Nuhani Dynasty
➢ Sur Dynasty
• Afghan tribes like Nuhani and Karnani established their control over a large part of Bihar during
the period between 1522-74.
• Karakar was of Hajipur and asserted himself against the rulers of Delhi and Bengal.
Nuhani Dynasty
Rise of the Nuhani dynasty

• The rise of this dynasty is related to the Sharqi-Lodi conflict.
• Sikandar Lodi suppressed the rebellion of his brother "Barbak Shah of Jaunpur". Husain Shah of
the Sharqi dynasty took refuge in Bihar Sharif and fled to Bengal.
• Due to this, Sikandar Lodi attacked Bihar. After the attack, the landlords of Tirhut and Saran
surrendered.
• A treaty was signed with Bengal and Munger was demarcated as the boundary between the two
states.
• For better control of Delhi Sultans, Sikandar Lodi appointed "Darya Khan Nuhani" as the
caretaker and administrator of Bihar.
Darya Khan Nuhani
• He de facto became the independent ruler of Bihar and his son formally established the short-
lived Nuhani Kingdom of Bihar.
• He ruled Bihar from 1495 AD to 1522 AD and remained loyal to Sikandar Lodi, however, it assumed
independent status during the reign of Ibrahim Lodi.
Bahar Khan Nuhani
• He was the son of Dariya Khan Nuhani and ascended the throne of Bihar in 1522 AD after the
death of his father.
• He declared his independence and established a short-lived Nuhani dynasty in Bihar.
• He assumed the title of “Sultan Mohammed” and assembled an army of 100,000 soldiers.
Invasion of Ibrahim Lodi
• Ibrahim Lodi sent an army under Husain Khan against Bahar Khan. After an initial round of
fighting, the Delhi army was defeated.
• Further, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
• Due to this the Nuhani empire expanded from Bihar to Kannauj.
Battle of Ghagra : 1527 A.D.
• Bahar Khan Nuhani was defeated by Babur in the "Battle of Ghaghra" in 1527 and had to accept
Babur's suzerainty.
• Bahar Khan Nuhani died in 1528 A.D. After his death, his minor son “Jalal Khan” was sworn in as
emperor under the guardianship of Farid Khan or Sher Khan.
• Farid Khan foiled the invasion of Bengal and assumed the title of “Hazrat-e-Aala”.
Sur Dynasty
• Bihar witnessed a glorious period of 6 years during the rule of Sher Shah Suri. He is considered
the representative of Afghan power in India.
Sher Shah Suri
• Childhood name: Farid

• Birth year: Historians are not unanimous about his birth year. According to Dr. Kanungo, he
was born in 1486 AD in Narnaul of Hisar-Firoza.
• His father "Hasan Khan Sur" was a Jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
Rise of Sher Shah Suri
• Bahar Khan Nuhani first appointed "Farid" as the Jagirdar of Sasaram.

• After the death of Bahar Khan, Sher Shah became the guardian of his minor son "Jalal Khan"
and his queen Dudu left the administration of the state entirely in the hands of Sher Shah.
• This created jealousy towards Sher Shah among the Nuhani amirs and they started thinking of
killing him.
• Later "Jalal Khan" went to Bengal to seek help from the ruler of Bengal "Nusrat Shah", and Nusrat
Shah appointed Qutub Khan's son Ibrahim to fight Sher Shah.
• Battle of Surajgarh [Munger], 1534 AD: In this battle, Sher Shah defeated the Bengal army led
by Mahmud Shah.
• Importance of this battle: It is considered one of the most decisive battles in medieval Indian
history and a turning point in Sher Shah's career.
• After this battle, Sher Shah assumed the title of "Hazrat-e-Aala" and virtually became the ruler
of Bihar.
• Chunar Fort: Sher Shah acquired the strategic fort of Chunar by marrying Lad Malika, the
widow of Taj Khan Sarangkhani.
Sher Shah and Humayun
• Sher Shah's victories and his control over Bihar and Bengal attracted the attention of the Mughal
ruler "Humayun".
• At this time Humayun was busy suppressing the Mirza rebellion and the rebellion of Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat.
• Sher Shah saw this opportunity to consolidate his power and territorial possessions and
conquered the Gauda region of Bengal.
• Considering the possible threat from Sher Shah, Humayun moved eastwards and captured
Chunar and moved towards Gaud.
• Sher Shah was a clever administrator and he avoided direct confrontation with Humayun at
this time and allowed the Mughal army to advance towards Bengal without any opposition.
• He shifted the treasury of Bengal to Rohtas in Bihar.
• When the Mughal army reached Bengal, it used the opportunity to besiege Chunar and capture
Varanasi and further sent an army to capture Kannauj.
Battle of Chausa: 25 June 1539 (near Buxar)
• One Side: Humayun
• Second Side: Sher Shah Suri
• Results: Humayun was defeated.
• Events during the war:During the war Humayun's horse drowned in the Ganges and
Karmanasha rivers, but his life was saved by a water carrier named Nizam, whom Humayun
later made the king for a day. This Nizam symbolically issued a leather currency/coin during
his one-day reign.
• After the Battle of Chausa, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and marched towards Agra.
Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram : 17 May 1540 A.D.
• One Side: Humayun

• Second Side: Sher Khan/Sher Shah Suri
• Results: defeat of humayun
• After defeat in the war, Humayun saved his life and fled towards Iran.
• Sher Shah established the "Second Afghan Empire" in place of Mughal power in 1540 AD, which
lasted till 1555 AD.
Sher Shah after Humayun
• Sher Shah successfully suppressed the rebellion of Khizr Khan in Bengal in 1541.
• In 1542 AD, Sher Shah defeated Mallu Khan and took over Malwa and annexed the Gwalior Fort
to his kingdom.
• In 1543, Sher Shah attacked Raisin located in Central India and treacherously killed its ruler
Puranmal Chauhan.
• In 1544, Sher Shah attacked the ruler of Marwar, Maldev Rathore. In this war, two Rajput soldiers
of Marwar, Jayanta and Kuppa defeated the Afghan army. But Sher Shah deceitfully misled
Maldev's soldiers against him and took control of Marwar as well.
• During this war, Sher Shah had said, "I gave away almost the whole of Hindustan for a handful
of millet."
Sher Shah's administration and important departments
Central Administration Chief (Pradhan)
Diwan-i-wazarat It was headed by the Wazir and was related to revenue and
finance
Diwan-i-Arz This was the secretariat headed by the Dabir
Diwane-i-insha This was a religious department headed by the Sadra.
Diwan-i-Qazi This was the law department headed by the Qazi.
• Sher Shah introduced "government unit" (district) for the first time in history under Shikdar-i-
Shikdrana.
Administrative unit Head
Iqta [province] Hakeem and Ameen
Sarkar & [District] shikdar-e-shikdaran
Pargana & [Taluka] Shikdar and Munsif
Village Muqaddam and Amil

Land revenue system of Sher Shah
• Sher Shah's land revenue system was mainly of the "Rayatwari Settlement System" in which
a direct relationship was established with the farmers.
• Sher Shah defined three categories of land based on production: good land, medium land
and low land.
• Sher Shah took one-third of the land revenue produce but from the area called Multan this rate
of land revenue was taken at one-fourth.
• Sher Shah got the land measured under the direction of Ahmed Khan.
• Sher Shah used "Sikandari Gaj" and "Sun ki Dandhi" (rope) for measuring the land.
• Sher Shah's last campaign was the campaign of Kalinjar in 1545. The ruler of Kalinjar at this time
was Kirat Singh.
• Sher Shah died during the Kalinjar war due to firing of a firearm called Ukka.
• After the death of Sher Shah, his second son Jalal Khan became the ruler and ruled till 1554 AD.
Administration of Sher Shah
• During the time of Sher Shah the provinces were known as Sarkars.
• Sher Shah had divided his entire empire into 47 governments (provinces), out of which only
Bengal was divided into 19 governments.
• Sher Shah appointed an officer called “Amir-e-Bengal” to control the government in Bengal.
• Sher Shah introduced 'Kabuliyat' and 'Patta Pratha'. Sher Shah implemented "Rai" (list of crop
rates) to determine land tax.
• In addition to land revenue, Sher Shah collected a tax called "Jaribana" as survey fee and
"Muhsilana" as tax collection fee from the farmers.
• Sher Shah constructed 1700 Sarais and appointed officers called "Shikdar" to look after them.
• Sher Shah introduced a coin called “silver rupee” of 178 grains and a coin called “copper dam”
of 380 grains.
• Sher Shah's name was written in Arabic or Devanagari script on his coins.
• Sher Shah had established 23 taqsaal.
• In 1541, Sher Shah renamed Pataliputra as Patna.
• Sher Shah built the Purana Qila (Old Fort) in Deenpanah Nagar, Delhi.
• Sher Shah established a town named Rohtasgarh.
• Sher Shah built his own tomb in Sasaram.
• Sher Shah established a city named Shersur in place of Kannauj.
• Sher Shah built a mosque named Qila-e-Kuhna in Delhi.
• Sher Shah's justice system was quite harsh, which included imprisonment, flogging, maiming
and fines etc.
Bihar after Sher Shah
• Even after the re-establishment of Mughal rule in Delhi, Bihar remained under the control of
the Afghans.
• Taj Khan Karroi made Bihar Sharif his capital and established a new Afghan state.
• Suleiman Karroi ruled from 1565-72 and acknowledged the authority of the Mughal emperor
Akbar.
Akbar (1556-1605 A.D.)
• He ascended the throne after the death of his father Humayun.

• In 1556 A.D. he defeated Hemu (Sur's minister) in the second battle of Panipat.
• Between 1556-60 AD, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan. Bairam became the vakil of the state
with the title Khan-i-Khanum.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576 AD): Akbar defeated Rana Pratap after most of the Rajput rulers
accepted Akbar's suzerainty.
• The Mughal army was led by Man Singh.
• Akbar defeated Muzaffar Shah, the ruler of Gujarat. In memory of this victory, he built Buland
Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar gradually expanded the Mughal Empire to include most of the Indian subcontinent.
• The empire was divided into provinces headed by a Subedar. He
performed both political and military functions.
• Every province had officers: Diwan, Bakshi, Sadra, Qazi etc.
Administration
• Another division of the empire: Jagir (allocated to nobles and members
of the royal family), Khalisa (tract reserved for the royal treasury), Inam
(granted to religious leaders, half of it was uncultivated).
• Parganas and Sarkars were subdivisions of provinces.
Local government • Faujdar: In charge of law and order, Amalguzar: Land assessment and
revenue collection were the key government officials.
• With the help of Raja Todarmal, Akbar experimented with land
revenue administration. This was the Zabti or Settlement system.
• Dahsala system: The revenue was fixed on the average yield of the land
measured on the basis of the last ten years. This was an improved
version of seizure.
• Sharecropping/Galla Bakshi System: The production was divided
between the state and the peasants in a fixed ratio. The peasants were
Land Revenue given a choice between sharecropping and dahsala.
Administration • Kankutah Earlier, revenue was collected based on what the farmers
paid.
• Classification of land: Polaj (cultivated every year), fallow (once in two
years), chachar (once in three or four years) and banjhar (once in five
or more years).
• Kanungo’s were hereditary holders of land and Karoris were officers
appointed throughout North India. They were responsible for collecting
Dam (rupees).
• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration. Under
Mansabdari
this system each officer was assigned a rank (Mansab).
system
• The term Mansabdar was used for all but there were three scales:
(a) Mansabdar (500 zat/below)
(b) Rich (between 500-2500 zat)
(c) Ameer-e-Umda (above 2500 zat)
• The posts were divided into two parts: Jaat and Sawar.
• Caste determined a person's personal status and salary.
• The Sawar rank indicated the number of Savar the individual
maintained. Each Sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The Mansab post was not hereditary and the Mansabdars were paid
by granting them jagirs.
• Jaziya, pilgrimage and forced conversion of prisoners of war were
abolished.
• He built Ibadat Khana (house of worship) at Fatehpur Sikri for
religious discussions.
• He advocated the idea of Sulh-e-Kul or universal peace, tolerance
which did not discriminate between people of different religions.
• Abul Fazl helped Akbar formulate a vision of governance around this
idea of Sulh-e-Kul. This principle of governance was also followed by
Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Religious policy
• In 1582 AD. It propagated a new religion called Deen-e-Ilahi or Divine
Faith. It believes in one God. It included the good points of all religions.
He had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not force
anyone to his new faith.
• Jharokha darshan was introduced by Akbar with the aim of widening
the acceptance of imperial authority as part of popular belief.
• Muhammad Hussain was Akbar's favorite calligrapher. He was
skilled in Nastaliq. It was a fluid style with long horizontal strokes.
• Akbar honoured him with Zari-e-Qalam(golden pen).
• Akbar introduced gold coins called Ashrafi (Muhar).
• He also began dating his coins according to a new Ilahi era, which
Currency replaced the previous Hijri calendar.
• Akbar started the practice of writing Persian poetry praising the ruler
on coins.
• Abul Fazl: Wrote Ain-e-Akbari and Akbarnama.
• Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana:He was a great poet. He translated

Baburnama into Turkish.
Akbar's
• Birbal: He was a Hindu advisor and the army commander in chief at
Navratnas
the court. Akbar gave him the title of Raja Birbal.
• Mirza Aziz Koka: He is also known as Kotaltash. He was Akbar's

brother by relation.
• Faizi: He translated Lilavati into Persian. Mahabharata was translated
into Persian language under his supervision.
• Raja Man Singh : Was a Mansabdar.
• Raja Todarmal: He was the finance minister. Akbar gave him the title
of Diwan-e-Ashraf.
• Fakir Ajiao Bean: He was one of the main advisors of Akbar.
• Tansen: He was a musician and Hindu from Gwalior. He served Raja

Ramchandra, who gave him the title of Tansen. Akbar gave him the
title of Miyan.
• Hamzanama, which contains 1200 illustrations, belonged to his reign.
• The European style of painting was introduced to the court by

Portuguese priests.
• Daswant and Basawan were famous writers of his court.
• Persian poets in his court: Abul Fazal and his brother Abul Faizi,
Tarikh Alfi, Utbi and Nazir.

Art
• Hindi poet during his reign: Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas.
• Akbar ordered the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian.

A Maktab Khana or translation bureau was also established at Fatehpur
Sikri for this purpose.
• Razmnama is the Persian translation of Mahabharata.
• The Akbar period was known as the renaissance of Persian literature.
• Place cum fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory): The
complex has many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles. The
Gujarati style was probably built for his Rajput wives.
• Akbar built Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall), Diwan-i-Khas
(private audience hall) for his Rajput wives.
• The most impressive buildings in it are the Jama Masjid (its entrance
is called Buland Darwaza), the Dargah of Sheikh Salim Chishti.
Architecture
• Other important buildings in Fatehpur Sikri include Jodha Bai's Palace
and the five-storey Panch Mahal.
• During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb was built in Delhi. It had a huge
marble dome. It can be considered the predecessor of the Taj Mahal.
• Akbar's tomb at Sikandra near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
• He built the Agra Fort with red sandstone and also constructed the
Jahangiri Mahal inside it according to Hindu design.
Jahangir (1605-1627 A.D.)
• When Akbar died, Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (Conqueror of the World) in 1605
AD.
• The English visited Machilipatnam during his reign. Captain Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited
his court. Thomas Roe received a farman to establish an English factory in Surat. This farman
was confiscated by Shah Jahan.
• His wife Nur Jahan had influence over the affairs of the state.
• Jahangir built the Zanjir-e-Adal in the Agra Fort for those seeking royal justice.
• Autobiography: Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri in Persian.
• He introduced the Du-aspah an sih-aspa system. The Mansabdari system was amended by this
system. The nobles were allowed to maintain a large number of troops without increasing their
zat rank.
• During his reign, the practice of decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious
stones (pietra-dura) began.
• He built the Moti Masjid in Lahore. He got the Shalimar and Nishant gardens laid out in
Kashmir.
• The use of a sphere of influence or divine light behind the king's head came under his control.
Shah Jahan (1628-1658 A.D.)
• He became the successor of Jahangir and ascended the throne in 1628 AD.
• Three years after his coronation, in 1631 A.D., his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal died.
• His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the army of Ahmednagar and captured it.
Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor.
• He defeated the Portuguese in 1632 AD.
• He moved his court, army and family from Agra to the new imperial capital Shahjahanabad.
It was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi with Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Chandni
Chowk etc.
• Salam: Under Shah Jahan there was Chahar Taslim and Zaminbos (kissing the ground).
• During his reign a war of succession broke out between his sons.
• During this period the Battle of Dharmat, Battle of Samugarh, Battle of Khanwa and Battle
of Deorai took place and finally Aurangzeb was victorious.
• His court historian Abdul Hameed Lahori wrote the Badshahnama.
• Shahjahannama was written by Inayat Khan. His son translated the Bhagavad Gita and the
Upanishads into Persian.
• The Badshahnama was written by Abdul Hameed Lahori who lived in his court.
Development of Architecture
• He built the Taj Mahal in 1632-33 AD in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• He built the Moti Masjid (completely white marble), the Sheesh Mahal and the Musamman
Burj in Agra.
• He constructed the Red Fort, Rang Mahal and Diwan-i-Khas in Delhi.
• He built the Jama Masjid (red stone) in Delhi and the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore. He founded
the city of Shahjahanabad.
• The pietra dura method was used extensively by Shah Jahan in the Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707 A.D.)
• The book Maasir-e-Alamgiri written by Mustad Khan mentions the rule of Aurangzeb.
• He assumed the title of Alamgir, the world conqueror. He was also called Zinda Peer.
• During his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, ruling over nearly the entire
Indian subcontinent.
• He captured Bijapur (1686 AD) and Golconda (1687 AD) and expanded the Mughal Empire to the
south.
• He fought the Maratha king Shivaji Maharaj, who had established an independent kingdom.
• He closed down the official history departments.
• He issued the Zawabit-e-Alamgir (Edicts of Aurangzeb) and appointed Muhtasibs to enforce
the moral rules given under it.
• Drinking alcohol was prohibited under his rule. He banned the cultivation and use of cannabis
and other intoxicants. He was adept at playing the Veena, but Aurangzeb forbade music in the
court.
• He stopped the practice of Jharoka Darshan.
• He also stopped the celebration of Dussehra and Navroz and dismissed the royal astronomers
and astrologers from service.
• Aurangzeb built the Moti Masjid (near the Red Fort, Delhi) and the Bibi Ka Maqbara (replica of
the Taj, Aurangabad).
• Initially Aurangzeb prohibited the construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of old
ones, then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
• He re-imposed Jaziya and pilgrimage tax in 1679 AD.
• He was also not tolerant towards other Muslim sects. He banned the celebration of Muharram.
• He murdered the 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur.
• He also rebelled with the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar. Therefore Aurangzeb was
held responsible for the decline of the Mughals.
• In the Mansabdari system he created an additional rank Mashrut (conditional). Added a
deduction called Dosh-e-Dawaab to meet the cost of animal feed.
• Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions and had a large number of Marathas among his
officers.
• Miraj Mohammad Qasim wrote Alamgirnama.
• His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, Marathas and Sikhs into enemies of
the Mughal Empire.
Successors of Aurangzeb
• It was more tolerant towards Hindus.

• He never abolished Jaziya, but did not collect taxes strictly.
Muazzam (Bahadur Shah I) • He granted the Sardeshmukhi of Deccan to the Marathas but
(1707-1712 AD) failed to grant Chauth.
• Mughal historians like Khafi Khan gave him the title Shah-e-
Bekhabar.
• He started Ijara (revenue farming).
• He became the king with the help of Zulfiqar Khan.
• He established friendly relations with the Marathas and
Jahandar Shah I
Rajputs. He abolished Jaziya. He granted Sardeshmukhi to
(1712-1713 AD)
Shahu and Chauth of Deccan. He gave the title of Mirza Raja
Sawai to Jai Singh of Amer and the title of Maharaja to Ajit
Singh.
• Syed brothers Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali were known
as kingmakers.
Farrukhsiyar • Policy of religious tolerance: He abolished Jaziya and
(1713-1719 A.D.) pilgrimage tax.
• He issued a decree to the British in 1717 A.D.
• He was dethroned by the Syed brothers.
• He ruled for the shortest period among the Mughals.
• Autonomous states emerged during his reign:
1. Nizam-ul-Mulk: Deccan
2. Saadat Khan: Awadh
3. Murshid Quli Khan: Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Muhammad Shah
Rangeela • Nadir Shah invaded India and looted Delhi. He also took away
the famous Kohinoor diamond.
(1719-1748 A.D.)
• He became the king with the help of Sayyid brothers. Later he
killed them with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• He was defeated by Nadir Shah in the battle of Karnal.
• Ahmed Shah Abdali also attacked Delhi for the first time
during his reign.
• He was the only son of Mohammad Shah Rangeela.
Ahmed Shah (1748-1754 • He was an inefficient ruler. He left the affairs of the state in
A.D.) the hands of Udhambai. She was given the title of Qibla-e-
Alam.
Alamgir II (1754-1759 A.D.) • The Battle of Plassey (1757 AD) was fought during his reign.
• The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Marathas

and Ahmed Shah Abdali during his reign.
• He participated in the Battle of Buxar (1764 AD) along with Mir
Qasim and Shuja-ud-Daula against the British East India
Shah Alam II/Aligauhar
Company. He was defeated in this battle and was forced to sign
(1759-1806 A.D.)
the Treaty of Allahabad (1765 AD), under which the company
got the Diwani of Bengal.
• It granted the British the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• He became a pensioner of the British.
• He gave the title of Raja to Ram Mohan Roy.
Akbar II • He marked the beginning of the Phool Walon Ki Sair, a
celebration of Hindu-Muslim unity.
• He was the last Mughal emperor.
Bahadur Shah II • He used the pseudonym Zafar as an Urdu poet.
(1837-1857 A.D.) • He took part in the revolt of 1857, after which he was exiled to
Rangoon. He died there.
Reasons for the fall of the Mughals
• Lack of stability after Aurangzeb.

• Most emperors became puppets in the hands of powerful nobles, who often ran the
administration on their behalf.
• Weak military and political administration as exposed by the invasions of Nadir Shah and
Ahmed Abdali.
• Rise of autonomous states and weakening of central power.
• Aurangzeb's Conservative Policy: His attitude towards the Marathas, Rajputs and Jats made them
his enemies, and his religious policies also alienated the Hindus.
Feudal system
• This was a system of assigning the revenue of a particular area to feudal lords for their services
to the state.
• This was an integral part of the Mansabdari system.
• The zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land. They claimed a direct share
in the produce of the peasants which varied from 10% to 25% in different parts of the country.
Types of Estates
Tanka Estate It was given in lieu of salary. It was transferred every three to four years.
Mashrut Estate This was given on certain conditions.
Watan Estate It was assigned to the landlords or kings under their local dominions.
It was hereditary and non-transferable.
Altamaha Estate It was given to Muslim nobles in their family towns or places of birth.
Important words and meanings
• Diwan-e-Aala/Vazir– Head of revenue department

• Mir bakshi– Head of the military department
• Mir Saman– In charge of the royal household
• Barid– Intelligence officer
• Waqia-Navis– News Writer
• Qazi – Head of the judicial department
• sadr-ul-sadar– In charge of charitable and religious endowments.
• Mutasaddi – Governor of the port.
• Mukadam – The head of the village.
• Patwari – Accountant
• Tainat-e-rakaab– Reserve forces
• Taqawi – Loans provided for agricultural extension.
• Merwar : Mailer
• Bannik : local merchants
• Vitiki: clerk
• Chehra: Descriptive role of each soldier
• Ahadi: “Gentleman soldier” Who received higher salaries than ordinary soldiers under the
Mansabdari system.
• Khudkhast: Farmers who were owners of the land they tilled.
• Khasa Kale: Personal royal force controlled by Sher Shah.
• Kabuliyat and Patta Setlement: Deed agreement between the farmer and the government.
• Guerilla warfare: Irregular, small-scale violent militant group, operating in a hostile area.
• Factory: These were areas where expensive craft products were produced.
• Manual: Schedules containing rates of Money Revenue for various localities applicable from
year to year.
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History of Medieval India |67
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THE MARATHA STATE 09

Shahaji Bhonsle
• He was a descendant of Sisodia dynasty of Mewar who was married to Jijabai. Jijabai gave
birth to Shivaji in 1630 AD in Shivner neamnmr Junnar.
• He served under Malik Ambar (1548-1626 AD), formerly a slave, and minister of Abyssinia
under Ahmad Shah of Ahmadnagar. After Ambar's death, Bhonsle played an important role
in politics.
• Jijabai and her minor son were left under the care of Dadaji Kondadev, who administered
Shahaji Bhosale's jagirs in Poona.
Other information
• Shahaji acted as a kingmaker at Ahmednagar and defied the Mughals. He yielded up the
territories under his dominion by a treaty signed in 1636 A.D. and joined the service of the
Sultan of Bijapur. He later turned towards Karnataka.
Shivaji Maharaj (1627-1680 AD.)
• He was born in Shivneri Fort.

• Father: Shahaji Bhonsle initially served the Nizam (ruler) of Ahmednagar. Later he served the
under the sultanate of Bijapur.
• Shivaji's mother: Jijabai Shivaji inherited the estate of Pune from his father in 1637 AD.
• At the age of 16, he captured the Torna fort. After that, he captured many more forts.
• He created an independent Maratha Empire with Raigad as his capital.
• He captured Javli from Chandrarao More in 1656 A.D. He killed Afzal Khan (Adil Shah's general)
in the Battle of Pratapgarh (1659 A.D.).
• Battle of Pavankhind (1660 AD): Maratha forces led by Baji Prabhu Deshpande faced the
enemies to rescue Shivaji.
• Shivaji was defeated by Shaista Khan (sent by Aurangzeb). Later he made a bold attack on
Shaista Khan's military camp at Poona in 1663 AD in which he was injured.
• Treaty of Purandar (1665 AD.)
1. A treaty was signed between Raja Jai Singh (under Aurangzeb) and Shivaji.
2. Shivaji handed over some forts to the Mughals and went to Agra to meet Aurangzeb.
• He defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Salher (1672 AD). He was crowned and given the title of
Maharaja Chhatrapati at Raigad Fort in 1674 AD.
• He died at the age of 52 in 1680 AD.
|
• He divided his kingdom into four provinces (subas). The provinces (subas)
were divided into mahals which were further divided into parganas or
tarafs.
• Shivaji had a well-organised army and navy. The regular army was called
Paga, while the loose auxiliary force was called Silahdar and was manned
Shivaji's
by Havildars.
administration
• The regular soldier was paid a cash salary, although sometimes the
chieftains received revenue grants (saranjam).
• He was assisted by a council of ministers called the Ashtapradhan
Mandal. Each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji. (No collective
responsibility)
• Peshwa (Chief): Finance and general administration, who later became
Prime Minister.
• Senapati: Military commander.
• Majumdar (Amatya): Accountant General.
• Waqia-navis (Home): preparing daily record of events.
Ashtapradhan
• Sachiv (Shuru-Navis): Checking government letters.
• Dabir (Suamant): Foreign minister and chief of ceremonies.
• Nyaydhish: Responsible for the justice system.
• Panditrao (Sanadhyaksha): High priest, managing internal religious
affairs.
• Shivaji's revenue system was based on Malik Ambar of Ahmednagar.
• Land was measured with a measuring stick called Kathi.
• Revenue farming was discouraged.
• To avoid Maratha invasions, Chauth (one fourth of land revenue) was paid
to the Marathas.
Revenue
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional tax of ten percent, which was 1/10 of
the standard land revenue on lands to which the Marathas claimed
hereditary rights.
• He reduced the power of the existing Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis.
• He appointed his own revenue officer, called Karkun.
Sambhaji (1680-1689 AD.)
• Sambhaji was the son of Shivaji Maharaj. According to the treaty of Purandar, he was a
Mansabdar of the Mughals.
• His rule was largely shaped by the ongoing war between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal
Empire, as well as other neighbouring powers such as the Siddis, Mysore, and the Portuguese
in Goa.
• In 1687 AD, he defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of Wai.
• In 1689 AD, Sambhaji was captured by the Mughals. The Mughals tortured and killed him.
• He was succeeded by his brother Rajaram- I.
|
Raja Rama (1689-1707 AD.)
• He was the younger brother of Sambhaji. He ruled on behalf of Shahu.

• Jinji was his headquarters. When his capital was attacked by the Mughals, he fled to
Vishalgarh and then to Satara. He gave the status of Raja or Hukumat Panha to Peshwa
Ramchandra Pant.
• Maratha rulers like Dhanaji Jadhav, Ramchandra Pant and Prahlad Niraji caused
widespread havoc among the Mughals.
• After Rajaram's death, resistance continued under the leadership of his widow Tarabai, who
assumed power on behalf of her infant son Shivaji II.
• Zulfiqar Khan released Shahu. The Mughals succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two
groups- one under the leadership of Tara Bai and the other under Shahu.
• In the Battle of Kheda in 1707 AD, Shahu defeated Tarabai with the help of Balaji Vishwanath
(a Chitpavan Brahmin who became Peshwa in 1713 AD), but he ran a parallel rival government
with its capital at Kolhapur.
Other information
• Rajasabai (second wife of Rajaram) and her son Sambhaji II imprisoned Tara Bai and her
son in 1714 AD. Sambhaji II ascended the throne of Kolhapur. However, he had to accept the
suzerainty of Shahu.
Sahu (1707-1749 AD.)
• Shahu's reign saw the rise of the Peshwas and the Bhonsles were reduced to mere titular chiefs.
• During the time of Rajaram II/Ram Raja, the power of the Peshwa almost overshadowed the
power of the Chhatrapati.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720 AD.)
• He started as a petty revenue officer. He was given the title of Senakarte by Shahu in 1708 AD.
• He became Peshwa in 1713 AD. Later this post was made the most important and powerful as
well as hereditary.
Royal dynasty of Kolhapur
Shivaji II (1710–1714 A.D.) son of Rajaram and Tarabai
• He served under the regent of his mother. Sambhaji II (1714-1760 AD)- Son of Rajasabai and
Rajaram.
• Signed the Treaty of Warna (1731 AD) with Shahu to formalise the two separate positions of
the Bhonsle family.
Campaigns against Kolhapur were launched by the British government in 1765 AD and 1792 AD.
After the fall of the Maratha confederacy in 1812 AD, the state entered into a treaty with the
British.
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Peshwa Dynasty
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20 AD)
• The Maratha kingdom was expanded into an empire.
• Shahu made him Peshwa and Senakartte.
• Helped Sayyid brothers in overthrowing Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
Madhavrao Narayan (1774-95 AD)
• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82 AD)
• Treaty of Purandar (1776 AD)
Bajirao II (1796-1818 AD)
• Battle of Poona (1802 AD) and his defeat.
• Treaty of Bassein with the British (1802 AD)
Bajirao (1720 AD)
• Expert in guerrilla warfare.
• Captured Malwa and parts of Rajasthan.
• Propounded the concept of Hindu Pad Padshahi.
• Rise of Maratha chieftains of Gaekwad, Bhonsle, Holkar and Scindia.
Raghunath Rao (1773-74 AD)
• The famous Barbhai conspiracy.
• Treaty of Surat with the British (1775 AD).
Balaji Bajirao/Nana Saheb (1740-61 AD)
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761 AD).
Madhav Rao (1761-72 AD)
• He defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Rohillas in the north and Hyder Ali of Mysore.
Narayan Rao (1772-73 AD)
• Conflict with Raghunath Rao supported by Nana Phadnavis.
❖❖❖
MARATHA EMPIRE 10
Bajirao- I (1720-1740 AD.)
• He succeeded Balaji Vishwanath. Under him Maratha power reached its zenith.
• He was one of the greatest exponents of guerilla tactics after Shivaji.
• This started the confederation system. Thus, many families became prominent and established
their authority.
• He captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in the Battle of Vasai (1733 AD). He
defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1737 AD and signed the Treaty of Durai Sarai.
• His several campaigns in the north weakened the Mughals and made the Marathas the supreme
power in India.
• He said about Mughal: "If we strike the trunk of a withered tree, the branches will fall
automatically".
Balaji Bajirao (Nana Saheb- I) (1740-1761 AD.)
• He defeated Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal in 1751 AD and 1/3rd of the Indian subcontinent came
under the Maratha Empire.
• Agreement signed with Ahmad Shah (Mughal Emperor) - The Peshwas assured the Mughals to
protect them from internal and external enemies in return for the total revenue of Chauth, Agra
and Ajmer provinces of the North-Western Provinces.
• The defeat by Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 AD stopped the
expansion of the Marathas and fragmented the empire.
• He and his son Vishwas Rao were killed in the Battle of Panipat.
• Successors: Madhav Rao, Narayan Rao, Sawai Madhav Rao and Baji Rao II.
Anglo-Maratha Wars
• Three wars were fought between the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company
over the region.
• The Third Anglo-Maratha War led to the end of the Maratha Empire. All Maratha powers
surrendered to the British.
• The Peshwa was finally captured and was given a small estate at Bithoor near Kanpur.
• The Maharaja of Satara was reinstated as the ruler of his territory as a princely state. Most of his
territory was annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency.
• In 1848 AD, this area was also annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse of Lord Dalhousie.
• The power struggle between Sawai Madhav Rao and Raghunath
Rao had the support of the British. This resulted in the First
Anglo-Maratha War.
First Anglo-Maratha • Treaty of Salbai in May, 1782 – The British accepted Madhavrao as
War (1775-1782 AD.) the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire and ended the Anglo-Maratha
War.
• Treaty of Surat, 1775 AD
• Treaty of Purandar 1776 A.D.
• The second war was led by the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II Holkar
(one of the major Maratha dynasties) and his acceptance of the
Second Anglo-Maratha
Subsidiary Alliance (Treaty of Bassein) in 1802 AD.
War (1803-05 AD.)
• The unhappy Maratha confederacy challenged British authority,
but were defeated.
• Pindaris of several castes, troubled by low income, began
Third Anglo-Maratha plundering neighbouring areas, including the Company's.
War (1817-1818 AD.) • Lord Hastings (Governor General) accused the Marathas of
sheltering the Pindaris and fought a war.
Major Maratha dynasties
State Area
Scindia Gwalior
Pawar Dhar
Gaekwad Baroda
Bhonsle Nagpur
Peshwa Poona
• Raghoji Bhosale (1725 - 55 AD) was the most important ruler of this
The Bhonsle’s of
dynasty. He is credited with increasing Maratha influence in
Nagpur
Bihar and Bengal.
• The Gaikwad dynasty rose to prominence during the decade of
Gaikwad of Baroda (1720 AD).
• He established his capital at Baroda (Vadodara, Gujarat).
• Malhar Rao Holkar established his power in Indore (Madhya
Holkars of Indore Pradesh).
• Holkar power reached its peak during the reign of Malhar Rao.
• The Scindias were one of the most powerful and influential
families of the Marathas.
• Mahadji Scindia established his control over the Mughal Emperor
Scindia of Gwalior
Shah Alam II in 1784 AD.
• He appointed the Peshwa as the Emperor's Naib-i-Munai on the
condition that Mahadji would act on the Peshwa's behalf.
❖❖❖
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Foundation Notes

2. DELHI SULTANATE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 17-28

3. REGIONAL EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 29-31

4. VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------- 32-37

5. BAHMANI EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 38-41

6. BHAKTI MOVEMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------ 42-48

7. SUFI MOVEMENT--------------------------------------------------------------------- 49-52

8. MUGHAL ERA ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53-66

9. THE MARATHA STATE ---------------------------------------------------------------- 67-70

10. MARATHA EMPIRE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 71-72

EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 01

North India: Rajputana Period

• He expanded the Pratihara Empire into the Gangetic plains and

• Prithviraj Chauhan III: Capital – Ajmer

Palas of Bengal (750-1150 AD.)

• Around the 8th century AD, Gopala laid the

• Jagdishpur Fair: It was started by Phoolchand.

Rashtrakutas (Deccan): (752-973 AD)

• Meaning of Rashtrakuta – Chief of a Rashtra

Amoghavarsha- I • He composed Kavirajamarga (Kannada) and Prashnottara Ratna

• The system of administration in all three dynasties was based on

• Instrumental in establishing the Karnataka Dravidian style.

A. Cholas: (850-1279 AD.)

• The Chola dynasty is known as the Imperial

• He defeated the Cheras, Pandyas and conquered the Maldives

Rajaraja– I • Expanded trade with China.

• Son of Rajaraja I, he defeated and conquered entire Sri Lanka.

• Major capitals: Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc.

• Kaikkolaperumpadai : Royal army.

• Velaikaarar : Personal troops to protect the kings.

• Peruvazhis : Trunk roads.

B. Western Chalukya-Kalyani: (973-1200 AD.)

• The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled between 973-1200 AD.

• Followed the traditions of Rashtrakutas and Vatapi Chalukyas.

• Tailapa- II (973-97 AD.)

1. Defeated Rashtrakuta vassal Krishna III.

• Someshwara- I (1042-68 AD.)

3. Vikramankadevacharita of Vihlana is related to Someshwara- I.

• The last ruler Tailapa- III was defeated by the Kalachuris.

C. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

• Kirtivarman is considered to be the builder of Vatapi.

1. Muhammad bin Qasim imprisoned by the new Caliph.

(1191 AD.) AD, Prithviraj defeated Ghori and regained Bhatinda.

1. Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD.)

Important Foreign Visitors/Envoys

Important Foreign Visitors/Envoys

Al-Masudi • Arab Traveller

Ibn Battuta • He was a traveller from Morocco.

• A Persian traveller who stayed at the court of the Zamorin of

• A Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya

Minhaj-us-Siraj • He traced his genealogy to the royal house of Ghazni.

• Its description was Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi from the reign of Balban

• A famous scholar of Persian.

Shams-i-Siraj Afif • Patronised by Firoz Tughlaq.

Ferishta • A Persian historian who wrote Tarikh-i-Ferishta.

Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi dynasty

Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290 AD.)

C. Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD.)

Khilji dynasty (1290–1320 AD.)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD.)