ANCIENT-MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND INDIAN CULTURE

LECTURE-7: POST-MAURYAN PERIOD (200 BCE-300 CE)

The period between c.200 BCE-300 CE did not witness the emergence of large empire like that of the
Mauryas, but it is a period notable for many other historical, political, and cultural achievements. This
period is marked by a shift in political focus from Magadha to north-western India. It saw a series of
invasions and the rise of many regional kingdoms. This is also a period where cities expanded, and urban
culture gained a certain predominance. There was an increase in specialized crafts and a marked
expansion of trade networks. The economy saw an increasing use of currency. This was, furthermore, a
period defined by the intermingling and influence of new cultures, vibrant doctrinal debates, the rise in
devotional worship of images and the institutionalization of religious activity. The period also saw the
emergence of sophisticated sculptural and architectural styles. The period, in short, contributed much to
the rich and versatile heritage of the sub-continent as we know it today.
The Sunga Dynasty
• A Brahmin – Pushyamitra – founded this dynasty. He was the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Army,
who acceded to the throne after assassinating the last Mauryan ruler.
• His dominions extended to South as far as the Narmada river & included cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya
& Vidisha.
• He performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices.
• He also defeated the Bactrian king Demetrius.
• The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Heliodors, the Greek ambassador visited. Besnagar
Pillar inscription of Heliodors throws important like on religious history of the period.
• A Sunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram.
• Patanjali’s classic Mahabhasya was written at this time.
The Kanva Dynasty
• The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who killed the last Sunga king Devabhuti.
• They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.
The Chetis of Kalinga
• The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty
gives information about the Chetis.
• Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South.
• He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent.
The Satavahanas or the Andhras
• They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the central India.
• Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty.
• The most important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106 -130) who raised the power and prestige
of Satavahanas to greater heights.
• He set up his capital at Paithan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district.
• Satavahanas mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).
• They acted as a bridge between North and South India.
• Their district was called `Ahara’. Their officials were known as `amatyas’ and `mahamatras’, as they
were known in Mauryan times.
• Started the practice of granting tax free villages to Brahmanas & Buddhist monks.
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 • Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmans. Performed Vedic rituals and worshipped gods like
Krishna, Vasudeva and others. However, they also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.
• The two common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that were called `Chaitya’ & the
monasteries, which were called `Vihara’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in W. Deccan.
• The official language was Prakrit & the script was Brahmi. One Prakrit text called Gathasattasai is
attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.
Central Asian Contacts
• In N.W. India, Mauryas were succeeded by a no. of ruling dynasties from central Asia.
The Indo - Greeks
• A number of invasions took place around 200 BC. The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were
also called the Indo–Greeks or Bactrian Greeks (because they ruled Bactria). It is said that they pushed
forward as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
• The most famous Indo – Greek ruler was Menander (165 – 145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his
capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.
• He was converted into Buddhism by Nagasena. The conversation between the two has been described
in the Pali text, Milindapanho or `The Questions of Milinda’.
• Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to
issue gold coins in India.
• They also introduced the practice of military governorship. The governors were called `Strategos’.
• The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India. Gandhara art
was its best example.
• The term `Horshastra’, used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term `Horoscope’
• The term ‘Yavana’ which eventually came to be applied to all the foreigners, was originally used for
Greeks in the Indian textual sources. Numerous terms like Yavanika (Curtain), Yavana-priya (spices) are
derived from ‘Yavana’ and association of Greeks with these items.
The Shakas Or Scythians
• The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a larger part of India than the Greek did.
• There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and
Afghanistan.
• A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya, defeated Shakas. An era called the Vikram Samvat
is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Shakas in 57 BC.
• Shaka Era: The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of king Chashtana
in 78 CE. A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the
ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE. However, the latest research indicates that Kanishka ascended the
throne in 127 CE. Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler. This is the official calendar
used by Government of India.
• The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (AD 130-150). His achievements are
highlighted in his Junagadh inscription. This inscription records in details the repairs of Sudarashana
lake (build originally under Mauryans) in Kathiawar. It is first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.
The Parthians
• Originally, they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of Christian era, from where they moved to India.
In comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they occupied only a small portion in N.W. India in the first
century.
• The most famous Parthian King was Gondopherenes (AD 19-45), in whose reign St. Thomas is said to
have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
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 The Kushans
• Came from North central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part of central Asia, a portion
of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan & almost the whole of north India.
• Their founder was Kujala Kadphises. But their most important king was Kanishka (c. 127-150 CE). He
had two capitals first at Purushapura, near modern Peshawar and second at Mathura.
• He patronized the following persons:
▪ Ashwaghosha (wrote `Buddhacharita’, biography of Buddha and Sariputraparikarna, earliest
known example of Sanskrit drama),
▪ Nagarjuna (wrote Mula-madhyama-karika, founder of Madhyamaka sub-branch of Buddhism),
▪ Vasumitra (Chairman of fourth Buddhist Council),
▪ Charak (wrote Charaka-Samhita on medicine) and
▪ Sasruta (wrote `Sasruta-Samhita’ on surgery).

• Kushanas controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia, which started from China and passed
through Kushana-empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia which formed part
of Roman empire.
• He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism (held the fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir).
• The Gandhara & Mathura Schools of art received royal patronage of the Kushans.
Impacts of Central Asian Contacts
• Introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing.
• Introduced the use of riding horse on a large scale.
• The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also bought in
cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
• Heliodors’ Besnagar inscription (MP) informs us about the worship of Vasudeva Krishna – not only by
Indians, by Heliodors himself. Vasudeva Krishna has been likened to Greek god Heracles.
• The Kushan empire gave rise to several schools of art – Gandhara & Mathura. Mathura produced
beautiful images of Buddha, but it is also famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka.
Economy of Post Mauryan Period
• Economy of this period was largely an urban economy based on trade and commerce.
• There was a greater craft specialization as well as greater spatial dispersal of craftsmen. Milindapanho
mentions 75 occupations, of which 60 were associated with crafts. The artisans in this period touched
new heights of prosperity, and there are numerous inscriptions which refer to the donations made by
artisans to monasteries.
• The communities of merchants were organised in groups known as shreni or guilds under the head
called sreshthi. Another type of mercantile group was called sartha, which signified mobile or caravan
trading corporation of interregional traders. The leader of such a guild was called sarthavaha. Like
merchants, the artisans & craftsmen continue to be organized into corporate guilds (Shrenis/ Puga/
Negama).
• These craft-specific bodies charted out the rules of work, wages, prices and contracts. Their rules were
known as Shreni-dharma which even had the legal sanctity. In many cases, these corporate-bodies
helped crystallise craft-groups into social groups – Jatis. They also served as banks and received
deposits from the public on a fixed rate of interest.
• Trade and commerce was aided by significant expansion of money-economy – i.e. increasing use of
coined money in financial transactions. This was the result of large scale minting of coins by Indo-
Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Satvahanas. A variety of minting technologies were in use – Die-Struck
Coins, Punch-Marked Coins and Cast Coins. Coins were issued not only by kings but also by individual
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city-councils and guilds in some cases.

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 • Apart from indigenous coins, numerous hoards of Roman Coins are also found in various parts of India.
This shows India had extensive trading relations with Roman Empire. It has been speculated that these
Roman coins were used as currency in those regions were minting technologies were not much
developed.
• Rules regarding regulation of business and financial transactions were elaborated in Dharamshastra
literature of the time. E.g., rates of interest, profit margins, contractual obligations etc.
• Notwithstanding the fragmented political picture, if there is one thing that characteristically united
Indian subcontinent during this period, it was the vibrant trade and commerce that flourished not only
internally but also externally.
• Overland, Riverine, Coastal as well as Maritime trade routes were used during this period. As we have
discussed earlier, there were two major internal land routes in ancient India — Uttarapatha, which
connected northern and eastern parts of India with the northwestern fringes, and Dakshinapatha,
which connected peninsular India with the western and northern parts of India.
• There existed ports all along the Indian coast to facilitate coastal as well as external trade –
▪ Barbaricum on Indus Delta served Kushanas and Shakas
▪ Barygaza / Bhrigukachcha (in modern Gujarat) was a Shaka port.
▪ Kalyan & Sopara (in modern Maharashtra) were Satvahana ports
▪ Tondi & Muzris (in modern Kerala) were Chera ports
▪ Korkai (in modern TN) was Pandya Port. It was famous for pearl fisheries.
▪ Arikamedu and Puhar (in Modern TN) were Chola ports.
▪ Tamralipti (on Ganga Delta) served Shungas and Kanvas

• Internationally, this was the time when International Silk Route developed for luxury trade in Silk and
Porcelain from China to Roman Empire. Kushana empire was a nodal central point on this route and
Indian traders were active on various segments of this Route.
• Apart from Graeco-Roman and Chinese civilizations, India had external trade relations with South-East
Asian Civilizations as well (Suvarnabhumi – Malaysia&Thailand and Suvarnadwip – Indonesia)
• Socially, trade was an instrument of cultural transmission. Buddhism travelled far and wide with these
trading interactions and was introduced in South-East Asia and China, and from there eventually into
Korea and Japan.
Society During Post Mauryan Period
• The dynamic political and economic environment precipitated numerous changes in the society as
well.
• These changes were the result of urbanization & extensive trade generating a class of rich and affluent
traders and artisans. Foreigners from north-west emerged as new rulers, bringing with them a visible
new population with its own customs, traditions and beliefs which had to be integrated with
indigenous population.
• We get glimpses into the social picture of the time through reading of Brahmanical law books –
Dharmashastra literature written during this time: Manu-smriti & Yajnavalkya Smriti.
• Brahmanical response to this situation was to present caste-system as theoretically rigid. All the
outsiders were labelled as ‘mlechchha’ (literally impure) – and excluded from varna-hierarchy.
However, since outsiders were also now the new rulers, the ruling elites among them were strategically
classified as ‘vratya (or degenerate) kshatriyas’.
• Foreigners also positively attempted to adopt the customs and traditions of the new land – e.g. Shaka
Rudradaman’s Junagarh inscription is in Sanskrit, Indo-Greek Ambassador Heliodors claims to be
worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna, Images of Buddhist and Hindu figures are found on Kushana coins.
• Most of the newly emerging craft-groups were incorporated at the bottom of the varna-scale or, even
worse, outside it. To incorporate these new groups, the concept of ‘Sankirrna-Jati’ (impure or mixed
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castes) was introduced.

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 • Position of women deteriorated during this period. Increasing restrictions were imposed on their
sexuality, with emphasis on chastity. There was a tendency to reduce the age of marriage for girls; Pre-
puberty marriages began to be preferred. Widow-remarriage was disapproved. These restrictions on
women were linked to increasing concerns for patrilineal transfer of property.
• Patriarchal nature of family was strengthened. The law books of the time favour excluding women
from family inheritance. In lieu, they were given control over Stri-dhana – the gifts received by a
woman during her lifetime from parents, brothers, husband and sons.
Religion During Post-Mauryan Period
Buddhism
• This was the golden period of Buddhism – it was the most dominant and popular religion.
• However, divergent interpretations of Buddha’s teachings resulted in emergence of a new school of
Buddhism during this period. The new school was Mahayana, as opposed to older Hinayana /
Theravada.
• Mahayana Buddhism introduced several new elements into Buddhism:
• At doctrinal level, Buddha was elevated from the position of mere excellent human teacher who had
found way to Nirvana to the position of earthly expression of the Supreme Being in heaven. Numerous
earthly and heavenly Buddhas were envisioned. E.g. the Buddha yet to appear on earth was named
Maitreya Buddha.
• Apart from Buddhas, concept of Bodhisattvas was also evolved. These are human teachers who have
attained supreme knowledge but who, out of utmost compassion, prolong their mahaparanirvana
(death) so that they can help others gain nirvana.
• At popular level, the worship of image of Buddha and Bodhisattvas started. Image worship in general
emerged as the general feature of all the religious traditions of India at this point of time. This was the
result of contact with Greeks where image worship was prevalent and with local indigenous forest
tribes who had been practicing image and fertility worship from a very long time.
• Mahayana Buddhism teachings encouraged people to give generous donations to the Buddhist
monasteries, which gave the people "religious merits".
• From Literature point of view, there was increasing use of Sanskrit language in Mahayana religious
texts. E.g. Mula-madhyama-karika written by Nagarjuna.
Jainism
• The Split of Jainism between Digamabara and Shvetambara traditions became historically significant
during this period.
• This split, though presented as an abrupt historical event in Jaina literature, was nevertheless a gradual
process.
• The Jaina monks split over the issue of Aparigraha – i.e Non-possession; the key issue being whether
clothes constitute possession or not.
• The older Digambara monks were all naked (i.e. sky clad) while Shvetambara monks gradually moved
towards using white clothes.
• Jaina Council of Vallabhi (4th/5th century CE) was a decicive event in this regard as it was attended only
by Shvetambara monks. The Jaina canon or religious books were compiled at this council. The
Digambaras were referred to as Nirgrantha (Bookless)
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 Emergent Hinduism
• Though Vedic Rituals remained popular in elite circles, but at a popular level, there was a gradual shift
rom the ritual of Yajna to the ritual of Puja, based on devotion.
• Thus Vedic Brahmanism started evolving into Puranic Hinduism, with the devotional worship of gods
Shiva, Vishnu, Vasudeva Krishna etc.
• These deities began to be worshiped in anthropomorphic (humanized) forms as well as in iconic form.
The earliest temples in Hinduism were constructed during this period. E.g. temples at Taxila, Nagaur
and Besnagar.
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