EMISSIONS AND EMISSION CONTROL

Lambda and the stoichiometric air: fuel ratio: the ratio of air and fuel that would in theory provides
complete combustion. It is usually quoted as 14.7 parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight (e.g. 14.7 grams
of air for 1 gram of petrol). In reality, it is oxygen contained within the air which is required for the
combustion process. To obtain the appropriate quantity of oxygen, it is necessary to mix the air and petrol
in the stoichiometric ratio. The correct ratio of petrol and air is referred to as the ‘air factor’ or more
precisely the ‘excess air factor’. The stoichiometric air: fuel ratio should provide the correct amount of
oxygen, which can be regarded as 1. The Greek symbol lambda (λ) is used to indicate the excess air factor
as shown below:

 If the mixture is correct, then the excess air factor is correct, which is expressed as λ = 1
(lambda = 1).
 If there is too much air (a weak mixture) then the excess air factor is greater than 1, which is
expressed as λ > 1 (lambda is greater than 1).
 If there is too little air (a rich mixture) then the excess air factor is less than 1, which is
expressed as λ < 1 (lambda is less than 1).

Pollutants and the environment: Environmental considerations have forced many countries to introduce
regulations to limit the pollution caused by motor vehicles. Emissions from motor vehicles damage
human health, plant life and the environment. Problems are particularly severe in areas where the
geographic and climatic conditions create an atmospheric envelope which traps the pollutants. Many
countries enforced strict emission regulations this has resulted in very significant changes in automotive
technology and design. Each time new emission standards are introduced, the limits are reduced.

Pollutants and the petrol engine: in a petrol engine pollution may come from:

 Exhaust gas – can contain unburned fuel (HC), partially burned fuel (CO), dangerous nitrogen
oxides (NOx) from combustion, and lead (Pb) from petrol additives.
 crankcase – during engine operation, emissions are passed into the crankcase, including some
combustion gases which pass the piston, vaporized lubrication oil (HC) and corrosive acid
compounds
 Fuel system including the fuel tank – the petrol that is stored in the fuel tank gives off a vapour
(HC).

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Composition of the exhaust gas: the table below shows the composition of exhaust gas when the
combustion process takes place with a stoichiometric air: fuel ratio (λ = 1).

The following products are not considered as pollutants:

 Nitrogen (N2) – approximately 71.5% of the exhaust gas

 water (H2O) – approximately 13.1% of the exhaust gas
 carbon dioxide (CO2) – a product of complete or efficient combustion, representing
approximately13.7% of the exhaust gas. Although it’s not toxic or directly harmful it’s a major
cause of global warming. CO2 naturally exists in the atmosphere; animals breathe out CO2, and it
is absorbed by plants. The problem is that the level of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased (due
to the burning and combustion of fossil fuels), which is upsetting the natural balance of
atmospheric gases.

The pollutants

 Hydrocarbons: A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons are toxins

 Carbon monoxide (CO): A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces the blood's
ability to carry oxygen; overexposure (carbon monoxide poisoning) may be fatal.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high
temperature and pressure inside the engine. NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain.
 Particulate matter: Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometer size range: Particulate
matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited to respiratory disease and cancer.
 Sulfur oxide (SOx) - A general term for oxides of sulfur, which are emitted from motor vehicles
burning fuel containing sulfur

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 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) - Organic compounds which typically have a boiling point less
than or equal to 250 °C; for example chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and formaldehyde. Volatile organic
compounds are a subsection of Hydrocarbons that are mentioned separately because of their dangers
to public health.

Treating or reducing the pollutants: There are effectively two main routes to reducing pollutants

 The first route is to design the engine, fuel system and ignition system so that lower levels of
pollutants are produced during combustion. Much progress has been made in these areas in recent
years and modern designs of combustion chambers, fuel systems and ignition systems have all
contributed to substantial reductions in pollutants. Importantly, providing the correct air: fuel ratio
has a major influence on the levels of pollutants
 The second route to reducing pollutants is to change the pollutants chemically once they have left the
combustion chamber (after treatment).

Carbon monoxide (CO): Carbon monoxide (CO) is formed when fuel is only partially burned
(incomplete combustion). A carbon atom from hydrocarbons (fuel) combines with a single oxygen atom
(from the inducted air) in the cylinder to form CO. Compared with CO2, CO lacks one oxygen atom, due
to a deficiency of oxygen in the combustion mixture (or a pocket of mixture), Carbon monoxide is
therefore formed when a cylinder receives either a rich or poor mixture of fuel and air, which leads to
isolated pockets of rich mixture. Carbon monoxide can also form when the mixture is excessively
weak, when fuel droplets do not vaporise; however, formation of CO in a weak mixture is not at the
same level as in a rich mixture. Carbon monoxide measurement is therefore a good indicator of a
rich mixture, but not of a weak mixture.

Methods of reducing CO include:

 Control of mixture strength – control of the air: fuel ratio by the fuel system, especially under slow
running and cold starting conditions.
 Improved fuel distribution – multi-point fuel injection has largely overcome this problem, with
direct injection providing further improvement.
 More precise engine tuning – engine management systems ensure that the correct air/fuel mixture is
supplied to the engine during all operating conditions.
 Compact combustion chamber – modern engine designs incorporate very compact combustion
chambers. Long narrow chambers associated with an ‘over-square’ engine often gave a high
CO content.

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 Improved mixing of air and fuel – intake port and combustion chamber design can help promote
good mixing.
 Leaner air/fuel mixtures – the recent trend towards lean mixture operation (stratified
mixture formation) has helped reduce CO levels.
 Precise ignition timing – ensures that the spark occurs at the correct time and remains
constant between servicing intervals.
 After treatment – catalytic converters and other systems help to convert CO into CO2

Hydrocarbons (HC): Hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas represent unburned fuel from incomplete
combustion. A rich mixture (lack of oxygen or excess fuel), results in high levels of hydrocarbons,
because there is insufficient oxygen to combine with the fuel during the combustion process. Any
reduction in combustion efficiency will result in high levels of hydrocarbons, e.g. a cylinder
misfire caused through an ignition fault or reduced compression (a mechanical fault).
Excessively weak mixtures can also result in high levels of hydrocarbons, because excessively weak
mixtures cannot support complete combustion within the combustion chamber. However, careful design
of the engine and fuel systems reduces this problem to a level where weak mixtures produce very low
levels of hydrocarbons.

Methods of reducing hydrocarbon emissions include:

 Control of mixture strength

 Improved distribution of the fuel
 More precise engine tuning
 Improved mixing of air and fuel
 Leaner air/fuel mixtures
 Mixture adjustment during deceleration – fuel injection systems provide precise metering of
the fuel during deceleration
 Precise ignition timing
 After treatment : catalytic converters and other systems help to convert HC into CO 2

Hydrocarbons are also formed when fuel vaporises and escapes into the atmosphere from the fuel system,
and when unburned fuel passes the pistons into the crankcase. These problems can be reduced in the
following ways:

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  Closed crankcase ventilation system – unburned fuel passing the pistons and entering the
crankcase is prevented from escaping to the atmosphere by a positive crankcase ventilation
(PCV) system, The unburned fuel is returned to the induction system
 Sealed fuel system – a fuel evaporative emission control (EVAP) system seals the fuel
tank, collects the vaporised fuel, passes it through a charcoal filled canister and delivers it to the
induction manifold for combustion in the engine cylinders.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) : Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are grouped together
under the term oxides of nitrogen (NOx). The atmosphere consists of approximately 78% nitrogen and
21% oxygen. The air drawn into the combustion chamber is heated during combustion;
under certain conditions the oxygen and nitrogen can combine to form harmful NOx. The formation
of NOx occurs with combustion temperatures above approximately 1300°C. However,
combustion temperatures can easily exceed 2500°C during full load conditions when the
production of NOx reaches a critical limit. Formation of NOx is also accelerated when the air: fuel ratio
is slightly weaker than stoichiometric. Methods of reducing NOx include:

 Combustion chamber shape – the shape of the combustion chamber can be designed to
increase flame speed. Used in conjunction with lower compression ratios, such chambers
reduce NOx formation, but normally only at the expense of fuel economy and engine power.
 Ignition timing
 Valve timing – by changing the inlet and exhaust valve timing (i.e. the overlap period), the
combustion temperature can be lowered by inducing exhaust gas into the intake port Variable
valve timing can optimise the overlap period during engine operation.
 Intake air temperature – reducing the intake air temperature can lower the combustion temperature
and therefore lower NOx production. If the engine is fitted with a turbocharger, the fitting of
an intercooler can reduce NOx emissions significantly.
 Decrease in flame speed – exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems direct some exhaust gas back to
the induction manifold to slow down the combustion when the engine is under certain load
conditions. The EGR system does however reduce the maximum power of the engine.
 After treatments –the fitting of a three-way catalyst in the exhaust system reduces the level of NOx

Carbon dioxide (CO2): if the correct amount of air combines with the correct amount of fuel during
perfect combustion, this results in carbon dioxide (CO 2), water (H2O) and nitrogen (N2). Carbon dioxide
is therefore a product of complete combustion. Carbon dioxide is not directly harmful to humans and is
not regarded as a pollutant, but it is harmful in the long term to the environment, and contributes to global

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warming. Therefore, if the combustion process is efficient and can be operated with weak mixtures, less
fuel should be used, reducing CO2 emissions.

Processes and devices for emissions control and reduction

 Engine and engine control systems : modern engine design and control systems have been
continuously improved with the result that the whole fuel delivery, ignition and
combustion process is considerably more efficient than in older engines. The overall effect is that
engines now produce far lower levels of pollutants.
 Lean burn technology : Lean burn engines generally use stratified mixture formation, whereby a
small pocket of rich mixture is created adjacent to the spark plug, but the rest of the cylinder is
filled with a weak mixture or with air containing no petrol. The stratified mixture principle
results in the rich mixture pocket igniting easily; the combustion of this pocket then spreads through
to the rest of the weak mixture or simply heats the remaining air, thus causing gas expansion. The
overall mixture is weak which results in low consumption of petrol and low CO and HC emissions.
 Thermal afterburning: this process relies on injection of air into the exhaust ports, which results in
continued combustion when the gases have left the cylinder.
 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR): this is a process whereby a controlled amount of the exhaust gas
is fed back into the intake system. The air drawn into the cylinder therefore contains a percentage
of exhaust gas, which has the effect of reducing the combustion temperature. Because the levels
of NOx increase with high combustion temperature.
 Evaporative emission control (EVAP control) : evaporative emissions can be released into
the atmosphere from the fuel tank and fuel system. Petrol vapour (HC) occurs naturally, so
methods are used to prevent its escape. The main system in use relies on creating a sealed fuel
system. Fuel vapours are fed through to the engine intake system. However, when the engine is not
running, vapours are collected in a charcoal canister, which releases the vapour to the engine when it
is running.
 Valve and ignition timing: control of valve and ignition timing can help to reduce pollutants. Valve
timing can be arranged so that the intake valve opens before the exhaust valve closes (valve timing
overlap). In this way, during the induction stroke some of the exhaust gas that has not been expelled
from the cylinder will mix with the fresh intake air. As with controlled exhaust gas recirculation,
the exhaust gas helps to reduce the combustion temperature and the formation of NOx
Variable valve timing allows different overlap periods to be used at different engine speeds.
Although this facility is aimed at producing improved torque and power throughout the engine
speed range, it also assists in maintaining lower emissions

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 Oxidation process and catalysts: oxidation process occurs within the engine itself, the combustion
process in the cylinder. During this process, oxidation of the fuel occurs and CO2 is formed. In
reality, perfect oxidation or combustion does not occur, so partially or completely unburned fuel (CO
and HC) is produced. By creating a secondary combustion or oxidation process, it is possible to
convert most of the remaining CO and HC into CO2. Although various devices can create a
secondary oxidation, the most commonly used type on modern vehicles is the catalytic converter.

Catalytic converter: A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device which converts toxic
byproducts of combustion in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine to less toxic substances by way
of catalysed chemical reactions. The specific reactions vary with the type of catalyst installed. Most
present-day vehicles that run on gasoline are fitted with a "three way" converter, so named because it
converts the three main pollutants in automobile exhaust: an oxidizing reaction converts carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to CO2 and water vapour, and a reduction reaction converts
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) to produce CO2, nitrogen (N2), and water (H2O). The catalytic converter uses an
inside structure called a substrate. This is a ceramic or stainless steel monolith block that is covered with
precious metals such as platinum, palladium and rhodium. The monolithic block consists of many fine
channels, which are covered by a coarse washcoat above which the catalytically effective precious metal
layer is placed. It is these elements, which cause the chemical change.

A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous functions:

 Reduction of nitrogen oxides into elemental nitrogen and oxygen (NOx → Nx + Ox)
 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. (CO + O2 → CO2)
 Oxidation of hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water. (C xH4x + 2xO2 → xCO2 + 2xH2O)

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Exhaust gas recirculation: In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions reduction technique used in petrol/gasoline and diesel engines. EGR works by
recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. In a gasoline engine, this
inert exhaust displaces the amount of combustible matter in the cylinder. In a diesel engine, the exhaust
gas replaces some of the excess oxygen in the pre-combustion mixture. Because NOx forms primarily
when a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen is subjected to high temperature, the lower combustion chamber
temperatures caused by EGR reduces the amount of NOx the combustion generates

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Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) System: The Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) system is
designed to prevent fuel tank vapors from being emitted into the atmosphere. When the engine is not
running, gasoline vapors from the tank are stored in a charcoal canister. The charcoal canister absorbs the
gasoline vapors and stores them until certain engine conditions are met and the vapors can be purged and
burned by the engine.

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Positive Crankcase ventilation system: The Positive Crankcase Ventilation is an emissions control
device that routes unburned crankcase blowby gases back into the intake manifold where they can be
reburned. Besides totally eliminating crankcase emissions as a source of air pollution, the constant
recirculation of air through the crankcase helps remove moisture which otherwise would cause sludge to
form. to avoid interfering with the fuel/air mixture, the PCV valve must regulate the evacuation of these
blow-by gases and vapours (which will be minimal at idling speed but will intensify as engine speed is
increased). Since manifold vacuum is highest at low engine speeds, the PCV plunger will be drawn
forward to a position that will restrict crankcase ventilation to a minimum thus ensuring no upsetting of
the air/fuel mixture. As engine speeds are increased the manifold vacuum will drop thus reducing the
‘pull’ on the plunger which will slide back to a midway position allowing a greater flow rate from the
crankcase. Since the engine demands more air/fuel mixture at high engine speeds, the escalation of
crankcase vapours into the combustion chambers should not affect performance. The PCV valve also acts
as a flame trap. In the event of a backfire, the resulting pressure through the inlet manifold will force the
plunger back into the closed position, thus preventing an explosion of the vapours in the crankcase.

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Air for the system enters the air cleaner area. The air then goes through the air filter, through a tube, and
through the closed oil filler cap. The intake manifold vacuum then draws the crankcase vapors and gases
back to the PCV valve. From the PCV valve, the vapors and gases are drawn into the intake of the engine
to be burned by combustion.

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