EVOLUTION

BY NATURAL
SELECTION
EXAM GUIDELINES
 Hypothesis
& Theory

DEFINITIONS
• Hypothesis – a proposed explanation made on
the basis of limited evidence as a starting point
for further investigation
• Theory – is an explanation with some evidence
to support it.
 Important terminology

• Evolution – simply means change over time.

• Biological evolution – change in the charactarstics of species over time.

• Species – group of organisms that share similar characteristics & can interbreed & produce fertile

offspring

• Population – group of organisms of the same species leaving together in a specific habitat at a specific

time.

• Gene pool – the stock of different genes of all the different organisms in a population at a particular time.
 The theory of evolution

❑ The theory of evolution – state that all the things we see today arose from
that existed in the past but they look different because things change over
time.
❑ Evidence for evolution:
1. Fossil record
2. Biogeography
3. Modification by descent
4. Genetics
 Evidence for
evolution

1. Fossil record (paleontology)

• Fossils are the remains(e.g., bones, footprints &teeth) of organisms that
lived in the past.
• By studying fossils, we can develop a good understanding of past life forms
from collected fossil remains.
• Transitional organism – has traits of both an ancestral & its derived
descendant group.
• Fossils are dated using relative & radiometric dating
EC Sep P2 2018
Nov 2022
 Evidence for evolution
2. Biogeography

• Study of the distribution of existing & extinct species in specific geographical regions on earth.

• Continental drift – suggest that the continents were once joined

• They were formed after the splitting of giant continent – Pangea

• Closely related species occurring on different continents probably shared a common ancestor.

• Examples are ostrich in Africa, the emu in Australia, the nandu

(common rhea) in South America and the extinct moa of New
Zealand. These birds although on different landmasses show great
similarities but belong to separate species.
Biogeography
DBE NOV P2 2020
DBE NOV P2 2021
 DBE JUNE 2021

1. Identify the type of diagram shown above. (1)

2. Name the two species that share the most recent
common ancestor. (2)
1. Use information in the diagram to describe how
biogeography supports the theory of evolution. (4)
2. Describe how it can be proven that ostriches and rheas
are different species. (2)
(9)
 Evidence for evolution

3. Comparative anatomy

❑ Obtained from the study of the details of the structures of body parts & systems of organisms that belong to the same
phylum.

⮚ Homologous organs

• Similarity of the formation of a body part or organ due to a common evolutionary origin, e.g. the structure of the
pentadactyl(five-fingered) limb in seals, bats & humans.

• The bones, muscles & nerves are arranged in a similar manner in a front paw, wing & arm.

⮚ Analogous organs

• Different structures of a body part or organ but with a similar function, e.g: lungs of mammals, trachea or air tubes of
insects and gills of fish.

• These organs have evolved in a different way to meet a common need to obtain oxygen in mammals, insects & fish.
ANALOGOUS STUCTURES
MP SEP 2021
 Evidence for evolution
5. Genetics
⮚Genetic evidence that organisms are closely related & are likely to have a common ancestor
includes:
• Identical DNA structure
• Similar sequence of genes
• Similar portions of DNA with no functions
• Similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)
• Identical protein synthesis
• Similar respiratory pathways

⮚Species that are closely related have a greater similarity to each other than more distantly related
species.
 TOPIC 9
ACTIVITY A

2
 Variation
• Small differences between individuals of the same species or
population.
• Examples: differences in height, differences in skin colour, etc
• Variation may be caused by:
1. Crossing over
2. Random arrangement of chromosomes
3. Random mating & fertilization
4. Mutation
 Variation

•In Meiosis:
1. Crossing over:
• In prophase I involves an exchange of genetic
material.
• Leads to new combinations of maternal & paternal
genetic materials in each new cell
2. Random arrangement of chromosomes:
• At the equator during metaphase, allows different
combinations of chromosomes /chromatids to go
into each new cell / gamete
• resulting from meiosis, making them different.
 Variation

3. Random mating & fertilization

• Different egg cells & different sperm cells are formed by meiosis
result in offspring that are different from each other after
fertilization.
• Random mating between organisms within a species leads to a
different set of offspring from each mating pair.
4. Mutation
• Changes in the structure of a gene or chromosome of an
organism
• Leads to change in the organism’s genotype.
• Since the genotype influences the phenotype, it creates
organisms with new, different characteristics from one generation
to the next.
 Types of
variation
• Continuous variation
• Those characteristics where there is a
range of inter-mediate phenotypes, e.g.
height, finger length etc.
• There are two extreme & full range of
characteristics in between.
• Discontinuous variation
• Those characteristics that fall into distinct
categories e.g., blood groups, tongue
rolling
EC SEP 2019
EC CURRICULUM worksheet
(evolution) 2020
 EC CURRICULUM worksheet
(evolution) 2020
Grade 12 learners investigated the frequency of the four blood groups in the human population. They used a sample of 38
learners who already knew their blood groups. The graph below shows the results.

1. What type of variation is displayed by the blood

groups? (1)
2. Provide a reason for the answer to QUESTION 1.
(2)
3. State the independent variable for this
investigation.
(1)
4. State ONE way in which the results of the
investigation could be made reliable.
(1)
5. State TWO sources of variation in humans that
are not related to meiosis.
(2)
 TOPIC 9 ACTIVITY A

2
1

3 4
 Short test
1. Give the correct biological term
a) The study of fossils
b) Reptile-bird fossil that is used for the hypothesis that birds & reptiles were
descended from a common ancestor
c) Method used to determine the age of fossils.
d) Structures that appear different but have a similar evolutionary origin
e) The chemical structural change in an organism’s DNA that results in changes
within a population’s gene pool
f) The distribution of species in different parts of the world.
g) Genetic changes that occur in living organisms over time.
h) The wide variety of living organisms on Earth.
i) Species that are no longer found on earth.
j) A branched diagram showing the evolutionary relationship between species.
(10)
 Short test
2. The diagram below represent the
possible evolution of the horse.

a) Name the:
I. Common ancestor of all horses. (1)
II. Genus closely related to Megahippus. (1)
b) When did Paleotherium become
extinct? (1)
a) How long did it take for the modern
horse to evolve from Hyracotherium?(2)
EXAM GUIDELINES
 Ideas on evolution

• The most significant advocates of the idea that species are not static,
but have changed over time, were: Jean Baptiste de Lamarck and
Charles Darwin.
• Of these, Charles Darwin is best known, particularly as a result of his
famous book called “The Origin of Species”.
• Other scientists:
• Erasmus Darwin – studied evolution before Charles Darwin
• Alfred Wallace – wrote a paper with Charles Darwin sharing their
similar ideas about evolution
 Lamarckism

• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck(1744 – 1829) was a naturalist

• Proposed that species were not fixed but that they
change over time.
• He explains this using two laws:
1. Law of use and disuse
2. Law of inheritance of acquired/modified
characteristics
 Lamarckism

• law of use and disuse

• A changing environment causes an organism
to change its behaviour
• Thereby some body parts will be used more
frequently than others
• Over several generations a more frequently
used body part will increase in size
• The less used body part will shrink or even
disappear
• This can be explained using giraffes as an
example
 Lamarckism

• law of inheritance of
acquired/modified characteristics
• Due to law of use & disuse, an organism
develops new characteristics
• Characteristics developed during the life of an
individual – acquired characteristics
• Can be passed on to their offspring.
• This can be explained using giraffes as an example
 Reasons for Lamarck's theory being rejected
• Lamarck argued that traits acquired by parents could be passed on to offspring.
• He did, however, not provide any mechanisms of how this would happen,
• He states that change happened because the organisms wanted or needed it.
• We now know that changes to organisms can only come about as a result of a genetic change which is
then passed on to offspring.
• For these reasons, Lamarckism is not accepted today as an explanation for evolutionary
change.
1. Acquired characteristics are not inherited
2. Organisms don’t evolve just because they wanted to evolve - changes are
brought by the environment & the should be variation within the population
• His work did, however, set the groundwork for scientists like Charles Darwin.
EC SEP 2020
TOPIC 9 DBE textbook
ACTIVITY I
Jun 2019
Short activity
1. How would Lamarck have probably described the change in height
of horses over time?

1. How would Lamarck have probably described the change in length

of the cacti roots over time?
Theory of Offspring of the same species show a great deal of variation
Natural
Offspring produced compete for available resources
Selection
Only those individuals with favourable characteristics will
survive

The organisms without the desired characteristic or trait are

less able to survive and will die out.

The well adapted individuals reproduce & pass the favourable

characteristics to the next generation(Survival of the fittest)

The PROCESS of change is called NATURAL SELECTION.

Nov 2018
FS Sep 2022
FS Sep 2021
Differences between Lamarckism &
Darwinism
LP Sep 2021
 Gradualism
• Gradualism – small/gradual changes
over time
• Both Darwinism & Lamarckism are
examples of gradualism
• Supported by fossil evidence
• There’s a lot of transitional fossils
(missing links) in the fossil record
 Punctuated equilibrium
• According to the hypothesis:
• Evolution is not always gradual as proposed by
Lamarckism and Darwinism.
• Characterized by long periods of little or no change
followed by short periods of rapid change.
• Long time with no change(equilibrium)
• Sudden large change in a short time(punctuated)
• Supported by fossil record
• Gaps in the missing links
• No need for missing links
• In a fast-changing environment, species needed to
change rapidly to adapt to the environment, failing which,
they would become extinct.
 Differences between gradualism &
punctuated equilibrium

Gradualism Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradual change Rapid change

Takes place over a long period of time. Takes place with in a relatively short period of time.

Change is continuous Long periods of no change

SEP 2022
EC SEP 2021
 Natural selection Artificial selection

The environment or nature is the

Humans represent the selective force
selective force.
Selection is in response to suitability to Selection is in response to satisfying
the environment human needs
May involve one or more species (as
Occurs within a species
in cross breeding)

Takes long time Takes short time

LP SEP 2022
 Speciation

• Species – similar organisms that are capable of

interbreeding to produce fertile offspring
• Population - group of organisms of the same species
leaving together in a specific habitat at a specific time.
• Speciation – formation of the new species
• Speciation through geographical separation/isolation
• Physical barriers: water masses, mountain
Geographical isolation
(Allopatric speciation)
• There is variation in a population
• Individuals can interbreed
• If a population is separated by a geographical barrier(river, mountain,
road)
• Population split into two groups
• Individuals of different groups won’t be able to interbreed(No gene flow)
between the two groups(population)
• Each group is exposed to different environmental conditions
• Each population undergoes natural selection independently
• Each population becomes phenotypically & genotypically different
• Even if they were together
• They may not interbreed (reproductively isolated)
• New species is formed
 QUICK
QUESTION
EC SEP 2018
 DBE textbook

TOPIC 9
ACTIVITY F
 DBE textbook

TOPIC 9
ACTIVITY G
MP SEP 2021
MP SEP 2022
TOPIC 9 ACTIVITY E DBE textbook
TOPIC 9 ACTIVITY H

DBE textbook
EXAM GUIDELINES
Mechanism for reproduction isolation

• Habitat isolation
• Closely related species live in deferent habitats
• Chances of mating are reduced
• Temporal isolation
• Breeding at different times(seasons) of the year
• Others may hibernate & others aestivate
• Chances of mating reduced
• Courtship behavior
• There’s different courtship behaviors in different species
• Sound recognition, smell, dance movements etc
Mechanism for reproduction isolation

• Adaptation to different pollinating agents

• Different pollinators: insects, wind, birds
• Plants may be adapted to be pollinated by a specific pollinator animal species
• E.g baobab tree can only by pollinated by bats
• Mechanical isolation
• Mating pairs may not be able to reproduce if their genitals are not compatible
• Prevention of fertilization
• Hybrid infertility
• Some closely related species may mate & produce offspring
• The offspring ends up not be able to reproduce – infertile
• E.g horse & donkey
KZN SEP 2021
Nov 2022
Evolution in
present times
• Insecticides – pests can develop resistance to insecticides over time
• The use of DDT in mosquitos
• Development of MDR & XDR Strains of TB
• Due to mutation (variation) in the population
• Not finishing the 6 months course
• HIV resistant to Anti-Retrovirals
• The HIV has developed resistance the ARVs ever time
• Combination of different drugs can reduce resistance
Nov 2021
MP SEP 2021
LP SEP 2022