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EVOLUTION

PREPARED BY: JOY R. JUAN

 LEARNING COMPETENCY
At the end of the lesson:
• you should be able to explain how
populations of organisms have
changed and continue to change
over time, showing patterns of
descent with modification from
common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today
 ACTIVITY 1

ANALOGOUS
HOMOLOGOUS
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE

EMBRYOLOGY VESTIGIAL
STRUCTURE

FOSSIL
MOLECULAR
EVIDENCES
EVOLUTION
It refers to the dynamic process
that have transformed or changed
life on Earth from its earliest
forms to the vast diversity that
we observed today.
Any change in the heritable traits
within a population across
EVOLUTION
As evolution arose,
biodiversity, which is defined
as the variability of organisms
that came into existence,
came along with it.
• Evolution, or change over time, is
the process by which modern
organisms have descended from
ancient organisms.

• A scientific theory is a well-

supported testable explanation of
phenomena that have occurred in
the natural world.
EVIDENCE OF
EVOLUTION

• The Fossil Record

• Geographic Distribution of
Living Things
• Homologous Body Structures
• Similarities in Early
Development
 EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:
LIVING ORGANISMS AND FOSSILS

Others looked completely unlike

• As Darwin studied fossils, new
questions arose.
• Why had so many of these species
disappeared?
• How were they related to living
species?
LIVING ORGANISMS AND
FOSSILS
• Darwin collected the preserved
remains of ancient organisms,
called fossils.

• Some of those fossils resembled

organisms that were still alive today.
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

• The Fossil Record-

Layer show change
• Geographic
Distribution of Living
Things
• Homologous Body
Structures
• Similarities in Early
Development
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

FOSSILS RECORD

• REMAINS OR IMPRINTS OF PAST LIFE

• PRESERVED IN SEDIMENTS OCCUR IN
LAYERS
• FOSSILS IN DIFFERENT LAYERS OF ROCK
(SEDIMENTARY ROCK STRATA) SHOWED
EVIDENCE OF GRADUAL CHANGE OVER
• The Fossil Record
• Fossils are preserved remains or traces of
organisms that lived in the past. The soft
parts of organisms almost always
decompose quickly after death. On
occasion, the hard parts—mainly bones,
teeth, or shells—remain long enough to
mineralize and form fossils.
• The fossil record is the record of life that
unfolded over four billion years and pieced
back together through the analysis of
• To be preserved as fossils,
remains must be covered
quickly by sediments or
preserved in some other way.
• For example:
they may be frozen in
glaciers
• In order for fossils to “tell” us the story of
life, they must be dated. Then they can
help scientists reconstruct how life changed
over time.
• Fossils can be dated in two different
ways: relative dating and absolute
dating.
1. Relative dating determines which of two
fossils is older or younger than the other, but
not their age in years. Relative dating is
based on the positions of fossils in rock
layers. Lower layers were laid down earlier,
2. Absolute dating determines
about how long ago a fossil
organism lived. This gives the
fossil an approximate age in years.
Absolute dating is often based on
the amount of carbon-14 or other
radioactive element that remains
in a fossil.
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
• Scientists compare the anatomy, embryos,
and DNA of modern organisms to understand
how species evolved.
• Comparative Anatomy
• Comparative anatomy is the study of the
similarities and differences in the structures of
different species. Similar body parts may be
homologies or analogies. Both
provide evidence for evolution.
Tracing Evolutionary
Relationships
• Homologous structures are structures
that are similar in related organisms
because they were inherited from a
common ancestor. These structures may
or may not have the same function in the
descendants.
• Homologous Structures-
structures that have
different mature forms in
different organisms, but
develop from the same
embryonic tissue
Tracing Evolutionary
Relationships
• Analogous structures are structures
that are similar in unrelated
organisms. The structures are
The wings of bats
similar because they evolved to do
and birds, look
the same job, not because
similar they
on thewere
outside. They also
inherited from a common ancestor.
have the same
function. However,
wings evolved
independently in
the two groups of
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
Vestigial Structures
Structures like the human tail bone and
whale pelvis are called vestigial
structures. Evolution has reduced their
size because the structures are no longer
used.
The human appendix is another example
of a vestigial structure. It is a tiny remnant
of a once-larger organ. In a distant
ancestor, it was needed to digest food. It
 EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

• Vestigial organs-organs
that serve no useful function
in an organism
• i.e.) appendix, miniature
legs, arms
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
• Comparative Embryology
Comparative embryology is the
study of the similarities and differences
in the embryos of different species.
Similarities in embryos are evidence of
common ancestry. All vertebrate
embryos
All vertebrate embryos, for example, have gill slits and
tails. Most vertebrates, except for fish, lose their gill
slits by adulthood. Some of them also lose their tail. In
humans, the tail is reduced to the tail bone. Thus,
similarities organisms share as embryos may be gone
by adulthood. This is why it is valuable to compare
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

4. COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
- EMBRYOS ( YOUNG STAGE OF
ORGANISMS ARE COMPARED)
- EMBRYONIC STRUCTURES OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES SHOW SIGNIFICANT
SIMILARITIES
- SIMILAR FEATURES DUE TO SHARED
ANCESTRY
Rates of Evolution
• How long did it take for the giraffe to
develop a long neck?
• How long did it take for the Galápagos
finches to evolve?
• How long did it take for whales to
evolve from land mammals?
• These, and other questions about the
rate of evolution, are difficult to answer.
• The rate of evolution depends on
how many of an
organism’s genes have changed
over a period of time. Evolution is
usually so gradual that we do not
see the change for many, many
generations. The rate of evolution
also depends on the generation
time of a particular species.
• Not all organisms evolve at the same rate.
• Humans took millions of years to evolve from a
mammal that is now extinct. It is very difficult to
observe evolution in humans.
• However, there are organisms that are evolving so
fast that you can observe evolution!
• A human takes about 22 years to go through one
generation.
• But some bacteria go through over a thousand
generations in less than two months. Some
bacteria go through many generations in a few
days. And sometimes, a bacterial generation is as
SIMILARITIES IN EARLY
DEVELOPMENT
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

2. Taxonomy
• Hierarchical classification structure
developed by Linnaeus
• Implies that species can be grouped
together based on their relatedness
• Examples: bears with bears, bees
with other bees
• Carolus Linnaeus is the father of
taxonomy, which is the system of
classifying and naming organisms.
• One of his contributions was the
development of a hierarchical
system of classification of nature.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

3. Comparative Anatomy
• Compares anatomical structures
from different organisms
• Similar structures in two or more
species are called homologous
structures
• Homologous structures may
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
STRUCTURE
• Scientists noticed animals with
backbones (vertebrates) had similar
bone structure
• May differ in form or function
• Limb bones develop in similar
patterns such as arms, wings, legs,
flippers
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:

5. BIOGEOGRAPHY
• DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
• MANY RELATED SPECIES OCCUR ACROSS THE
EARTH
• ISOLATED AREAS ( ISLANDS, AUSTRALIA)
OFTEN HAVE UNIQUE SPECIES
• BIOGEOGRAPHY EXPLAINED BY CONTINENTAL
DRIFT OF PLATES AND SPECIATION OR HOW A
NEW KIND OF PLANT OR ANIMAL SPECIES IS
CREATED
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
• The Fossil Record
• Geographic
Distribution of
Living Things-
similar environments
have similar types of
organisms
• Homologous Body
Structures
• Similarities in Early
Development
Evidence of evolution:
 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION

• James Hutton, a Scottish naturalist

who proposed that geological change
occurs gradually by the accumulation
of small changes over long periods of
time. This theory contrasted with the
predominant view of the time: that
the geology of the planet is a
consequence of catastrophic events
that occurred during a relatively brief
 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION

• 19th century, Hutton’s views were

popularized by the geologist Charles
Lyell, who was a friend of Charles Darwin.
Lyell’s ideas, in turn, influenced Darwin’s
concept of evolution. The greater age of
the earth proposed by him supported the
gradual evolution that Darwin proposed,
and the slow process of geological change
provided an analogy for the gradual
 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION

• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a book that

detailed a different mechanism for evolutionary
change.
• Inheritance of acquired characteristics- states
that modifications in an individual are caused by its
environment, or the use or disuse of a structure
during its lifetime.
• These changes can be inherited by its offspring,
bringing about change in a species. It is now known to
be incorrect; Lamarck’s ideas were an important
influence on the initial concepts of evolution,
CHARLES DARWIN AND ALFRED
RUSSELL WALLACE
• Darwin called this mechanism natural
selection. Natural selection, also
known as “survival of the fittest,” is
the more prolific reproduction of
individuals with favorable traits that
survive environmental change
because of those traits.
• How do new species arise?
• Were they there to begin
with, and not just
discovered?
• Or was it a product of
something else?
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

CHARLES DARWIN
 HOW DO YOU THINK
DARWIN CAME UP WITH
HIS THEORY?
VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE
 VOYAGE OF BEAGLE

• Dates: February 12th, 1831

• Captain: Charles Darwin
• Ship: H.M.S. Beagle (Her Majesty's ship
Beagle)
• Destination: Voyage around the world
• Findings: evidence to propose a
revolutionary hypothesis about how life
 PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY

• Darwin visited Argentina and Australia

which had similar grassland
ecosystems.
• those grasslands were inhabited by
very different animals.
• neither Argentina nor Australia was
home to the sorts of animals that
lived in European grasslands.
 PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY

Darwin posed challenging questions:

• Why were there no rabbits in
Australia, despite the presence of
habitats that seemed perfect for
them?
• Why were there no kangaroos in
England?
 THE GALAPAGOS ISLAND

• The smallest, lowest islands were

hot, dry, and nearly barren-Hood
Island-sparse vegetation
• The higher islands had greater
rainfall and a different assortment of
plants and animals-Isabela- Island
had rich vegetation.
THE GALAPAGOS ISLAND

• Darwin was fascinated in particular

by the land tortoises and marine
iguanas in the Galápagos.
• Giant tortoises varied in predictable
ways from one island to another.
• The shape of a tortoise's shell could
be used to identify which island a
particular tortoise inhabited.
ANIMALS FOUND IN THE
GALAPAGOS

• Land Tortoises
• Darwin Finches
• Blue-Footed Booby
• Marine Iguanas
ANIMALS
 THE JOURNEY HOME

• Darwin Observed that characteristics

of many plants and animals vary
greatly among the islands
• Hypothesis: Separate species may
have arisen from an original
ancestor
• Common descent with
modification
- All organisms are related
through descent from some
unknown ancestor that lived
in the distant past
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
• The Struggle for Existence- members of
each species must compete for food,
shelter, other life necessities to reproduce
in a specific environment
• Survival of the Fittest- some individuals
better suited for the environment
• Natural Selection- the unequal ability of
individuals to survive and reproduce leads
to a gradual change in a population, with
favorable characteristics accumulation
 NATURAL SELECTION AND
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

• Natural selection • Artificial

results in changes in selection- nature
inherited provides the
characteristics of a variation among
population. These different organisms,
changes increase a and humans select
species fitness in its those variations
environment. they find useful.
NATURAL SELECTION & ARTIFICIAL
SELECTION

• Natural variation--differences
among individuals of a species
• Artificial selection- nature
provides the variation among
different organisms, and humans
select those variations they find
useful.
EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

• The Struggle for Existence-

members of each species have to
compete for food, shelter, other life
necessities
• Survival of the Fittest-Some
individuals better suited for the
environment
 NATURAL SELECTION

• Over time, natural

selection results in
changes in inherited
characteristics of a
population. These changes
increase a species fitness
in its environment
• Theory of Natural Selection
• This theory states that only species with
ideal or superior characteristics are able to
survive the changing environment and thus
replicate. This characteristic is then passed
on to succeeding generations until various
changes to this characteristic occur, creating
a new dominant trait.
IDEAS THAT SHAPED DARWIN’S
THINKING

• James Hutton:
• 1795 Theory of Geological change
• Forces change earth’s
surface shape
• Changes are slow
• Earth much older than
thousands of years
IDEAS THAT SHAPED DARWIN’S
THINKING

• Charles Lyell
• Book: Principles of
Geography
• Geographical features
can be built up or torn
down
• Darwin thought if
earth changed over
time, what about life?
Lamarc
k
 LAMARCK’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION
• Organisms constantly strive to improve
themselves by changing.
• Changes are adaptations to environment to
environment acquired in an organism’s
lifetime.
• Tendency toward Perfection(Giraffe necks)
• A structure is modified or changed by Use
and Disuse (bird’s using forearms)
The modification is inherited by the offspring
• Inheritance of Acquired Traits
 POPULATION GROWTH

• Thomas Malthus-19th
century English
economist
• If population grew
(more babies are born
than die)
• Insufficient living
space
• Food runs out
• Darwin applied this
theory to animals
PUBLICATION OF ORIGIN OF
SPECIES
• Russel Wallace wrote an
essay summarizing
evolutionary change from
his field work in Malaysia
• Gave Darwin the drive to
publish his findings
 DESCENT
• Descent with Modification-Each living
organism has descended, with changes
from other species over time
• Common Descent- were derived from
common ancestors
 DESCENT
• This theory implies that all existing
organisms originated from a singular or
several simple life forms that have
continuously adapted to changes in the
environment. It seeks to explain that
biodiversity arose from these organisms
continuously gaining new features in
relation to changes, thus branching out
and forming a new species.
 DESCENT
• Consider this evolutionary tree of fishes.
most recent

the earliest

Notice that certain characteristics are always passed down such

as the presence of paired fins, or jaws. Furthermore, the new
descendant is better equipped with new traits for survival.
SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S
THEORY
• Individuals in nature differ from one
another

• Organisms in nature produce more

offspring than can survive, and
many of those who do not survive
do not reproduce.
SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S
THEORY
• Because more organisms are producing
than can survive, each species must
struggle for resources
• Each organism is unique, each has
advantages and disadvantages in the
struggle for existence
• Individuals best suited for the
environment survive and reproduce most
• Species alive today descended with
modification from species that lived
in the past
• All organisms on earth are united
into a single-family tree of life by
common descent
Mechanisms for Evolution
• With these two theories, come the different ways
and methods in which organisms carry out
evolution.
• Divergent evolution is the process where isolated
populations of a species branch out due to
geographical barriers or migration patterns. Many
species have differentiated due to change in
geographical conditions or natural selection.
With basic morphology
Mechanisms for Evolution
• The presence of grizzly bears and
polar bears is a clear example of
divergent evolution; the latter
equipped for winter conditions
while the former hibernates during
winter.
• Mechanisms for Evolution
• Convergent evolution is the process where
members of two varying species involve
similar characteristics due to similar
environments. This is a species-independent
type of evolution, as demonstrated by the
ability for numerous invertebrates such as
spiders, weaver ants, and silk moths to
produce silk to capture prey.
• Mechanisms for Evolution
• Coevolution is the process where the
survival of two species is dependent on
each other. They are based on symbiotic
relationships such as commensalism,
predation, and mutualism.
Theories Accounting for the Rate of Evolution
• There has been an on-going debate of how fast the
process of evolution occurs. They are based on two
theories: gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
• Gradualism is based on the concept of evolutionary
changes occurring at slow and gradual rate over
several generations. The most common example of
this is the evolution of humans. The changes in the
physiological and physical characteristics of humans
were not drastic but took millions of years.
Theories Accounting for the Rate of Evolution
• Punctuated equilibrium is based on the stable
genome over successive generations until a
sudden environmental change occurs. One
example are the Tyrannosaurus rex or T. rex.
When the dinosaurs were forced to evacuate to
smaller areas, a small population were separated.
Being under pressure and separated from a larger
gene pool, this led to a rapid evolution.
 • REFERENCES:
• https://www.facebook.com/legacy/notes/
2006805229556123/
Earth and Life Science Module: The Process of Evolution

https://www.slideshare.net/seharmangi/evolution-
67542179
https://bio.libretexts.org/Sandboxes/tholmberg_at_nwcc.edu/
General_Biology_I_and_II/04%3A_Unit_IV-_Evolutionary_Processes/
4.1%3A_Evolution-_Introduction_Mechanisms_and_Speciation/
4.1.1%3A_Understanding_Evolution
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/divergent-evolution
Evolution and
Classification
 Can two
different
species be
related?
For example:
There are many
different species of mammals. And
they are all related. In other words,
how close or how far apart did they
separate from a
common ancestor during evolution?
• Scientists use several methods to
study evolutionary relationship and
to determine how different species
Phylogenetic Classification
• Linnaeus classified organisms based
on obvious physical traits.
• Basically, organisms were grouped
together if they looked alike. After
Darwin published his theory of
evolution in the 1800s, scientists
looked for a way to classify
organisms that showed phylogeny.
Phylogenetic Classification
• Phylogeny is the
evolutionary history of a
group of related organisms.
It is represented by
a phylogenetic tree
Parts of a tree
A phylogenetic tree is an illustration
depicting the hypothesized degrees of
evolutionary relationship amongst a selected
set of taxa (singular = taxon).

The taxa are typically species but can also

be higher level Linnaean groupings like
genera or families.
Some phylogenetic trees depict
relationships among individuals within a
species (e.g., from geographically isolated
populations). Parts of a phylogenetic tree, including
terminal taxa, branches, and nodes.
Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks
(Creative Commons Attribution-
Sharealike 4.0 International license).
Parts of a Phylogenetic Tree
TAXA- depicted in a phylogenetic
tree are often called terminal
taxa, because they occur at the
tips of the tree.
They are sometimes referred to as
"terminals" or "leaves."
BRANCHES- connects terminal
taxa. The branches are the line
segments that make up the tree.
NODES- where branches come
together at branching points.
Each nodes represents a common
ancestor shared by two or more Parts of a phylogenetic tree, including
terminal taxa, branches, and nodes.
terminal taxa. Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks
(Creative Commons Attribution-
Sharealike 4.0 International license).
 Phylogenetic
Tree

• This phylogenetic tree shows how three hypothetical species are

related to each other through common ancestors.
• Do you see why Species 1 and 2 are more closely related to
each other than either is to Species 3?
Each horizontal line in our tree represents a series of ancestors,
leading up to the species at its end. For instance, the line leading
up to species E represents the species' ancestors since it
diverged from the other species in the tree. Similarly, the root
represents a series of ancestors leading up to the most recent
Which species are more
related?
• In a phylogenetic tree, the
relatedness of two species has
a very specific meaning. Two
species are more related if they
have a more recent common
ancestor, and less related if
For instance, suppose that we wanted to say whether A and B or B
and C are more closely related. To do so, we would follow the lines
of both pairs of species backward in the tree. Since A and B
converge at a common ancestor first as we move backwards, and B
only converges with C after its junction point with A, we can say
that A and B are more related than B and C.
The identical information in these
different-looking trees reminds us that it's
the branching pattern (and not the lengths
of branches) that's meaningful in a typical
tree.
The identical information in these different-
looking trees reminds us that it's the
branching pattern (and not the lengths of
branches) that's meaningful in a typical
 Monophyly, Paraphyly, and
Polyphyly

Monophyletic groups (clades)

monophyletic
Greek monos = one or single
phylon = kind or tribe
 Monophyly, Paraphyly, and
Polyphyly
A monophyletic group of species shares a
single common ancestor and also
includes all of the descendants of that
common ancestor. On a phylogenetic tree, a
monophyletic group includes a node and all
of the descendants of that node,
represented by both nodes and terminal taxa.
Thus, a monophyletic group is also a clade
Paraphyletic Groups
A paraphyletic group includes a
single ancestor and some of its
descendants; it is similar to a
monophyletic group, but some
descendants are excluded.
In the case of the blue polygon, Taxon A,
Taxon B, Node 1, and Node 2 are included
in the group, but Taxon C is excluded. The
group is paraphyletic because it does not
include all of the descendants of the
common ancestor represented by Node 2
(i.e., Taxon C is missing from the grouping).
Now, have a look at the group identified on the
phylogenetic tree as members of the Class Reptilia
(yellow polygon). What is wrong?

The reptiles in this context are paraphyletic because

they do not include the birds (Class Aves).

Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks is licensed under a Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Phylogeny of vertebrates, with a
paraphyletic "Reptilia" identified that
excludes birds.
Phylogenetic tree demonstrating that
exclusion of birds from the reptiles
renders the Reptilia clade
paraphyletic.

Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks is licensed under a Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
• Polyphyletic Groups
A polyphyletic group is a group that is not
defined by a single common ancestor.
• Greek polys = many
• phylon = kind or tribe)
The phylogenetic tree below depicts the phylogenetic relationships of three
species of great apes: a gorilla (Gorilla), a chimpanzee (Pan), and a Homo
sapiens (in this case, the great 19th century paleontologist Mary Anning). All three
of these great ape species are extant and belong to the crown group Hominidae,
the great apes.
How do we
classify
organisms
showing
phylogeny?
• Way of classifying organisms that
shows phylogeny
1.CLADE (from the Greek klados = branch)
A clade is a group of organisms that
includes an ancestor and all its
descendants.
Clades are based on cladistics. This is a
method of comparing traits in related
species to determine ancestor-
descendant relationships.
Clades are represented by cladograms
This cladogram represents the mammal
and reptile clades. The reptile clade
includes birds. It shows that birds evolved
from reptiles. Linnaeus classified mammals,
reptiles, and birds in separate classes. This
masks their evolutionary relationships.
• Key points:
• A phylogenetic tree is a diagram
that represents evolutionary
relationships among organisms.
Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses,
not definitive facts.
• The pattern of branching in a
phylogenetic tree reflects how
species or other groups evolved
from a series of common ancestors.
• Key points:
• In trees, two species are more
related if they have a more recent
common ancestor and less
related if they have a less recent
common ancestor.
• Phylogenetic trees can be drawn in
various equivalent styles. Rotating a
tree about its branch points doesn't
change the information it carries.
• References
• https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/cbse-biology-class-10/
section/3.10/primary/lesson/evolution-and-classification/

https://
www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/
learn/systematics/phylogenetics/
reading-trees/