Evolution

A3.1.1-3.1.5
A 4.1 (all)
D4.1 (all)
Organism
An organism is any
biological system that
functions as an individual
life form. All organisms
are composed of cells.
Definitions of a species
• Morphological species concept: Defining a species by their
appearance
• Biological species concept: Defining a species by their
capability to breed to produce fertile offspring
• Ecological species concept: Defining a species by their
adaptations to a particular niche
• Evolutionary species concept: Defining a population by
their lineage descending from a common ancestor.
Population
A population is a group of organisms of the same species in the same
area (C4.1.1). Even though they are the same species, the individual
organisms of the population vary from each other.

Darker Lighter
Spots Spots
 Populations
• Populations can be open or closed. Closed populations
cannot exchange genes and may lead to speciation
(creating a new species) if environmental pressures are
different for each population.
How to
distinguish
between
different
populations of
the same
species and
different
species?
Population
Organism Community
A population
An organismisisaany
Has group of organisms of the same
Communities species.
are the Evenofthough
populations two or
they
Spotsare the
biological same
living species, the more
system individual organisms
different species of the population
occupying the same
vary functions
that from eachasother.
an geographical area at the same time
individual life form. All (C4.1.10) . There is great variation
Has between different species.
organisms
stripes are composed
of cells.
Variation within a species
• Within a species there are
differences between
individuals, caused by both
genetics and the
environment= Variation

Wing casings of 14 spot ladybird beetles

all collected from the same plant
• Why is variation within a
species important?
Two types of variation
• Continuous variation
• Usually causes by multiple genes
(polygenic inheritance) AND the
environment.
• Ex: Height
• Human height follows a normal
distribution (bell curve)
• Ex 2: _________________________
• Discontinuous/Discreet variation
• Discrete variation
• Determined solely by genetics, NOT
environment.
• Ex: Blood type
• Ex 2: __________________________
“No one supposes that
all the individuals of
the same species are
cast in the very same
mould.”

Biologists have
been observing
and quantifying
variation within
and between
species for a
very long time.
Read Excerpt from Darwin
(1859)

“On the Origins of Species

by the Means of Natural
Selection”
Causes of variation within a
species
Genetic variation within a species can result from:

Mutation: the Gene flow: the Meiosis: formation Sexual

changes in the movement of genes of egg and sperm reproduction:
sequences of between different which leads to the random
genes in DNA ( populations of creation of new fertilization
D1.3.7) organisms (D4.1.9*) combinations of between egg and
alleles (D2.1.11) sperm (D3.1.2)
 Variation Between Species
The amount of variation between individual organisms
depends on how closely related they are to each other.
Individuals within the same species (A3.1.2)
will have less variation than those classified
as different species. The largest amount of
variation would be between organisms
classified into different domains (A3.2.9).

The Giraffidae are once diverse family of mammals spread throughout Eurasia and Africa, presently comprises only two extant
genera, the giraffe and the okapi. The giraffidae share a common ancestor with deer and bovids, who like giraffes are in the order
Artiodactyla. Because they are in the same family and genus, a giraffe and an okapi would have less variation between them then
either would to a deer.
Binomial system for naming
organisms
• Taxonomy: Science of classification
• Binomal system developed by _______________________
• Standardized, so scientists can be confident they are
talking about the same organism (unlike common
names)
Magpies of the world:
Pop quiz: What is the correct format
for the binomial system:
A4.1- Evolution and
speciation
 Evolution
Evolution is the change in the heritable
characteristics of a population over
time

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Ind eritab e o tion
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Lamarckism
Jean-Baptiste de Monet Lamarck (1744-1829)
was the first to propose a mechanism of
evolution. Lamarck argued two ideas:

1. Use and disuse

2. Inheritance of acquired
characteristics
Darwinian Evolution
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed a
mechanism of evolution called natural selection (
D4.1.1).
In natural selection:
● heritable variations (not those
not acquired during an
organism's lifetime as proposed
by Lamarck) ….
● that benefits an individual’s
survival and reproduction …
● are passed to offspring, so that...

● over generations, the frequency

of the beneficial variation
The flying fish launch themselves into the air by beating the tail very fast and
spreading their pectoral fins to use as wings.
How would both Lamarck and Darwin both explain the
evolution of the flying fish?
Evidence for Evolution (A 4.1)
DNA Evidence
• There are shared DNA sequences in all organisms

• Similar species have more similar DNA than dissimilar

species

• Ex: Humans and chimps share 98-99% of DNA

Other molecular universal
similarities
• All living things…
• Use DNA as genetic material
• Use RNA and ribosomes to create proteins
• Involve the same steps in respiration (glycolysis)
• Use ATP as energy currency
• Carry out photosynthesis in same way (in autotrophs)
 Homologous structures
• Structures that have a common
ancestor, but are no longer used
for the same purposes.

• Result from divergent evolution:

species becoming more dissimilar
over time
 Analogous structures
• The opposite of homologous
structures is analogous
structures (do not provide
evidence for evolution)

• -Similar function, but different

structure

• -Results from convergent

evolution: organisms becoming
more similar through evolution
Analogous structure- the eye
Are central nervous systems
homologous or analogous? (p. 144)
Artificial selection (selective
breeding)
• Humans choosing desirable traits and breeding organisms to increase
their frequency in populations for food/pets etc…
• Models process of evolution but in shorter time frame
Crucian carp
was bred into
all varieties of
goldfish. All are
considered
members of
the same
species
Sexual Selection
Selection based on mate preference

Why is it the females that select a mate?

Embryology
Similarities in early embryo development in many species

• Ex: All vertebrates start with the same kind of skin in embryo, then
later develop feather/hair/scales.
• Ex: Snake embryos have leg buds
• Ex: Whale embryos have teeth
• Ex: Human embryos have gills (which become inner ear bones)
Vestigial structures
• Structures that no longer have a function and are often
diminished in size.
 Human vestigial structures

• 1. Appendix: Darwin thought it was used to help digest leaves. Now it

is a dangerous organ that often becomes infected.
• 2. Coccyx (tail bone)
• 3. Wisdom teeth: As our diet changed, our jaws
become smaller. There is no longer space for these.
• 4. Goosebumps: Tiny muscles that erect hair follicles. Used in animals
to create a layer of insulating warm air.
Humans don't have enough hair for this to be useful.
Hard hitting questions
• The horseshoe crab has looked
the same for millions of years.
Why?
• Does natural selection act on all
traits? If no, give an example and
explain it.
SPECIATION
Allopatric speciation
• Species are geographically isolated
for a period of time which reduces
gene flow.

• Natural selection works

independently on each group.

• Ex) Earthquake, volcano disruption

Chimps and bonobos
diverged from a
common ancestor
after the Congo river
appeared 1-2 million
years ago.
Sympatric speciation
• Speciation without physical separation.
• 1. Change of habitat within an ecosystem

• Ex) Soapberry bugs eat by piercing

• fruit with their beaks.

• The introduction of a new non-native

• plant caused some of the bugs to feed
• off of it.

• Each fruit requires a different beak

• length.
• 2. Change in cell division that leads to more than two sets of
chromosomes.
• Ploidy: how many sets of chromosomes you have. Humans are diploid
(2n=46) and strawberries are octoploid (8n= 56).

• Occurs often in plants.

• Autoploidy: doubling of a diploid genome
• Allopolyploidy: The genomes of two
different species joining. Also called
interspecific hybridization.

• Creates a hybrid that is often stronger than the

original contributing species. This is called
hybrid vigour.
• Hybrids are almost always sterile due to
different numbers of chromosomes, but not
always…
Ducks of Hawaii
• Native Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) is hybridizing with non-
native mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), threatening the extinction
of Anas wyvilliana. Hybrid ducks are fertile.

Anas wyvilliana Anas platyrhynchos Hybrid

 Adaptive radiation
• When a single species
produces many new species

that live in diverse habitats.

• Causes?
D 4.1: Natural
selection
Recap important points of natural
selection:
How is variation produced?
• 1. Mutation- ultimate source of
variation
= heritable
• In what types of cells will
mutations lead to new
variations in organisms?
2. Meiosis
• Crossing over during production of gametes
2. Meiosis
• Independent
assortment
3. Random fusion of gametes during
fertilization
 Overproduction of gametes and competition for
resources
Living organisms vary in the number of offspring they produce, however there
is an overall trend for more offspring to be produced than can be supported by
the resources available in the habitat.

Cottonwood tree produces seeds that Leatherback sea turtles lay clutches of 80- A female elephant can have an average of
seasonally blanket the ground. Each 100 eggs. Only a few of the hatchlings will six offspring during her lifetime. If all
seed is an offspring of which only a survive.
survived, there would be 19 million
few survive!
elephants in 750 years.
Overproduction of Offspring
There are two evolutionary benefits to
the overproduction of offspring:

1. Overproduction of offspring
increases the odds that at least
some of the offspring will survive
to adulthood, required for
continuity of the species.

2. Overproduction of offspring
ensures there is ample genetic
variation in the population should
A male clownfish guarding eggs; the adult helps the eggs
the species need to adapt to develop by fanning them with their fins to increase water
circulation and therefore oxygen supply. Even so, the vast
changing environmental conditions majority of the offspring fish will not survive.

(D4.1.2).
Population Growth Models
Overproduction of offspring leads to the
potential for “exponential growth” of a
population in which it increases in size each
year.
Population Growth Models
What limits population growth?

Most natural populations exhibit

“logistic growth” in which there is
rapid growth at first when the
population is small and resources are
plentiful, but the growth rate slows as
the population size increases and
resources begin to be in short supply
(C4.1.7).
Competition for Resources
Competition is a result of overproduction of offspring and limited
resources (C4.1.9). Competition for resources is one of the ways natural
selection can act; not every individual will obtain enough resources to
survive and reproduce (D4.1.5).
Direct Competition Indirect Competition
When one individual directly affects another's ability When individuals indirectly compete for resources,
to obtain resources. For example, a male elk will use such as territory, light, or prey. For example, an
aggression demonstrate dominance and to prevent individual may deplete a shared resource, such as
other males from mating with a female. a grizzly bear catching a salmon so that the
salmon can no longer be eaten by bears at
different
points along the
river.
Selection Pressures
Selection pressures are
variables in the environment
which cause a certain
phenotype of an organism to
have a better chance of
surviving and/or reproducing.

Selection pressures can be

negative (decreases the
frequency of a trait) or
positive (increases the
frequency of a trait).
Selection Pressures
Selection pressures can be biotic or abiotic.
Biotic selection pressures Abiotic selection pressures
Resulting from living things, such as: Resulting from non-living things, such as:
● Predation (B4.2.10) ● Temperature
● Competition (C4.1.5) ● Water availability
● Disease (C4.1.6) ● Light availability
● Finding and attracting mates (D4.1.7 ● Oxygen and carbon dioxide
) concentrations
● Availability of food ● Natural disasters (floods, fires,
storms)
● Pollutants
As a result of natural selection, ● Wind
over time populations will adapt For example, marram
grass is adapted to
to the selection pressures the abiotic features
present in their environment. of its environment
(B4.1.2)
Abiotic Selection Pressures
Abiotic selection pressures are often density independent, which
means they act the same no matter the population density.
Biological “Fitness”
Fitness is a measure of an
organism's ability to survive to
reproductive age, find a mate,
and produce offspring.

Individuals are more “fit” which

means they are more likely to
survive and reproduce as a result of
a selective pressure and their
What is the
heritable selection
traits
pressure?
Which beetle is more fit?
Differential Survival and
Reproduction
Over generations, the frequency
of the selected variation will
increase in frequency in the
population.

The heritable features of the

population will have changed
over time, so the population
will have evolved.
Pace of Evolution due to Natural
Selection
The pace of change in
a population due to
natural selection can Rapid change with
vary depending on the strong selection
pressure
strength of the
selection pressure.
● Rapid evolution
Grad
will occur if the ual
wea change
selection pressure k se with
pres lection
is higher sure

● Gradual evolution
will occur if the
selection pressure
is lower Changes in allele frequency in the gene pool as a consequence of natural selection
(D4.1.11*)
 Natural Selection Results in
Adaptation
Adaptations are forms that correspond to function. They are the result
of natural selection in a population.

Adaptations are phenotypes that are maintained

Fennec fox circulates blood to enormous ears to through natural selection. “White fur is an adaptation
help it cool down in the desert. of the polar bear.”
Endler experiment