Faculty of Science

Department of Applied Physics and

Engineering Mathematics

Doornfontein Campus

Mathematics
Information
Booklet

Do not write in this booklet

Revised: 2015
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CONTENTS

Page

A. Algebra 3

B. Series 4

C. Complex Numbers 5

D. Geometry 6

E. Mensuration 7

F. Trigonometry 8

G. Hyperbolic Functions 9

H. Differentiation 10

I. Standard Integrals 13

J. Integration Applications 15

K. Laplace Transformations 18

L. Numerical Methods 21

M. Matrices 22

N. D-operators 23

O. Z – Transforms 24
 3

A. ALGEBRA
LAW OF INDICES

1. a m  a n  a m n
am
2. n
 a mn
a
3. (a m ) n  a mn  (a n ) m
m
4. a  n am
n

1 1
5. a n  n and a n  n
a a
6. a 1
o

7. ab  a . b
n
a an
8.    n
b b
LOGARITHMS

Definitions: If y  a x then x  log a y

If y  e x then x  n y

1. log ( A  B)  log A  log B

2. log ( A / B)  log A  log B
3. log An  n log A
log b A
4. Change of base: log a A 
log b a
f
5. a log a f  f  e n  f
6. log a a  1 and ne  1

QUADRATIC FORMULA

If ax 2  bx  c  0
 b  b 2  4ac
then x 
2a

DETERMINANTS
a11 a12 a13
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
a 21 a 22 a 23  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33

 a11 (a22 a33  a32 a23 )  a12 (a21 a33  a31 a23 )  a13 (a21 a32  a31 a22 )
 4

FACTORS
a 2  b 2  (a  b)(a  b)
a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )
a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )

FACTOR THEOREM

If y  f (x) and f (a)  0, then ( x  a) is a factor of f (x)

PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Typical examples
f ( x) A B C
  
(ax  b)(cx  d )(ex  f ) (ax  b) (cx  d ) (ex  f )
f ( x) A B C D
   
(ax  b) (cx  d ) (ax  b) (ax  b)
3 2
(ax  b) 3
(cx  d )
f ( x) Ax  B C
 
(ax  bx  c)(dx  e) (ax  bx  c) (dx  e)
2 2

B. SERIES
BINOMIAL THEOREM
n(n  1) n2 2 n(n  1)(n  2) n3 3
(a  b)n  a n  na n1b  a b  a b  ..... and| b |  | a |
2! 3!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3
(1  x )n  1  nx  x  x  ...
2! 3!
(1  x) 1  1  x  x 2  x 3  ...
(1  x) 2  1  2 x  3 x 2  4 x 3  ...

FOURIER

For a FULL Fourier series:

Integrate over defined period (p)
2
a0   f ( x)dx
p
2 2n x
an   f ( x) cos dx
p period
2 2n x
bn   f ( x)sin dx
p period
a 
 2n  x 2n x 
f ( x)  0   an cos  bn sin  ......
2 n 1  period period 
Note: Adapt the formulae above for a HALF range Fourier series.
 5

C. COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. z a  jb  r (cos   j sin  )  r|   re j , where j 2  1
Rectangular form Exponential form
Polar form

Modulus: r | z | a 2
 b2 
b
Argument:   arg z  arctan
a

2. Addition : (a  jb)  (c  jd )  (a  c)  j (b  d )

3. Subtraction : (a  jb)  (c  jd )  (a  c)  j (b  d )

4. Complex equations: If m  jn  p  jq
then m  p and n  q

5. Multiplication: z1 z 2  r1r2 1   2 )

z1 r1
6. Division :  1   2 )
z 2 r2

7. De Moivre’s theorem: [r  ]n  r n n  r n (cos n  j sin n )

1
n
8. z has n distinct roots

1 1
  k .2
zn  rn with k  0,1, 2,..., n  1
n


9. re j  r (cos   j sin  )
   
   re j   r cos  and   re j   r sin 
   

10. e abj  e a .e bj


11. n r e j  n r  j  2ki (k  integer)
 6

D. GEOMETRY
1. Straight line

y  mx  c
y  y1  m( x  x1 )
1
Perpendiculars, then m1  
m2
Parallel lines : m1  m2

2. Angle between two lines

m  m2
tan   1
1  m1m2

3. Circle
x2  y2  r 2
( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 (centre at (h, k ) ; radius r )

4. Parabola

y  ax 2  bx  c or x  ay 2  by  c
b b
axis of symmetry at x  or y 
2a 2a

5. Ellipse
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2

6. Hyperbola

xy  k
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
x2 y2
 2  2 1
a b
 7

E. MENSURATION
1. Circle ( in radians)
Area = r 2
Circumference = 2r
Arc length s  r

Sector area = 1
r   sr;
2 1
radius r 
 2
  h2
 2

2 2
2h
Segment area = 12 r   sin  
2

2. Ellipse
Area = ab
Circumference =  (a  b)
3. Cylinder
Volume = r 2 h
Surface area = 2rh  2  r 2 (closed top)
Surface area = 2rh   r 2 (open top)
4. Pyramid
1
Volume = base area  height
3
5. Cone
1
Volume = r 2 h
3
Curved surface = r, base   r 2
6. Frustum of cone
1

Volume = h R 2  Rr  r 2
3

Curved surface = ( R  r )
7. Trapezoidal rule
b  y  yn 
a
f ( x) dx  h 1
 2
 y2  y3  y 4 ... y n1 

8. Simpsons rule (for odd number of ordinates)
b

h
f ( x) dx  ( A  4 B  2C )
a 3
A = first + last ordinate
B = sum of even numbered ordinates
C = sum of remaining odd ordinates
9. Prismoidal rule
V   A1  4 A2  A3 
h
6
10. Sphere
A  4r 2
4
V  r 3
3
 8

F. TRIGONOMETRY
DEFINITIONS
y 1
sin   
r cos ec
x 1
cos   
r sec 
y 1
tan  
x cot 

IDENTITIES
sin 
sin 2   cos 2   1 sin( )   sin  tan 
cos 
cos 
1  tan 2   sec 2  cos( )   cos  cot  
sin 
cot 2   1  cos ec 2 tan( )   tan

COMPOUND ANGLE ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAE

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B ) 
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
DOUBLE ANGLES
sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1  1  2 sin 2 A
sin 2 A  12 (1  cos 2 A)
cos 2 A  12 (1  cos 2 A)
2 tan A
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A

PRODUCTS OF SINES AND COSINES INTO SUMS OR DIFFERENCES

sin A cos B  12 [sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)]

cos A sin B  12 [sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)]
cos A cos B  12 [cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]
sin A sin B   12 [cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]
 9

SUM OR DIFFERENCES OF SINES AND COSINES INTO PRODUCTS

x  y x  y
sin x  sin y  2 sin   cos 
 2   2 
x  y x  y
sin x  sin y  2 cos   sin 
 2   2 
x  y x  y
cos x  cos y  2 cos   cos 
 2   2 
x  y x  y
cos x  cos y  2 sin   sin 
 2   2 
GENERAL SINE EQUATION

If R sin(t   )  a sin t  b cos t ,

b
then a  R cos  , b  R sin  , R  (a 2  b2 ) and   arctan
a
TRIANGLE FORMULAE
a b c
Sine rule:  
sin A sin B sin C
Cosine rule: a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A

Area of any triangle

1) 1
2
 base  perpendicular height
1
2) 2
ab sin C or 12 ac sin B or 12 bc sin A

3) s (s  a)(s  b)(s  c) where s  a  b  c

2

G. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
DEFINITIONS
e x  ex 1
sinh x  cosech x 
2 sinh x
e x  ex 1
cosh x  sech x 
2 cosh x
e x  ex 1
tanh x  coth x 
e x  ex tanh x

IDENTITIES
cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
1  tanh 2 x  sech 2 x
coth2 x  1  cosech2 x
sinh 2 x  12 (cosh 2 x  1)
 10

cosh 2 x  12 (cosh 2 x  1)
sinh 2 x  2sinh x cosh x
cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
 2 cosh 2 x  1
 1  2sinh 2 x
sinh( x  y)  sinh x cosh y  sinh y cosh x
cosh( x  y)  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y
sin jx  j sinh x and sinh jx  j sin x
cos jx  cosh x and cosh jx  cos x
tan jx  j tanh x and tanh jx  j tan x

H. DIFFERENTIATION
dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Definition :  lim
dx h0 h

Rules for differentiation

d
1. (C )  0
dx
d
2. (ax n )  nax n 1
dx
3. If y  f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) then
dy
 f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x)
dx
d
4. [ f ( x)]n  n[ f ( x)]n 1. f ( x)
dx
d
5. { f ( x).g ( x)}  f ( x).g ( x)  f ( x).g ( x)
dx
d  f ( x)  g ( x). f ( x)  f ( x).g ( x)
6.  
dx  g ( x)  [ g ( x)]2
7.
dx
a
d f ( x)
 a f ( x ) . f ( x).n a

8.
dx
e
d f ( x)
 e f ( x ) . f ( x)
d 1
9. {log a f ( x)}  . log a e. f ( x)
dx f ( x)
d 1
10. [ln f ( x )]  . f ( x )
dx f ( x)
d
11. {sin f ( x)}  f ( x) cos f ( x)
dx
d
12. {cos f ( x)}   f ( x) sin f ( x)
dx
 11

d
13. {tan f ( x)}  f ( x) sec 2 f ( x)
dx
d
14. {cosec f ( x )}   f ( x )cosec f ( x ) cot f ( x )
dx
d
15. {sec f ( x)}  f ( x) sec f ( x) tan f ( x)
dx
d
16. {cot f ( x )}   f ( x )cosec 2 f ( x)
dx
d
17. {sinh f ( x)}  f ( x) cosh f ( x)
dx
d
18. {cosh f ( x)}  f ( x) sinh f ( x)
dx
d
19. {tanh f ( x )}  f ( x )sech 2 f ( x )
dx
d
20. {cosech f ( x )}   f ( x )cosech f ( x ) coth f ( x )
dx
d
21. {sech f ( x )}   f ( x )sech f ( x ) tanh f ( x )
dx
d
22. {coth f ( x )}   f ( x )cosech 2 f ( x )
dx
dy dy du dv
23.   
dx du dv dx

24. Parametric Equations

If y  f (t ) and x  g (t ) , then
dy d  dy 
2  
dy dt d y dt  dx 
 
dx dx dx 2 dx
dt dt

25. Maximum/Minimum

For turning points: Let f ( x)  0

Let x = a be a solution for the above
If f (a)  0, then a minimum
If f (a)  0, then a maximum

For point of inflection f ( x)  0

Let x = b be a solution for above
Test for inflection:
f (b  h) and f (b  h) changes sign
OR f (b)  0 if f (b) exists
 12

26.
d
dx

sin 1 f ( x)  f ( x)
1  [ f ( x)]2

27.
d
dx

cos 1 f ( x)    f ( x)
1  [ f ( x)]2

28.
d
dx
 
tan 1 f ( x) 
f ( x)
1  [ f ( x)]2

29.
d
dx
 
cot 1 f ( x) 
 f ( x)
1  [ f ( x)]2
30.
d
dx
sec 1 f ( x)  f ( x)
f ( x) [ f ( x)]2  1
 f ( x )
31.
d
 cosec1 f ( x )  
dx f ( x ) [ f ( x )]2  1

32.
d
dx

sinh 1 f ( x)   f ( x)
[ f ( x)]2  1
f ( x )
33.
d
 cosh 1 f ( x )  
dx [ f ( x )]2  1
f ( x )
34.
d
dx
 tanh 1 f ( x )  1  [ f ( x )]2
f ( x )
35.
d
dx
 coth 1 f ( x )  1  [ f ( x )]2
 f ( x )
36.
d
 
sech 1 f ( x ) 
dx f ( x ) 1  [ f ( x )]2
 f ( x )
37.
d
 cosech 1 f ( x )  
dx f ( x ) [ f ( x )]2  1

38. Small Increments

If z  f ( x, y, w) ; then
z z z
z  x   y  w
x y w

39. Rates of change

If z  f ( x, y, w) ; then

dz z dx z dy z dw
  
dt x dt y dt w dt
 13

40. Relative maximum and minimum values

For f ( x, y )
f f
 0 and 0
x y
Let
2
 2 f   2 f   2 f 
 2  2    xy 
 x   y   
 f
2
If ( a ,b )  0 and  0, then f has a minimum in ( a, b)
x 2 ( a ,b )
2 f
If ( a ,b )  0 and  0, then f has a maximum in (a, b)
x 2 ( a ,b )
If ( a ,b )  0, then f has neither a maximum nor a minimum in (a,b)
If ( a ,b )  0, the test gives no information, the function could have a maximum
or a minimum.

I. STANDARD INTEGRALS
1
1.  f ( x)[ f ( x)] dx  n  1[ f ( x)]
n n 1
C  n  1

f ( x)
2.
 f ( x)
dx  n f ( x)  C

1 f ( x)
 f ( x)a dx   C (a being constant)
f ( x)
3. a
lna

 f ( x)e dx  e f ( x )  C
f ( x)
4.

5.  f ( x) sin f ( x)dx   cos f ( x)  C

6.  f ( x) cos f ( x)dx  sin f ( x)  C
7.
 f ( x) tan f ( x)dx  n sec f ( x)  C
8.
 f ( x) cot f ( x)dx  n sin f ( x)  C
 14

9.
 f ( x) sec f (x)dx  n sec f ( x)  tan f ( x)  C
10.  f ( x)cosec f ( x)dx  n cosec f ( x )  cot f ( x )  C

 f ( x) sec f ( x)dx  tan f ( x)  C

2
11.

 f ( x)cosec f ( x)dx   cot f ( x)  C

2
12.

13.
 f ( x) sec f ( x) tan f ( x)dx  sec f ( x)  C
14.  f ( x)cosec f ( x)cot f ( x)dx  cosec f ( x )  C

15.
 f ( x) sinh f ( x)dx  cosh f ( x)  C
16.
 f ( x) cosh f ( x)dx  sinh f ( x)  C
17.  f ( x) tanh f ( x)dx  n cosh f ( x)  C
18.  f ( x) coth f ( x)dx  n sinh f ( x)  C
 f ( x)sech f ( x)dx  tanh f ( x)  C
2
19.

 f ( x)cosech f ( x)dx   coth f ( x )  C

2
20.

21.  f ( x)sech f ( x) tanh f ( x)dx  sech f ( x)  C

22.  f ( x)cosech f ( x)coth f ( x)dx  cosech f ( x)  C
f ( x ) 1 f ( x)  a 1 f ( x)
23.  [ f ( x)] 2
a 2
dx 
2a
n
f ( x)  a
 C   coth 1
a a
C

f ( x ) 1 a  f ( x) 1 f ( x)
24. a 2
 [ f ( x )]2
dx 
2a
n
a  f ( x)
 C  tanh 1
a a
C

f ( x)

1 f ( x)
25. dx  tan 1 C
[ f ( x)]  a
2 2
a a
 15

f ( x)

f ( x)
26. dx  sin 1 C
a 2  [ f ( x)]2 a

f ( x)

f ( x)
27. dx n f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  C  sinh 1 C
[ f ( x)]  a
2 2 a

f ( x)

f ( x)
28. dx n f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  C  cosh 1 C
[ f ( x)]  a
2 2 a

a2

f ( x) f ( x)
29. f ( x) a 2  [ f ( x)]2 dx  sin 1  a 2  [ f ( x)]2  C
2 a 2

a2

f ( x)
30. f ( x) [ f ( x)]2  a 2 dx  n f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  C
2 2

a2

f ( x)
31. f ( x) [ f ( x)]2  a 2 dx   n f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  [ f ( x)]2  a 2  C
2 2

32. Integration by parts

 udv  uv   vdu
Priorities for u: inverse functions; log functions; x n ; ekx ; others

33. Fundamental theorem of integration

b
a f ( x)dx  F ( x)a  F (b)  F (a)
b

b
 a f ( x) dx
1
34. Mean value =
ba
b

1
35. (R.M.S) 2  ( f ( x)) 2 dx
ba a

J. INTEGRATION APPLICATIONS
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION

For a vertical strip selection:

b
1. Disc: V    y 2dx
a


b
2. Washer: V  ( y 2 2  y12 )dx
a
b
3. Shell: V  2  xydx
a
 16

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Separation of variables:  f ( y)dy   f ( x)dx

dy dv
Homogeneous: Substitute y  vx so that vx
dx dx

Exact

Mdx  Ndy  0

M N
If  the solution is  M x   N y  c
y x

Linear

dy
 f ( x) y  g ( x)
dx

Let IF  e 
f ( x ) dx

y  IF   IF  g ( x)dx

Bernoulli

dy
 f ( x) y  g ( x) y n
dx
1n
Let z  y

CENTROIDS

  y .dx
b b
1 2
xydx 2
a a
X  Y

  y.dx
b b
ydx
a a

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION

 xy dx
b
2
a

 y dx
b
2
a
 17

WORK


b
W F ( x)dx
a
LENGTH, AREA AND VOLUME OF CURVES
2
x2
 dy 
y  f ( x), S 
x 1
1  
 dx 
dx

REDUCTION FORMULAE FOR INTEGRATION

e ax
e sin bx dx  2 (a sin bx  b cos bx)  C
ax
a  b2
e ax
e
ax
cos bx dx  (b sin bx  a cos bx)  C
a2  b2

LOGARITHMIC EQUIVALENT OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

1. sinh 1 f ( x)  n | f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  1 |
2. cosh 1 f ( x)  n | f ( x)  [ f ( x)]2  1 |
1  f ( x)
3. tanh 1 f ( x)  12 n
1  f ( x)

O THER USEFUL EQUIVALENTS

b 2
  4a
0 e
2
 ap
1. cos bp dp  1 .e
2 a
 sin px 
2.
0 p
dp 
2
2
 e ap 
0
sin px x
3. dp  erf
p 2 2 a

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

2 x

 
erf ( x)  et dt
2

erfc ( x)  1  erf ( x)
 18

K. LAPLACE TRANSFORMATIONS
TABLE OF L APLACE TRANSFORMS

0 e
 pt
L[ f (t )]  f (t )dt  F ( p) p0

f (t ) L{f(t)} = F(p)

1
1. t0 1
p
n!
2. tn n  1, 2, 3, ...
p n 1
a
3. sin at
p  a2
2

p
4. cos at
p  a2
2

a
5. sinh at
p  a2
2

p
6. cosh at
p  a2
2

1
7. e bt
pb
n!
8. t n e bt n  1, 2, 3, ...
( p  b) n1
a
9. e bt sin at
( p  b) 2  a 2
pb
10. e bt cos at
( p  b) 2  a 2
a
11. e bt sinh at
( p  b) 2  a 2
pb
12. e bt cosh at
( p  b) 2  a 2
13. e bt . f (t ) F ( p  b)
2ap
14. t sin at
( p2  a2 )2
p2  a2
15. t cos at
( p2  a2 )2
 19

2ap
16. t sinh at
( p  a2 )2
2

p2  a2
17. t cosh at
( p2  a2 )2
1 ta e  ap
18. H (t  a )  
0 ta p
19. f (t  a ) H (t  a ) e ap F ( p)  e  ap L[ f (t )]
20.  (t  a) e  ap
21. f (t )  (t  a) e  ap . f (a)
dy
22. pL{ y}  y(0)
dt
d2y
23. 2
p 2 L{ y}  py(0)  y (0)
dt
d3y
24. p 3 L{ y}  p 2 y(0)  py (0)  y (0)
dt 3
d4y
25. p 4 L{ y}  p 3 y(0)  p 2 y (0)  py (0)  y (0)
dt 4
dny
26. p n L{ y}  p n1 y(0)  p n2 y (0) ...  py n2 (0)  y n1 (0)
dt n
t 1 1
27. 0
f (t )dt
p
F ( p)  L [ f (t )]
p
p2
e 4
 p
28. erf (t ) erf c  
p 2
29. erf  t 1
p p 1
 a  1  e a p
30. erf  
2 t  p
 a  e a p
31. erf c  
2 t  p
d
32. t. f (t )  {F ( p)}
dp
d2
33. t 2 . f (t ) {F ( p)}
dp 2
dn
34. t n . f (t ) (1) n {F ( p)}
dp n

 f (t ) 
p
f (t )
35. F (u )du if lim   exists
t t 0  t 
 20

TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM WITH RESPECT TO: t

u ( x; t ) Lt {u( x; t )}

 ( 2 n 1) 2  2t
(1) n (2n  1)x

4 4a2
cosh x p
1. 1 e cos
n 1
2n  1 2a p cosh a p
 n22t


n
x 2 (1) a sin nx sinh x p
2.  e
a  n a p sinh a p
n1

(1) n nt nt

xt 2a sinh xp
3.  sin sin
a 2 n 1 n 2
a a p 2 sinh ap
8a 
( 1)n (2n  1)  x (2n  1)  t sinh xp
4. x
 n1 2  (2n  1) 2
sin
2a
cos
2a p 2 cosh ap
u ( x; t )
5. pu( x; p)  u( x;0)
t
y ( x; t ) d u ( x; p)
6.
x dx
 2u ( x; t ) u ( x;0)
7. p 2 u ( x; p)  pu ( x;0) 
t 2 t
 u ( x; t )
2
d 2 u ( x; p)
8.
x 2 dx 2

TABLE OF FOURIER SINE TRANSFORMS WITH RESPECT TO : x


Fs ( x ) {u ( x; t )}   u ( x; t )sin px dx
0

 u ( p, t )
2 
Fs( 1x ) {u s ( p, t )}   u s ( p; t )sin px dp  u ( x, t )
 0

u ( x; t ) Fs ( x ) {u( x; t )} w.r.t x

u ( x; t )
1.  pu c ( p; t )
x
u ( x; t ) d u s ( p; t )
2.
t dt
 u ( x; t )
2
3.  p 2 u s ( p; t )  p u(0; t )
x 2
 21

 2 u ( x; t ) d 2 u s ( p; t )
4.
t 2 dt 2
TABLE OF FOURIER COSINE TRANSFORMS WITH RESPECT TO : x

Fc ( x ) { f ( x; t )}   f ( x; t ) cos px dx
0

 u ( p, t )

2 


Fc( 1x ) {u c ( p, t )}  u c ( p; t ) cos px dp  u ( x, t )
0

u ( x; t ) Fc ( x ) {u( x; t )} w.r.t x

u ( x; t )
1. pu s ( p; t )  u(0; t )
x
u ( x; t ) d u c ( p; t )
2.
t dt
 u ( x; t )
2
u (0; t )
3.  p 2 u c ( p; t ) 
x 2
x
 u ( x; t )
2
d 2 u c ( p; t )
4.
t 2 dt 2

L. NUMERICAL METHODS
Newton-Raphson

f ( xn )
xn1  x n 
f ( x n )
Euler’s Rule

Solving first-order differential equations:

dy
If  f ( x, y ) then
dx
yi 1  yi  h f ( xi , yi )

Solving second-order differential equations:

d2y
If 2  f ( x, y, y ') then
dx
yi  f ( xi , yi , yi)
yi 1  yi  hyi  12 h2 yi
yi1  yi  hyi
 22

Improved Euler’s Rule

dy
If  f ( x, y ) then
dx

y *i 1  yi  hf ( xi , yi )
yi 1  yi  12 h [ f ( xi , yi )  f ( xi 1, y *i 1 )]

Runge-Kutta Method of Order 2

dy
If  f ( x, y ) then
dx

k1  hf ( xi , yi )
k2  hf ( xi  h, yi  k1 )
yi 1  yi  12 (k1  k2 )

Runge-Kutta Method of Order 4

dy
If  f ( x, y ) then
dx

k1  hf ( xi , yi )
k2  hf ( xi  12 h, yi  12 k1 )
k3  hf ( xi  12 h, yi  12 k2 )
k4  hf ( xi  h, yi  k3 )
yi 1  yi  16 (k1  2k2  2k3  k4 )

M. MATRICES

If A  [ai j ] then the transpose of A is A  [a j i ]

T
1.
adj A
2. A 1  and AA 1  I
A
3. Inverse Matrix Method:
If AX  B; then
X  A1 B

4. Cramer’s Rule:
 23

If AX  B; then
Ak
xk  where Ak is the matrix obtained by replacing
A
the k th column of A by the column matrix B

5. Linear dependence if
k1V1  k 2V2  k3V3  ... k nVn  0, not all ki  0

6. Eigenvalues
AX  X ,
 
A  aij is a square matrix, X a column matrix and  a scalar quantity
(eigenvalue)

7. Eigen vectors:
( A   I )x  0

8. Consistency with rank:

If A is 3  3 ;

 A is consistent with unique solution if rank A = rank aug = 3

 A is consistent with infinitely many solutions if rank A = rank aug = 2 < 3
 A is inconsistent if rank A < rank aug

N. D - OPERATORS
THEOREMS

1. F ( D){e ax }  e ax F (a)
2. F ( D){e ax . f ( x)}  e ax .F ( D  a){ f ( x)}
sin ax  2 sin ax 
3. F ( D 2 )   F (a ) 
cos ax  cos ax 

BINOMIAL FORMULAE FOR SIMPLIFYING

(1  F ( D)) 1  1  F ( D)  [ F ( D)]2  [ F ( D)]3  ...
(1  F ( D))1  1  F ( D)  [ F ( D)]2  [ F ( D)]3  ...

REDUCTION FORMULAE

1  x cos ax
{sin ax} 
2 2
D a 2a
1 x sin ax
{cos ax} 
D2  a2 2a
 24

COMPLIMENTARY FUNCTION

Auxiliary Equation: am 2  bm  c  0

Real roots: m  m1 and m  m2

yCF  Ae m1x  Be m2 x
OR m  m1 and m  m1 (Equal magnitude, opposite signs)
yCF  A cosh m1 x  B sinh m1 x
Real equal roots: m  m1, (twice)
yCF  ( A  Bx )e m1x

Complex roots: m    j
yCF  ex ( A cos x  B sin x)

Non Homogeneous Differential Equation

y  yCF  yPI

O. Z - TRANSFORMS
TABLE OF z- TRANSFORMS

X ( z )  Z{x(t )}   x(k ) z
k 0
k

X ( p) x(t ) x(k ) z{x(k )}  X ( z)

1. 1  (t )  (k ) 1

2.  (t  a)  (k  a) z a

3. 1 1 1 z
p z 1

4. 1 t k z
p2 ( z  1) 2
 25

5. 2 t2 k2 z ( z  1)
p3 ( z  1)3

6. 1 e a t e a k z
pa z  e a

7.  sin  t sin k z sin 

p 
2 2
z  2 z cos   1
2

8. p cos t cos k z ( z  cos  )

p  2
2
z  2 z cos   1
2

9. 1 t e a t k e a k z e a
( p  a) 2 ( z  e a )2

10.  e a t sin t e a k sin k z e a sin 

( p  a) 2   2 z 2  2 z e  a cos   e 2 a

11. pa e a t cos t e a k cos k z 2  z e a cos 

( p  a) 2   2 z 2  2 z e  a cos   e  2 a

12. ak z
za

13. k ak az
( z  a) 2

14. a k cos k   (a)k z

za

15. x(t  m) x(k  m) z  m X (z )

16. x(t  1) x(k  1) z X ( z)  z x(0)

17. x(t  2) x(k  2) z 2 X ( z )  z 2 x(0)  zx(1)

18. x(t  m) x(k  m) z m X ( z )  z m x(0)  z m 1 x(1)  ...

 zx(m  1)

19. t x(t ) d
z X (z )
dz

20. e a t x(t ) e a k x(k ) X ( z ea )

 26

21. a k x(k ) z
X( )
a

22. k a k x(k ) d z
z X( )
dz a

PROPERTIES OF THE Z- TRANSFORM

x(t ) or x(k ) Z[ x(t )] or Z[ x(k )]

1. x(t  1) or x(k  1) zX ( z )  zx(0)

2. x(t  2) or x(k  2) z 2 X ( z )  z 2 x(0)  zx(1)

3. x(t  m) or x(k  m) z m X ( z )  z m x(0)  z m1 x(1)  ...  zx(m  1)

4. x(t  m) or x(k  m) z m X (z )

d
5. t x(t ) or k x(k ) z [ X ( z )]
dz

6. e at x(t ) or e ak x(k ) X ( ze a )

z
7. a k x(k ) X 
a
d   z 
8. kak x(k )  z  X  
dz   a 

CALCULATION OF RESIDUE

If f ( z ) has a pole of any order n at the point z  a , then the value of the residue can be
found by:

d n 1  1 
Res f ( z )  n 1  f ( z )( z  a ) n 
z a d z  (n  1)!  z a

CALCULATION OF INVERSE Z – TRANSFORM WITH RESIDUE

z 1  X ( z )  x(k )   (Residues of X ( z).z k 1 )

 27

THE POWER SERIES METHOD FOR INVERSE Z – TRANSFORM

X ( z)  x(0)  x(1) z 1  x(2) z 2  x(3) z 2  .......  x(k ) z  k  .....