UNIT I: MUGHAL EMPIRE AFTER AKBAR

a) Consolidation under Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Jahangir

Salim (Jahangir) was born on August 30, 1569. His mother was the Rajput princess of Amber
whom Akbar married in 1562. Akbar made arrangements for the education of Salim and a
series of able tutors were appointed to teach the prince Persian, Turki, Arabic and Hindi.
According to the custom of the dynasty, Salim was associated with the work of military
administration at an early age.

Salim was anxious to grasp sovereign power and rose in revolt against his father 1599 when
Akbar was away in the Deccan. He made an unsuccessful attempt to seize Agra and set up an
independent government at Allahabad. Akbar had to to conclude the siege of Asirgarh and
hasten to the north by the middle of I60I but took a lenient view and offered the rebel prince
the governorship of Bengal and Orissa but failed to win him. Akbar refrained from taking
military action against him as he was the only surviving son of Akbar and was entitled to
succeed him to the throne.

A conspiracy was hatched by Raja Man Singh and others to deprive Salim of his legitimate
right of succession and replacing him with his own son, prince Khusrao to the throne. Even
Akbar supported this decision initially but then gave up. The fear of being superseded by his
own son brought Salim to his senses. He hastened to Agra and sought forgiveness from his
father. Meanwhile Akbar’s health began to fail. There were two parties at the court. One party
was supporting Salim and the other his son Khusrao. A few days before Akbar’s death, Salim
was nominated as heir apparent to the throne. Salim ascended the throne in October 1605
after the death of Akbar and assumed the title of Jahangir.

Soon after his accession to the throne Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by
various measures. He issued I2 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his empire:-

I. Prohibition of cesses.

II. Regulations about highway robbery and theft.

III. Free inheritance of property of deceased person.

IV. Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor.

V. Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments.

VI. Prohibition of forcible seizure of property.

VII. Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick.

VIII. Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days.

IX. Respect to be paid to Sunday.

X. General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs.

XI. Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of prayer and praise (of
God).

XII. Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.

To consolidate his empire, Jahangir had to tackle the problems which included Rana Amar
Singh of Mewar, Malik Ambar in the Deccan and Bengal.

Mewar: Parwez, the second son of Jahangir was sent to Mewar to accept Jahangir’s rule. If
the Rana and his eldest son Karan offer their service and obedience, he should not show any
violence. Jahangir wanted a peaceful solution and was not in favour of war. The Rana refused
to accept Mughal authority.

Hence, in 1613, Jahangir organised an army under the command of Khurram for expedition
of Mewar. After prolonged warfare, the Rana was forced to accept Mughal authority. By 1615,
Jahangir was able to settle the dispute with Mewar. This enabled him to further consolidate
the alliance with the Rajputs.

Deccan: Malik Ambar was a military leader who served as the Peshwa of the Ahmadnagar
sultanate in the Deccan region. In 1620, the army of the Mughals shattered the efforts of
Malik Ambar to lead a united front of Deccan states against the Mughals.

Bengal: A third achievement of Jahangir was the consolidation of Mughal position in Bengal.
Afghan chiefs were still powerful in various parts of east Bengal. They had the support of
many Hindu rajas of the region.

In 1608, Islam Khan, Jahangir’s close associate and general, was posted to Bengal. Khan first
directed his efforts to the conquest of Sonargaon which was under the control of Musa Khan.
After three years of campaining, Sonargaon was captured. Musa Khan surrendered and was
taken as prisoner.

Usman Khan was also defeated in a fierce battle. The back of the Afghan resistance was now
broken and the other rebels soon surrendered. The principalities of Jessore, Sylhet, Cachar
and Kamrup were annexed.

Shah Jahan
Jahangir had four sons- Khusrau, Parvez, Khurram, and Shahryar. Prince Khurram was born on
January 5, I592 at Lahore. While young he was a favourite of his grandfather Akbar. The prince
was given best education and military training. He was very intelligent and smart. He
possessed a strong will and character. Early during his father’s reign prince Khurram was
marked out for the throne.

In 1612 he was married to Mumtaz Mahal who was the daughter of Asaf Khan (brother of Nur
Jahan). It was at this time that Nur Jahan was fast raising into prominence. Prince Khurram
became a prominent member of the Nur Jahan Junta. He was looked upon as the future ruler
of the country.

He took part in a number of important expeditions during his father’s reign. His success
against Mewar and the way he had succeeded in dictating terms to Malik Ambar in the Deccan
convinced Jahangir that the prince had an aptitude for military generalship. But there was a
sudden fall in the fortune of prince Khurram after the marriage of prince Shahryar with Ladli
Begum, daughter of Nur Jahan in 1620. Nur Jahan shifted in favour of Shahryar which forced
Shah Jahan to revolt in 1623.

During his rebellion in 1623, Shah Jahan fought against several key figures and factions within
the Mughal Empire, primarily those loyal to his father, Emperor Jahangir, and his stepmother,
Nur Jahan. Jahangir dispatched several experienced generals and commanders to counter
Shah Jahan's forces. These commanders included Asaf Khan, Mahabat Khan and Abdullah
Khan. Some regional rulers and Mughal nobles remained loyal to Jahangir and opposed Shah
Jahan's rebellion. Their support for the emperor was crucial in maintaining the stability of the
empire during the conflict. Shah Jahan's opponents were well-organized and commanded
significant military resources, which ultimately contributed to the failure of his rebellion and
his subsequent surrender. In 1626, Shah Jahan was forced to surrender to his father, Emperor
Jahangir. Despite the rebellion, Jahangir pardoned Shah Jahan, possibly due to his status as a
favorite son and his past contributions to the empire.

When Jahangir died in 28 October 1627, Shah Jahan was in the Deccan region. Fortunately for
him his father-in-law Asaf Khan won over nobles to his side and proclaimed Dawar Bakash,
son of Khusrau, as king so that the throne was not left vacant. Shah Jahan hurried to Agra
from the Deccan. Shahryar proclaimed himself emperor at Lahore. The rival forces of Shahryar
and Asaf Khan met near Lahore. Shahryar was defeated, blinded and imprisoned. Shah Jahan
marched to Agra and ascended the throne in February 1628. All his possible rivals including
Dawar Baksh and Shahryar were killed. After Shah Jahan became the ruler of the Mughal
Empire in 1628, Nur Jahan's influence and power significantly diminished.

There were two great rebellions at the commencement of Shah Jahan’s reign:

Bundela rebellion (I628-1635)

In the first year of his accession to the throne Shah Jahan had to face the rebellion of Jujhar
Singh, son of Bir Singh Deo Bundela, the ruler of Bundelkhand. The Bundelas, known for their
cruelty and blackmailing of neighbors, were a significant threat (demanded regular payments
or tributes from neighboring territories under the threat of attack or plunder if the payments
were not made, kidnapping, confiscation of land). In 1628-29, Shah Jahan quickly prepared to
quell (put an end) the uprising, and sent an army under Mahabat Khan to attack Bundelkhand.
With the fall of the powerful fort of Irij, Jujhar Singh surrendered. He had to pay fifteen lakhs
and forty elephants as indemnity. He was also required to support the Mughal Deccan
campaign with 2,000 cavalry and infantry. In 1635, Jujhar Singh rebelled again but was
defeated by an imperial force led by Prince Aurangzeb and was killed by the Gonds.

Rebellion of Khan Jahan Lodhi (1629)

More formidable than the Bundela rebellion was the serious rebellion of Khan Jahan Lodhi, a
high-ranking Mughal officer and Governor of the Deccan, against Emperor Shah Jahan. Khan
Jahan Lodhi allied with the ruler of Ahmednagar, Nizam-ul-mulk, and sought independence,
posing a significant threat as he could potentially unite the Deccan rulers against the Mughal
Empire. Recognizing the danger, Shah Jahan personally led a campaign to the Deccan in 1629,
implementing a thorough strategy against the rebels. After three years of relentless pursuit,
battles, and losing his allies (Maratha and Rajput supporters), Khan Jahan Lodhi was ultimately
defeated at Tal Sehonda near Kalinjar and cut to pieces with his sons, Aziz and Aimal, in the
fourth/following year.

Treatment of the Portuguese and capture of Hugli (1632)

The main Portuguese centre was in Eastern Bengal, particularly at Hugli and there had been
many complaints against them. They engaged in trade, slave trafficking, and piracy. For slave
trading, they were known for kidnapping and forcibly converting orphaned Hindu and Muslim
children to Christianity and even abducted two slave girls of Queen Mumtaz Mahal from Hugli.
In response, Shah Jahan appointed Qasim Ali Khan as the governor of Bengal and charged him
with the duty of punishing the Portuguese. Hugli was accordingly besieged by a large army
under the command of Qasim Ali Khan’s son Inayatullah Khan, on 24th June 1632 and was
captured after three months. Many were killed, and those captured faced a choice between
conversion to Islam or imprisonment. Some opted for conversion, while others suffered and
died in captivity in Agra.

North West Frontier Policy of Shah Jahan

In 1622, the Mughals lost Qandahar to the Persians during the reign of Jahangir. Recognizing
its strategic and commercial importance, Shah Jahan sought to reclaim it. He was determined
to recover Qandahar without which the Mughal position on the north-west frontier remained
comparatively weak. Under the supervision of Sayyad Khan, the Mughal Governor of Kabul,
secret contacts were established with Ali Mardan Khan, the Persian governor of Qandahar.
Due to a misunderstanding with Shah Abbas of Persia, Ali Mardan Khan surrendered
Qandahar to the Mughals in 1638, receiving compensation by entering Mughal imperial
service by becoming the Governor of Kashmir and Punjab.
However, in 1642, Shah Abbas II of Persia made efforts to recapture Kandahar. Due to poor
advice and the weakness of the Mughal commander Daulat Khan, the Persians regained
Kandahar in February 1649. Shah Jahan launched three unsuccessful expeditions to reclaim
Kandahar in 1649, 1652, and 1653, led by Prince Aurangzeb and Prince Dara. These
expeditions failed due to superior Persian military preparations, artillery, and supply issues
faced by the Mughals. The failed sieges damaged Mughal prestige, cost twelve crores of
rupees, and exposed their frontiers to Persian threats, causing significant anxiety for the
rulers of Delhi.

Central Asian Policy of Shah Jahan

The Mughal emperors harbored ambitions of conquering Trans-Oxiana, their ancestral

homeland in Central Asia. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir all made unsuccessful
attempts. Shah Jahan was determined to conquer Balkh and Badakshan which were the keys
to the acquisition of Samarqand, the home and capital of his great ancestor Timur. He saw an
opportunity in 1646 during a civil war in the region. He sent Prince Murad and Ali Mardan
Khan with a large army, successfully occupying Balkh and Badakshan. However, Prince Murad,
unable to cope with the harsh conditions, abandoned the campaign and returned to India
against his father’s wishes for which he was disgraced, leaving the army leaderless. Shah
Jahan then sent Sadullah Khan to stabilize the situation, followed by Prince Aurangzeb in
1647. Despite Aurangzeb's efforts, the Mughals faced severe difficulties, including being
outnumbered, scarcity of food and water, and harsh climate conditions, leading to their
retreat to India.

Shah Jahan's Central Asian policy ultimately failed, costing the Indian treasury four crores of
rupees in two years. The campaign resulted in no territorial gains, no changes in dynasty, and
significant losses of resources and heavy casualties. The failed campaign severely damaged
Mughal prestige, allowing the Persians to capture Kandahar in 1649.

Shah Jahan and the Deccan States

Shah Jahan continued the traditional policy of expansion in the south initiated by Akbar and
Jahangir. After the death of Malik Ambar, the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar, located
near the Mughal frontier in the south, became a target for Shah Jahan's expansionist policies.
Malik Ambar's son, Fateh Khan, had strained relations with the Sultan of Ahmednagar and
eventually collaborated with the Mughals. With Mughal support, Fateh Khan captured and
imprisoned the Sultan, and was later on murdered. A new puppet Sultan, Husain Shah, was
installed. Despite acknowledging Mughal suzerainty, Fateh Khan initially resisted Mughal
advances during the siege of Daulatabad in 1631 but was later bribed with ten lakhs of rupees
to surrender. The Nizamshahi dynasty ended in 1633 with Fateh Khan entering Mughal service
and receiving a salary. Although the kingdom of Ahmednagar ceased to exist, unrest
continued as its western districts were controlled by Shahji Bhonsle, father of Shivaji. Shahji
Bhonsle initially resisted but surrendered to Shah Jahan in 1636, concluding the conflict with
Ahmednagar.
b) Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy

The Rajput policy adopted by Aurangzeb was strict and stern. There were three important
Rajput rulers at that time, viz. Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, Rana Raj Singh of Mewar and
Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur. All the three were at peace with the Mughals when Aurangzeb
ascended the throne. But, Aurangzeb never kept faith in the loyalty of these Rajput rulers.

From 1658 to Jai Singh’s death in 1667, Aurangzeb’s relations with the Rajput rulers were
cordial. Jai Singh was the major advisor of Aurangzeb and was known to be “the key to the
brain” of Aurangzeb. He was appointed by Aurangzeb as the viceroy of Deccan. Good relations
were also maintained with the other important states of Bikaner, Bundi and Kota. Thus,
despite Aurangzeb’s orthodox religious views, during the early years of his reign, the Rajputs
were seen as partners in the kingdom.

However, Aurangzeb later on had growing reservations towards the Rajputs because of his
narrow religious policy. Aurangzeb’s policy towards the Rajputs from 1680s onwards caused
worry and dissatisfaction both to the Rajputs as well as to a section of the Mughal nobility.
This is evident from the involvement of Rajput rulers of Mewar and Marwar in the rebellion
of Prince Akbar. A section at the Mughal court, e.g., Prince Azam considered Aurangzeb’s
Rajput policy faulty and attempted to conspire with the Rana of Mewar expecting his help in
the war of succession. In the second half of the 17th century Aurangzeb became lukewarm
towards the Rajputs. Rajputs were not given important assignments. He interfered in matters
relating to matrimonial alliances among the Rajputs. However, Aurangzeb’s breach with
Mewar and Marwar did not mean a breach with the Rajputs in general. The rulers of Amber,
Bikaner, Bundi and Kota continued to receive mansabs. But they were not accorded high ranks
or positions in Aurangzeb’s reign like during the reign of Akbar and his successors Jahangir
and Shah Jahan.

Raja Jaswant Singh was deputed to defend the north-western frontier of the empire. Two of
his sons died fighting against the Afghan rebels and he himself died in Afghanistan in 1678
after a brief illness of about a month. Aurangzeb was waiting for this opportunity. At that
time, there was no successor to the throne of Marwar. He occupied Marwar immediately and
with a view to disgrace the ruling family sold the throne of Jaswant Singh for thirty-six lakhs.
It seemed that the existence of Marwar was lost forever. While returning from Afghanistan,
the two wives of Rana Jaswant Singh gave birth to two sons at Lahore.

One of them died but the other named Ajit Singh remained alive. Durga Das, the commander-
in-chief of the Rathors came to Delhi with the prince and requested Aurangzeb to hand over
Marwar to Maharaja Ajit Singh. Aurangzeb did not agree. Ajit Singh was declared the ruler of
Marwar and the war of independence of Marwar began from that time (1679).

Rana Raj Singh of Mewar, who realised that it was in the interest of Mewar to fight against
the Mughals, gave support to Marwar. Akbar, son of Aurangzeb also revolted against his
father with the support of the Rajputs (1681). The revolt of Akbar failed and he fled to
Maharashtra under the protection of Durga Das. Aurangzeb offered peace to Mewar and it
was accepted. The Rathors of Marwar, however, continued their fight against the Mughals.
Marwar fought against the Mughals till the death of the emperor in 1707, and finally
succeeded in gaining its independence. Thus, Aurangzeb failed to subdue either Mewar or
Marwar.

The only result of his policy against these states was that he lost the support of the Rajputs.
The Rajputs, who were one of the best supporters of the Mughal empire since the reign of
Akbar, revolted against Aurangzeb. Their services could no more be utilised in strengthening
the Mughal empire. On the contrary, it added to the troubles of the empire. It encouraged
other revolts also. Thus, the Rajput policy of Aurangzeb failed and resulted in the weakening
of the Mughal Empire.

c) The Deccan Campaigns

The Mughal rulers undertook several Deccan campaigns to expand and consolidate their
control over the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent. It was Akbar who seriously
implemented the expansionist policy towards the Deccan. Under Akbar, the Deccan states
forming a part of the Mughal territories were Khandesh, some areas of Ahmadnagar and the
important forts of Daulatabad, Ahmadnagar, Asirgarh and Burhanpur.

Jahangir followed in his father’s footsteps regarding the Deccan policy. Like his
father, Jahangir was also committed to the conquest of the entire southern India. Akbar had
conquered only a part of the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar including its capital town.
However, the major part of the state remained under the control of Nizamshahi nobles.
Though Jahangir forced the states of Golconda, Ahmadnagar and Bijapur to accept the
Mughal sovereignty, it did not work out. A key role behind the failure was the role of Malik
Ambar, who was the wazir of Ahmadnagar. Malik Ambar restructured the economic
conditions of Ahmadnagar, fought the Mughal armies aggressively and used to train the
Maratha soldiers in guerrilla warfare. Due to this, he could recover the fort of Ahmadnagar
and some territories back from the Mughals. Although Jahangir deputed his most capable
generals such as Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi and Abdullah Khan in the Deccan campaigns yet no
success was gained because of the mutual differences among the Mughal officers and the
success of Malik Ambar in opposing them.

In 1617, Prince Khurram attacked Ahmadnagar and forced it to sign a treaty by which
Ahmadnagar surrendered the fort of Ahmadnagar and the territory of Balaghat to the
Mughals. Ahmadnagar was not prepared to accept the sovereignty of the Mughals and started
fighting against them again. In 1621, however, peace was again signed between the two by
which Ahmadnagar surrendered a part of its territory to the Mughals. Bijapur and
Golconda which had helped Ahmadnagar also had to pay a large sum of money to the
Mughals. Thus, during Jahangir’s reign, Ahmadnagar was weakened and the states of Bijapur
and Golconda were pressurized. But, there was no large-scale extension of the empire and no
state of the Deccan was either finished or forced to submit.

Shah Jahan continued the traditional policy of expansion in the south initiated by Akbar and
Jahangir. After the death of Malik Ambar, the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar, located
near the Mughal frontier in the south, became a target for Shah Jahan's expansionist policies.
Malik Ambar's son, Fateh Khan, had strained relations with the Sultan of Ahmednagar and
eventually collaborated with the Mughals.

With Mughal support, Fateh Khan captured and imprisoned the Sultan, and was later on
murdered. Despite acknowledging Mughal authority, Fateh Khan fought against the Mughals
at Daulatabad in 1631 but was later bribed with ten lakhs of rupees to surrender. The
Nizamshahi dynasty thus came to an end in 1633. Bijapur and Golconda was also annexed in
1636. Thus, during the reign of Shah Jahan the Deccan policy of the Mughals was quite
successful. The state of Ahmadnagar was completely annexed to the Mughal Empire
and Bijapur and Golconda were forced to accept the suzerainty of the Emperor, surrender
part of their territories and some important forts and pay annual tribute and war-indemnity.

By the time Aurangzeb ascended the throne, the situation in the Deccan had turned complex
and hostile due to the growing strength and influence of the Marathas, as well as their
resilience against Mughal authority. Aurangzeb’s policy towards the Deccan had political,
economic and religious motives. The expansion of the Mughal Empire was one of the motives
of Aurangzeb. He was also tempted to conquer them with a view to capture their wealth.
Therefore, Aurangzeb was not satisfied simply by acceptance of his authority by them but he
desired to annex them to the Mughal Empire.

During the first half of his reign, Aurangzeb remained busy in Northern India. Therefore, the
responsibility of looking after the Deccan affairs was left to his different nobles. The Mughals
attacked Bijapur in 1676 but with no result. The Mughals did not succeed in the coming years
also till Aurangzeb himself reached the Deccan. Aurangzeb reached the Deccan in 1682 with
a view to destroy all states of the South. He first deputed his son, Azam against
Bijapur. Bijapur collapsed after 15 months of heroic resistance and was annexed to the
Mughal Empire in 1686 and the Adil Shahi dynasty came to an end. Sikandar Adil Shah was
granted a pension.

Aurangzeb also besieged the fort of Golconda in 1687 and captured it. Sultan Abul Hasan of
Golconda was made captive in the fort of Daulatabad and was given a lifetime pension.
Golconda was annexed to the Mughal Empire. The conquests of Bijapur and Golconda did not
complete the conquest of the Deccan by Aurangzeb. The rise of the Maratha power under
Shivaji was yet a powerful challenge to him. Shivaji had established an independent kingdom
in Maharashtra.

Shivaji first came into conflict with the Mughals in 1656 when he attacked Ahmadnagar and
Junar. After becoming emperor, Aurangzeb appointed his uncle Shaista Khan as viceroy of the
Deccan to attack the Marathas. Shivaji launched a surprise attack on Shaista Khan in Pune in
1663, leading Shaista Khan to retreat. Aurangzeb then sent Raja Jai Singh, who forced Shivaji
to sign the Treaty of Purandhar in 1665, surrendering much of his territory. Shivaji was
imprisoned in Agra in 1666 but escaped later that year. He died in 1680 and was succeeded
by his son Shambhaji. Aurangzeb captured and killed Shambhaji in 1689, occupying
Maharashtra.

Despite initial success, Aurangzeb faced persistent Maratha resistance led by Shivaji’s second
son Raja Ram and his widow Tara Bai. The Marathas used guerrilla warfare and attacked
Mughal territories, resisting Mughal control. Aurangzeb's Deccan policy ultimately failed, and
he died realizing his inability to overcome and defeat the Marathas.

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