Symmetries in Non-Relativistic Quantum

Mechanics:
Generators of Translation, Time Evolution, and
Rotation
Ghulam Murtaza Baig Ph.D-06S24
April 24, 2024

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Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Non-relativistic Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Quantum States and Operators ([6]): . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Symmetry Transformations ([7]): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Generators of Symmetries ([8]): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Translation Symmetry 5
2.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Time Evolution Symmetry 6

3.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Rotation Symmetry 7
4.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Conclusion 10

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1 Introduction
Until the 20th century, symmetry played a minor role in physics. Einstein’s
breakthrough in 1905 prioritized symmetry as a fundamental aspect of nature,
shaping dynamical laws. This shift marked the beginning of symmetry’s pivotal
role in modern physics, guiding exploration and unification efforts [1].
Susskind and Friedman’s [2], exploration of symmetry’s historical journey
alongside mathematics, particularly group theory, highlights the intrinsic link
between physics and mathematics, revealing the versatile application of sym-
metry principles across various physics sub fields.
Feynman in [3] give the central significance of symmetry in physics lies in
its capacity to unify seemingly unrelated phenomena, offering a coherent frame-
work that links disparate concepts. Moreover, the pivotal role of symmetry
considerations in shaping research methodologies cannot be overstated; physi-
cists leverage symmetries to elucidate potential theoretical models and derive
profound insights from empirical observations.
This text underscores the profound significance of symmetry, not just as
a beautiful arrangement, but as a powerful tool that has revolutionized our
understanding of the physical world. Its impact extends across both theoretical
frameworks and practical applications, solidifying its place as a guiding principle
in physics.

1.1 Preliminaries
Before delving into the specifics of symmetries in non-relativistic quantum me-
chanics, it is essential to establish some preliminary concepts.

1.1.1 Non-relativistic Symmetries

In quantum theory, the concept of matter composed of elementary parts, each
occupying distinct regions in space, is closely tied to the idea of locality [4].
While quantum theory alters this picture somewhat, the fundamental notion
of states being functions over spacetime coordinates remains intact. The state
space, which is essential for describing real systems, is represented as functions
over configurational space. Symmetry groups act on this space via coordinate
representations, where geometric transformations are represented by operators
acting on coordinate functions. Operators representing physical quantities, such
as position and momentum, must transform according to established rules. For
instance, the rotation of coordinates results in a corresponding transformation
of operators.
Wigner, E. P. (1939) in [5], On unitary representations of the inhomoge-
neous Lorentz group, gave furthermore symmetry group of elementary physical
systems, like point particles, corresponds to the symmetry group of space (e.g.,
relativity group). Consequently, the representation of the symmetry group in
the space of observable, such as coordinates, must be irreducible or a projective
representation. This condition ensures that the system’s representation acts in

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a space with well-defined observable corresponding to coordinates, satisfying the
equation of motion for free elementary systems .

DT µ
= κN µ
dσ
dN µ
= −κT µ + τ Dµ
dσ
dB µ
= −τ N µ + σDµ
dσ
dDµ
= −σB µ
dσ

1.1.2 Quantum States and Operators ([6]):

In the realm of quantum mechanics, a system’s state is encapsulated within
a wave function Ψ(x), serving as the probabilistic descriptor of locating the
system within a specific configuration x. Operators, symbolized as Â, exert their
influence on these wave functions, embodying physical observables or system
transformations. The anticipation of an observable  within the state Ψ(x)
unfolds through the following integral expression:
Z
⟨Â⟩ = Ψ∗ (x)ÂΨ(x) dx (1)

where Ψ∗ (x) represents the complex conjugate of Ψ(x).

1.1.3 Symmetry Transformations ([7]):

A symmetry transformation Û leaves the physical properties of a system un-
changed. Mathematically, for any observable Â, the symmetry transformation
satisfies:

Û † ÂÛ = Â (2)
†
where Û denotes the Hermitian conjugate of Û .

1.1.4 Generators of Symmetries ([8]):

The generators of symmetry transformations, denoted by Ĝ, are operators that
generate infinitesimal transformations. A finite symmetry transformation Û can
be expressed as the exponential of an infinitesimal generator:

Û = e−iĜ (3)
where i is the imaginary unit.

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2 Translation Symmetry
Translation symmetry in quantum mechanics corresponds to the in-variance of
physical properties under spatial displacements. The generator of translations,
denoted by P̂ , represents the momentum operator in quantum mechanics.

2.1 Mathematical Formulation

The action of the translation operator T̂ (a), which translates the wave function
by a distance a, can be represented as:

T̂ (a)Ψ(x) = Ψ(x − a) (4)

where Ψ(x) is the original wave function.
The generator P̂ of translations is defined as the infinitesimal limit of the
translation operator:
d
P̂ = −i (5)
dx

2.2 Generator
What is the significance of stating that momentum p induces translations?
Similarly, angular momentum triggers rotations, while the Hamiltonian drives
temporal translations.
In this context, momentum serves as the catalyst for an infinitesimal trans-
lation. Consider a system with a single degree of freedom, where the wave
function or potential is denoted by f (x). Remembering that momentum is ex-
∂
pressed as p̂ = −iℏ ∂x , when undergoing a translation x 7→ x + δa, the function
at the translated point is given by
1
f (x + δa) = f (x) + δaf ′ (x) + (δa)2 f ′′ (x) + · · ·
2!
1 ∂
= f (x) − δa (−iℏ )f (x) + · · · (6)
iℏ ∂x
ip̂δa
= (I + + · · · )f (x)
ℏ
Extending this notion to finite translations, we arrive at f (x + a) = eiap̂/ℏ f (x),
which will be elucidated further. From a physical perspective, f represents ei-
ther a wave function or a potential. The condition pf = 0 denotes translational
invariance of f , implying that f (x + δx) = f (x). For instance, a constant po-
tential V (x) = V0 remains invariant under translation. Similarly, a potential
V (x, y) exhibits translational invariance along the x-axis and is annihilated by
px as px V (x, y) = 0.

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 In three-dimensional space, when subjected to an infinitesimal translation
r → r + δa, a function undergoes a transformation to f (r + δa). Employing the
Taylor series expansion,
1
f (r + δa) = f (r) + δa · ∇f (r) + δai δaj ∂i ∂j f (r) + · · · (7)
2
Expressing this in momentum terms,
i
f (r + δa) ≈ (1 + δa · p̂)f (r) (8)
ℏ
For a finite translation by a = nδa (where n is an integer), we iteratively apply
the infinitesimal translation n times, while keeping δa constant, and then let
n → ∞.
i1
f (r + a) = lim (I + a · p̂)n f (r) = ep̂·a/ℏ f (x) (9)
n→∞ ℏn
It’s acknowledged that p acts as the infinitesimal generator of translations.
Upon expanding the exponential function, we can retrieve the Taylor expansion.

3 Time Evolution Symmetry

Time evolution symmetry corresponds to the invariance of physical properties
under changes in time. The generator of time evolution, denoted by Ĥ, repre-
sents the Hamiltonian operator in quantum mechanics.

3.1 Mathematical Formulation

The Schrödinger equation dictates the time evolution of a quantum state:
∂
iℏ Ψ(x, t) = ĤΨ(x, t) (10)
∂t
Here, ℏ represents the reduced Planck constant, while Ĥ stands for the
Hamiltonian operator. Remarkably, the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ serves as the
generator of time evolution:

ℏ2 d2
Ĥ = − + V (x) (11)
2m dx2
where m denotes the mass of the particle, and V (x) represents the potential
energy.

3.2 Generator
To find the generator of time translations, we observe that the Schrödinger
equation
iℏψ̇ = Hψ (12)

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may be solved for short times to write,
iHδt
ψ(t + δt) ≈ ψ(t) − ψ(t)
ℏ
iHδt
⇒ ψ(t + δt) = [1 − ]ψ(t)
ℏ
In this context, the Hamiltonian facilitates infinitesimal time translations
of the wave function. As elucidated earlier, a finite time translation can be
achieved by sequentially combining infinitesimal time evolutions, represented as
(· · · e−iHt/ℏ )(e−iHt/ℏ )(e−iHt/ℏ ) = e−iHt/ℏ . This operator,

U (t, 0) = e−iHt/ℏ (13)

is recognized as the time evolution operator. It preserves unitarity if the Hamil-
tonian is Hermitian, adhering to U † U = eiHt/ℏ e−iHt/ℏ = ⊮. Remarkably, the
time evolution operator can be represented as an infinite exponential series.
iHt −it 2 1 2 −it 3 1 3
U (t, 0) = I − +( ) H +( ) H + ... (14)
ℏ ℏ 2! ℏ 3!
Despite Û not being an observable, it holds significant importance in quan-
tum mechanics. Finding its eigenstates and eigenvalues is relatively straight-
forward. Assuming the Hamiltonian’s eigenstates are represented as H|ψn ⟩ =
En |ψn ⟩, it’s noteworthy that the energy eigenstates also serve as eigenstates of
the time evolution operator. Thus, one can establish that:

U |ψn ⟩ = e−iEn t/ℏ |ψn ⟩. (15)

The eigenvalues of U manifest as complex numbers with unit magnitude, de-
noted as e−iEn t/ℏ . These eigenvalues encapsulate the time evolution of station-
ary states, characterized by Ψn (t) = Ψn e−iEn t/ℏ .

4 Rotation Symmetry
Rotation symmetry corresponds to the invariance of physical properties under
rotations in space. The generator of rotations, denoted by L̂, represents the
angular momentum operator in quantum mechanics.

4.1 Mathematical Formulation

The action of a rotation operator R̂(θ), which rotates the wave function by an
angle θ about some axis, can be represented as:

R̂(θ)Ψ(x) = Ψ(R−1 x) (16)

where R is the rotation matrix corresponding to the rotation about the axis.
The generator L̂ of rotations is defined in terms of the angular momentum
operator:

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 d d
L̂ = −i(x −y ) (17)
dx dy

4.2 Generator
The small change in ⃗r upon making a rotation by small angle δϕ counter clock-
⃗ is δ⃗r = δ ϕ
wise about the axis δ ϕ ⃗ × ⃗r.

⃗ × ⃗r) ≈ f (⃗r) + (δ ϕ
f (⃗r + δ ϕ ⃗ × ⃗r) · ∇f
⃗ (⃗r)

From the vector triple product, we know (A × B) · C = A · (B × C) since both

of them measure the volume of a parallelepiped defined by the vectors A, B, C
ordered so that C has a positive component along A×B. Thus, using p = −iℏ∇
Applying the product rule and the fact that ∇ × (∇ × f ) = ∇2 f − ∆f , we get:

⃗ × ⃗r) ≈ f (⃗r) + (δ ϕ
f (⃗r + δ ϕ ⃗ × ⃗r) · ∇f
⃗ (⃗r)
1 ⃗ ⃗ × ⃗r)∇2 f (⃗r) + · · ·
+ (δ ϕ × ⃗r) · (δ ϕ
2!
i ⃗
≈ f (⃗r) + ⃗δϕ · (r × p)f (⃗r)
ℏ
1 i ⃗ × ⃗r) · (δ ϕ
⃗ × ⃗r)∇2 f (⃗r) + · · ·
+ ( )2 (δ ϕ
2! ℏ
i ⃗ ⃗
≈ (I + ⃗δϕ · L)f (⃗r)
ℏ
⃗ = ℏ⃗r × p⃗ is the angular momentum operator.
where L
So angular momentum generates rotations. For a finite rotation counter
clockwise about axis ϕ⃗ by angle |ϕ|,
⃗ we have
i ⃗ ⃗
f (⃗r) 7→ e ℏ ϕ·L f (⃗r) (18)
Here, L·ϕ = Lx ϕx +Ly ϕy +Lz ϕz . It’s recognized that Lx generates rotations
about the z-axis, Ly generates rotations about the y-axis, and Lz generates
counterclockwise rotations about the z-axis.
Now, if V (r) represents a spherically symmetric (central) potential, we un-
derstand that it remains unaffected by rotations. Consequently, we have LV (r) =
0. This implies Li V (r) = 0 for each i, signifying that the angular momentum
operators annihilate the potential. Moreover, it follows that L2 = i L2i also
P
annihilates a spherically symmetric potential.
Verify that this implies [Li , V (r)] = 0 for each i, and consequently, [L2 , V (r)] =
0. This outcome becomes crucial when examining motion in a central potential,
where it’s demonstrated that I 2 and, say, Lz commute with the Hamiltonian
(e.g., of the hydrogen atom), and that L2 Lx and H serve as simultaneous ob-
servables.

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 Note: Angular momentum holds a pivotal position in quantum mechanics,
diverging from its classical representation as a vector quantity. In quantum me-
chanics, angular momentum is delineated by a collection of Hermitian operators
denoted as L̂. These operators adhere to specific commutation relations:

[L̂x , L̂y ] = iℏL̂z (19)

[L̂y , L̂z ] = iℏL̂x (20)
[L̂z , L̂x ] = iℏL̂y (21)
Termed as the angular momentum commutation relations, these relations
signify that the components of the angular momentum operator cannot be pre-
cisely determined simultaneously. This limitation arises from the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle.
The total angular momentum’s magnitude, denoted by the operator L̂2 , is
defined as:

L̂2 = L̂2x + L̂2y + L̂2z (22)

The angular momentum commutation relations can be used to show that L̂2
commutes with each of the components of the angular momentum operator:

[L̂2 , L̂x ] = 0 (23)

2
[L̂ , L̂y ] = 0 (24)
2
[L̂ , L̂z ] = 0 (25)
This implies that the total angular momentum and any individual compo-
nent of angular momentum cannot be simultaneously determined with absolute
precision. In other words, upon measuring the total angular momentum L̂2 of
a system, the obtained eigenvalues correspond to a particular value of L̂2 , while
the three components L̂x , L̂y , and L̂z are well-defined but subject to a certain
degree of uncertainty due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
The specific eigenvalues of L̂2 and their corresponding eigenstates vary based
on the quantum system under consideration. However, for a system with spin
j, the general form of the eigenvalues is:

ℏ2 j(j + 1) (26)
Here, j represents a non-negative integer or half-integer, defining the total angu-
lar momentum of the system. In summary, angular momentum in quantum me-
chanics stands as a cornerstone concept, delineated by a suite of Hermitian op-
erators that adhere to precise commutation relations. These relations engender
inherent uncertainties in the determination of angular momentum components,
owing to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Nonetheless, the magnitude of
the total angular momentum can be concurrently determined with any single
component.

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5 Conclusion
Symmetry transformations and their associated generators play a central role
in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, providing insights into the underlying
structure and dynamics of physical systems. Understanding these symmetries
is essential for analyzing and predicting the behavior of quantum systems.

References
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[5] Wigner, E. P. (1939). On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous

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