Soil Chemistry

CHE3212
(4L+1 T)

Dr. H. D. Jayasekara
Department of Chemistry
University of Ruhuna
 Objectives
• This course is designed to introduce the
concept and importance of soil chemistry for
science at under-graduate level.
• The students will learn soil formation,chemical
properties of soil and their role in nutrient
availability.
 Learning Outcomes
• Explain composition and formation of soil
• Explain properties of soil
• List basic soil quality parameters(SQPs)
• Explain how to determine SQPs.
• Calculate SQPs.
• Interpret analytical Data
 Course Outline
• Composition of soil
• Soil formation
• Soil profile
• Physical and chemical properties
• Soil quality parameters
• Soil analysis
• Soil pollution
 What a Soil is?

• Soil is the loose top layer of our planet's crust.

• Soil covers a major portion of the earth's land
surface.
• It is an important natural resource that either
directly or indirectly supports most of the
planet's life.
 Importance of Soil
• Provides nutrients
• Recycles/filters water
• Stores water
• Soil is the basis of life on the earth
• Plants get nutrients from soil and plants
provided glucose and oxygen.
Terms Associated with Creation of Soil
• Infiltration
Downward movement of water through the soil
• Leaching

Dissolving of minerals and organic matter in upper layers

carrying them to lower layers

***soil type determines degree of leaching and

infiltration
 Soil Formation
• Weathering of rocks and minerals mediated
by biological ,geological and hydrological
phenomena and the formation happens over
a very long period of time.
• The surface rocks break down into smaller
pieces through a process of weathering and
are then mixed with an organic matter and
water.
 Factors of soil formation
• Soils are natural expressions of the
environment in which they were formed.
• They are derived from an infinite variety of
materials that have been subjected to a wide
spectrum of climatic conditions.
 Major Factors of Soil Formation

(1) Parent material

(2) Climate
(3) Living organisms
(4) Topography
(5) Time
 Parent Material
• Soil parent material is the material that soil
develops from, and may be rock that has
decomposed in place, or material that has
been deposited by wind, water, or ice. The
character and chemical composition of the
parent material plays an important role in
determining soil properties, especially during
the early stages of development.
 Climate
• Soils has a strong geographical correlation with
climate, at the global scale.
• Energy and precipitation strongly influence physical
and chemical reactions on parent material.
• Climate is a major factor in determining the kind of
plant and animal life on and in the soil.
• It determines the amount of water available for
weathering minerals, transporting the minerals and
releasing elements.
• Climate, through its influence on soil temperature,
determines the rate of chemical weathering
 Topography
• Topography has a significant impact on soil
formation as it determines runoff of water,
and its orientation affects microclimate which
in turn affects vegetation. For soil to form, the
parent material needs to lie relatively
undisturbed so soil horizon processes can
proceed. Water moving across the surface
strips parent material away impeding soil
development
 Landscape position
• Landscape position causes localized changes in moisture and
temperature. When rain falls on a landscape, water begins to move
downward by the force of gravity, either through the soil or across
the surface to a lower elevation. Even though the landscape has the
same soil-forming factors of climate, organisms, parent material,
and time, drier soils at higher elevations may be quite different
from the wetter soils where water accumulates. Wetter areas may
have reducing conditions that will inhibit proper root growth for
plants that require a balance of soil oxygen, water, and nutrients.
• Steepness, shape, and length of slope are important because they
influence the rate at which water flows into or off the soil. If
unprotected, soils on slopes may erode leaving a thinner surface
layer. Eroded soils tend to be less fertile and have less available
water than un-eroded soils of the same series.
 Living Organisms
• Plants affect soil development by supplying upper layers with organic
matter, recycling nutrients from lower to upper layers, and helping to
prevent erosion. In general, deep rooted plants contribute more to
soil development than shallow rooted plants because the passages they
create allow greater water movement, which in turn aids in leaching.
Leaves, twigs, and bark from large plants fall onto the soil and are broken
down by fungi, bacteria, insects, earthworms, and burrowing animals.
These organisms eat and break down organic matter releasing plant
nutrients. Some change certain elements, such as sulfur and nitrogen, into
usable forms for plants.
• Microscopic organisms and the humus they produce act as a kind of glue
to hold soil particles together in aggregates. Well-aggregated soil is ideal
for providing the right combination of air and water to plant roots.
• Animals living in the soil affect decomposition of waste materials and how
soil materials will be moved around in the soil profile.
 Time
• Time is required for horizon formation. The longer a
soil surface has been exposed to soil forming agents
like rain and growing plants, the greater the
development of the soil profile.
• Soils on older, stable surfaces generally have
well defined horizons because the rate of soil
formation has exceeded the rate of geologic erosion or
deposition.
• As soils age, many original minerals are destroyed and
many new ones are formed. Soils become more
leached, more acid, and more clayey.
 Four Soil Formation Processes
• Additions: Addition of material to the developing soil profile from
outside sources, such as organic matter from leaves, dust from the
atmosphere, or soluble salts from groundwater.
• Losses: Loss of material from the soil profile by leaching to
groundwater, erosion of surface material, or other forms of removal
(often transformation and translocation result in the accumulation
of material in a particular horizon).
• Translocation: Translocation (transportation) of inorganic and
organic materials from one horizon to another, either up or down
(material is primarily moved by water but may also be moved by
soil organisms).
• Transformation: Transformation of soil constituents from one form
to another, such as through mineral weathering and organic matter
breakdown.
 Weathering
• Processes that physically breakdown and
chemically alter earth material.
• Physical weathering: (mechanical) breakdown of
large pieces of earth material into smaller ones
without changing its chemical composition. There
are many ways earth material can be physically
weathered (water freezes in rock crevices it
expands creating stress in the crevice.
• Chemical weathering: (chemical alteration) with
water/air with the material.
Frost Wedging
 Weathering Cont.
• Oxidation takes places and a loose mantle of iron oxide is
created (rust).
• Hydrolysis: is an exchange reaction of involving minerals
and water. Mineral ions replace by H+ and OH- ions in water
and drive them into free solution. As a result, the mineral's
structure is changed into a new form. Hydrolysis is a
common process whereby silicate minerals are weathered
into a clay mineral.
• The spatial variation of climate and organisms play a
significant role in the weathering of earth materials. Dry
locations tend to be dominated by physical weathering and
moist places by chemical weathering. The type of earth
material available also determines the amount of
weathering that might take place.
 What a Soil Profile is?
• A Soil Profile is a vertical cross-section of layers of soil found in a
given area..
 What a Soil Horizon is?
• Soil horizons are the layers in a soil profile used to classify soil
types.
• Horizons based on color, texture, roots, structure, rock
fragments, and any unique characteristic worth noting.
• Master Soil Horizons are depicted by a capital letter in the order
(from top down): O, A, E, B, C, and R
 O-Horizon
The “Organic Matter” Horizon
• Surface-layer, at depths of 0-2
feet
• Dark in color, soft in texture
• Humus - rich organic material
of plant and animal origin in a
stage of decomposition
• Leaf litter – leaves, needles,
twigs, moss, lichens that are
not decomposing
 A-Horizon
“Topsoil” or “Biomantle”
Horizon
• Topmost layer of mineral soil,
at depths of 2-10 feet
• Some humus present, darker
in color than layers below
• Biomantle - most biological
productive layer; earthworms,
fungi, and bacteria live this
layer
• Smallest and finest soil
particles
 E-Horizon
The “Leaching Layer” Horizon
• Small layer between A & B
horizons
• At depths of 10-15 feet
• Light in color, mainly sand &
silt
• Poor mineral and clay content
due to leaching – the loss of
water-retaining plant nutrients
to the water table
• Soil particles larger than in A
horizon but smaller than in B
horizon
 B-Horizon
The “Subsoil” Horizon
• At depths of 10-30 feet
• Rich in clay and minerals like Fe & Al
• Some organic material may reach
here through leaching
• Plant roots can extend into this layer
• Red/brown in color due to oxides of
Fe & clay
 C-Horizon
The “Regolith” Horizon
• At depths of 30-48 feet
• Made up of large rocks or lumps of
partially broken bedrock
• Least affected by weathering and
have changed the least since their
origin
• Devoid of organic matter due to it
being so far down in the soil profile
 R-Horizon
The “Bedrock” Horizon
• At depths of 48+ feet
• Deepest soil horizon in the soil
profile
• No rocks or boulders, only a
continuous mass of bedrock
• Colors are those of the original rock
of the area
 The Solid Phase
The solid phase includes:
 rock and mineral fragments,
 secondary minerals,
 organic materials.

These materials are derived from parent material

via fragmentation and weathering, aerial deposition
of mineral and organic particles, and through the
biosynthesis and decomposition of plant and animal
tissue
 Inorganic Materials
• Composition –
- soils reflect the materials from which they are
made.
- Parent material for the mineral fraction of soils
are normally the primary aluminosilicate
minerals. As the name implies, these minerals are
made from aluminum, silicon and oxygen.
- together these elements account for
approximately 82 % of the earth’s crust by
weight. .
• In soil minerals, both Si and Al are found as small,
highly charged cations (Al3+ and Si4+), which
coordinate with the larger O anion (O2-) to form
silica tetrahedron and the aluminum octahedron.
In both of these structures, the small central ions
are surrounded by either four or six O2- or OH- . In
essence this "hides" the cations and exposes the
O or OH groups to solution. On a volume basis,
the larger anions dominate the soil forming
minerals and also soil minerals
• the surface chemistry in soils is dominated by
the reactions that occur on oxide and
hydroxide- rich surfaces.
• These surfaces are extremely hydrophilic and
therefore are always bathed in layers of
adsorbed water molecules surrounded by
varying volumes of "bulk" water.
• Adsorbed water has properties that differ
from bulk water
 Primary Minerals in Soils
• Primary minerals are made from the building
blocks of Al octahedra and Si tetrahedra.
Differences in minerals are related to the way
in which these elements are arranged and
how they share edges or faces and
compensate for the charges in the minerals.
• Primary minerals are formed in high temperature and high pressure
environments from the elements which are most abundant9O, si,
Al).

• From a structural view, they are arranged in either tetrahedral or

octahedral structures. Whether octahedra or tetrahedra form
depends on the size of the cation and anion and has been related to
the radius ratio.
• In general the ratio rcentral/ rcoordinated determines crystal geometry,

• however for soil forming minerals, oxygen anions are so common

that the ratio rM+ / rO= is the important consideration.
• The coordination is essentially the number of oxygens or hydroxides
that can crowd around a central cation with out excessive repulsion.
 Soil Organic Matter
• Organic matter is soil comes from several sources
including plants and animals as well as the
decomposition products from these sources.
• Other sources include airborne dusts, and applied
chemicals.
• In soils the wide array of organic materials exists in
different particle sizes with different degrees of
decomposition and this translated into organics with
differing solubilities and functional grouping.
• Soil organics may be separate discrete phases or they
may be intimately associated with mineral surfaces
 Soil Organic Matter
• The major source of soil organic matter is made
of very complex substances such as
carbohydrates (Sugar, starch, hemicellulose,
cellulose, lignins, proteins (soluble proteins and
crude proteins), fats oil), waxes, tannin, resins,
pigments and organo-mineral compounds.
• The largest percentage of soil organic matter is
made of lignins and proteins. Lignin builds up as
the plant ages and it is resistant to
decomposition.
 Soil Organic Matter Cont.
• Is the organic
component of soil,
consisting of three
parts:
– Plant residues and small
living soil organisms
– Actively decomposing
matter
– Humus: Stabilized
organic matter
Role of Inherent Factors Affecting Soil
Organic Matter
• Climate
– Organic matter decomposes more quickly in warm
and humid climates that cool dry climates
• Soil Texture
– Soil aeration: more oxygen in the soil speeds up
the decomposition process
• Vegetation
– Prairie soils have more organic material added to
the soil than forest soils because of vegetation.
Importance of Soil Organic Matter
1) It is a storehouse of plant nutrients.
2) The stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and holds
nutrients in a plant available form. Hence, it contributes
to the cation exchange capacity of the soil.
3) It improves soil physical conditions.
4) It provides medium for microbial growth and activities.
5) Humus adds substantially to the buffering capacity of
soils making it less amenable to pH changes by bases or
acids.
6) Organic acids released during decomposition of the soil
organic matter aid in the process of rock mineral
weathering.
The classical separation or extraction
of soil organic matter
• a soil sample is faced with strong base and
shaken under nitrogen.
• The soluble phase is filtered and acidified to pH 2
with mineral acid.
• The soluble phase remaining after acidification is
called fulvic acid and the insoluble phase is called
humic acid.
• These are operationally defined fractions of the
soil organic matter.
• fulvic and humic acids have different properties
to complement their differences in solubility
• Fulvic and humic acids are not specific
compounds, but mixtures of different compounds
of varying molecular weight and properties.
• fulvic acids are lower in molecular weight and
more highly oxidized than humic acids.
• Although the structure of fulvic and humic acid
are unknown, a good deal of research has found
that both of these polymers contain a number of
important functional groupings that influence soil
properties and reactions such as cation exchange,
buffering, chelation and adsorption.
 Soil Organic Matter Management
• Use of cropping systems
• Reducing or eliminating tillage
• Reduce erosion
• Soil-test and fertilize properly
 Soil pH and Acidity
• Neutral soil - pH 7 (when H+ and OH- ions
are equally abundant)
• Acidic soil - pH<7 (more H+ than OH- ions
present)
• Alkaline (basic) soil - pH>7 (more
OH- than H+ ions present)
Ranges in pH usually found in
soils
 Soil pH cont.
• Soil pH affects chemical, physical, and biological properties of soils.
• Nutrient availability (optimum pH for most crops is 5.5 - 7)
• At soil pH less than 5.8, several problems may occur:
– Al and Mn toxicity
– Inhibited growth of N-fixing bacteria
– Possible deficiencies in Mg and/or Ca.
– P deficiency (P reacts with Fe and Al)

• At more than pH 7.5, other problems may occur

– Deficiency of Fe, Mn, Cu, or Zn

– P deficiency (P reacts with Ca)
Optimum pH ranges have been identified for many crops
 Types of Acidity
Active Acidity
• the acidity develops due to hydrogen (H+) and aluminium
(Al3+) ions concentration of the soil solution. The
magnitude of this acidity is limited.

(H+) that is measured with a pH electrode (best), color

indicators, dyes, litmus papers.

Includes Al3+ in solution that hydrolyzes to form H+ and

Al(OH)x species

Relatively speaking, active acidity is only a small amount

compared to reserve acidity
 Exchange Acidity

Exchange acidity may be defined as the acidity

develops due to adsorbed hydrogen (H+) and
aluminium (Al3+) ions on the soil colloids. The
magnitude of this exchange acidity is very high.
 Residual Acidity

Residual acidity may be defined as the acidity

which remains in the soil after active and
exchange acidity has been neutralized. It is
associated with aluminium-hydroxy ions and
with H and Al atoms that are bound in non-
exchangeable forms by organic matter and
silicate clay
Many processes add H+ ions to soils

1) Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water.

H+ ions are released when carbonic acid dissociates:
H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+

2) Organic acids form during the decomposition of organic matter.

H+ ions are released when these organic acids dissociate.

3) Sulfuric and nitric acids form during the oxidation of reduced forms of N and S
(e.g., NH4+ from fertilizer, elemental S).
NH4+ + O2 → NO3- + 2H+ S0 + O2 → SO42- + 2H+

4) Sulfuric and nitric acids form when sulfur oxides and nitric oxides (released into
the atmosphere by automobile emissions, industry smoke stacks, volcanoes,
forest fires) dissolve in precipitation. H2SO4 and HNO3 are strong acids and fully
dissociate in water.

5) Roots release H+ to balance internal charge when cation uptake exceeds anion
uptake.
Many processes consume H+ ions in soils

1) Weathering of most minerals (e.g., silicates, carbonates…)

2) Decomposition of organic anions

3) Reduction of oxidized forms of N, S and Fe.

4) Roots release OH- or HCO3- to balance internal charge when anion uptake exceeds
cation uptake

5) Inner sphere adsorption of anions (especially sulfate) which displaces hydroxyl

(OH-) groups
 Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC):
• Define as the degree to which a soil can adsorb and
exchange cations.
• Soil particles and organic matter have negative charges
on their surfaces. Mineral cations can adsorb to the
negative surface charges or the inorganic and organic
soil particles.
• Once adsorbed, these minerals are not easily lost when
the soil is leached by water and they also provide a
nutrient reserve available to plant roots.
• These minerals can then be replaced or exchanged by
other cations.
 Cation Exchange Capacity
1) the number of cation adsorption sites
per unit weight of soil or
2) the sum total of exchangeable
cations that a soil can adsorb.
* CEC is expressed in milliequivalents
(meq) per 100 g of oven dry soil.
Equivalent weight = molecular or atomic wt (g)
valence or charges per formula
• CEC is highly dependent upon soil texture and
organic matter content. In general the higher
the clay and organic matter content in the soil,
the higher the CEC. CEC of most soils
increases with an increase in soil pH.
• Two factors determine the relative
proportions of the different cations adsorbed
by clays.
• -strength of adsorption; cations are not held
equally tight by the soil colloids [when the
cations are present in equivalent amounts, the
order of strength is Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ =
NH4+ > Na+ > H+
• the relative concentrations of the cations in
soil solution help determine the degree of
adsorption.
• Very acid soils will have high concentrations
of H+ and Al3+. In neutral to moderately
alkaline soils, Ca2+ and Mg2+ dominate.
Cation Exchange Capacity
 Cation Exchange Capacity
1) the number of cation adsorption sites
per unit weight of soil or
2) the sum total of exchangeable
cations that a soil can adsorb.
* CEC is expressed in milliequivalents
(meq) per 100 g of oven dry soil.
Equivalent weight = molecular or atomic wt (g)
valence or charges per formula
 Milliequivalent (MEQ)

1 meq wt. of CEC has 6.02 x 10 20 adsorption sites

MEQ of Common Cations
Element Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++
Valence 1 1 2 2
Eq. Wt 23/1=23 39/1=39 40/2=20 24/2 = 12
MEQ wt .023 .039 .02 .012
 Sample calculation for equivalent
weight for lime or CaCO3

CaCO3 - formula wt. = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100

charges involved = 2
eqwt. = 50
meq = .05 grams
Or one meq of Lime = .05grams
 Calculation of CEC with % clay and % OM

Assume Avg CEC for % OM = 200 meq/100g

Assume Avg CEC for % clay = 50 meq/100g

CEC = (% OM x 200) + (% Clay x 50)

From soil data: soil with 2% OM and 10% Clay
200 x .02 + 50 x .1 = 4 + 5 = 9 meq/100 g
• A high CEC value (>25) is a
good indicator that a soil
has a high clay and/organic
matter content and can
hold a lot of cations.
• Soil with a low CEC value
(<5) is a good indication
that a soil is sandy with
little or no organic matter
that cannot hold many
cations.
http://www.spectrumanalytic.com/support/library/ff/CEC_BpH_and_percent_sat.htm
 Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC)
• In contrast to CEC, is the degree to which a soil
can adsorb and exchange anions.
• AEC increases as soil pH decreases. It generally
plays a minor role in supplying plants with anions.
Because the AEC of most agricultural soils is small
compared to their CEC, mineral anions such as
nitrate are repelled by the negative charge on soil
colloids. These ions remain mobile in the soil
solution and thus are susceptible to leaching.
 Base Saturation
• Base saturation is defined as the percentage of
the soil exchange sites (CEC) occupied
by basic cations, such as potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na).
• Base saturation can be overestimated if there is
too much free limestone, gypsum, or salt in
the soil.
 .

Base Saturation and Hydrogen Saturation

% Base Saturation – (meq bases ÷ CEC )x 100

% Hydrogen Saturation -( meq H+) ÷ CEC x100

Example:
Cations-- H+ Ca++ Mg++ K+ Na+
meq 9.4 14 3 0.5 0.1
CEC = 27 meq/100g (sum of cations)

% base sat = 17.6 ÷ 27 x 100 = 65%

% hydrogen sat = 9.4÷27 x100 = 35%
 Testing of Soil
It is necessary to have a soil test performed to ensure a sound investment,
before purchasing land for development or inhabiting.
• A soil test can reveal the presence of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron,
molybdenum and aluminum.
• It can also analyze soil moisture content, pH( acidity and alkalinity),
electrical conductivity, organic matter, moisture content, CEC and identify
dangerous soil contaminants like benzene, petroleum hydrocarbons,
xylene and toluene.
 Standard Test Methods for pH of Soil
ASTM D4972-19
Significance and Use
The pH of the soil is a useful variable in
-determining the solubility of soil minerals
-the mobility of ions in the soil
-assessing the viability of the soil-plant
environment
• pH measurements are made in both test water and a
calcium chloride solution
• Calcium displaces some of the exchangeable aluminum.
The low ionic strength counters the dilution effect on the
exchange equilibrium by setting the salt concentration of
the solution closer to that expected in the soil solution.
• The pH values obtained in the solution of calcium chloride
are slightly lower than those measured in water due to the
release of more aluminum ions which then hydrolyses.
Therefore, both measurements are needed to fully define
the character of the soil's pH.
• For the purpose of these test methods, the
test specimens are sieved through a 2.00 mm
(No. 10) sieve. Measurements on soils or soil
fractions having particle sizes larger than 2.0
mm by these test methods may be invalid. If
soil or soil fractions with particles larger than
2.0 mm are used, it must be stated in the
report since the results may be significantly
different.
 Scope
• These test methods cover the measurement of
the pH of soils that will pass the 2.00 mm (No.
10) sieve.
• Such measurements are used in the agricultural,
environmental, geotechnical, and natural
resources fields.
• This measurement determines the degree of
acidity or alkalinity in soil materials suspended in
water and a 0.01 M calcium chloride solution.
• Two methods for measuring the pH of soils are
provided. The method to be used shall be
specified by the requesting authority. When
no method is specified, Method A shall be
used. The pH is determined in test water and a
calcium chloride solution for both methods.
Method A:
The pH is measured using a potentiometer
having a pH sensitive electrode system.
This method can be used for any
application and must be used when the
application warrants a higher level of
resolution.
Method B
The pH is measured using pH sensitive paper. This
method can be used for any application, however,
because paper typically has a lower resolution, it
provides an approximate estimate of the pH of the
soil and should not be used when the application
requires a higher level of resolution.
 Determination of Lime Requirement
Liming material is defined as a material containing calcium
(Ca) and/or magnesium (Mg) compounds capable of
neutralizing soil acidity.

 These materials include:

 limestone (both calcitic and dolomitic),
 burned lime,
 slaked lime,
 marl,
 shells,
 by-products such as sugar beet sludge, and sludge from
water treatment plants.
The quality of agricultural liming material is determined by its
purity and particle size distribution.
Why???
 Fluid Liming

Fluid lime is a term that is generally used to describe the concept

of suspending liming materials of various types in either water or
fertilizer solutions. Frequently, the liming material in fluid lime is
finely ground agricultural limestone with a high neutralizing
value.
Advantages include rapid availability and application with
existing fluid fertilizer equipment. Drawbacks are low rates of
application and relatively high cost for the lime applied.
 How Lime Neutralize the Soil Acidity?
• When added to the soil, calcium and/or magnesium dissolved from
the liming materials displaces hydrogen (H+) from the clay particles.
Remember it is the hydrogen ion (H+) that makes soils acid.
• The displaced hydrogen then reacts with carbonate.
Carbonate dissolved from the limestone materials forms carbonic
acid. Carbonic acid is not stable in soils and quickly forms carbon
dioxide and water. With this chemical process, the hydrogen (H+)
has been converted from an ion on a clay particle to a neutral
molecule of water, thereby reducing soil acidity.

H+Clay + CaCO3 (Limestone) ——> Ca++Clay + H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)

Then: H2CO3 ——> H2O (Water) + CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
• Everything that contains calcium or magnesium is not
necessarily a liming material.
Eg: Gypsum, that is calcium sulfate (CaSO4•H2O)
Why???
Determination Of Soil Organic Matter
 Soil pollution
• Results from the build up substance or effect which
adversely alters the environment by changing of
contaminants, toxic compounds, radioactive materials,
salts, chemicals and cancer-causing agents.
• The most common soil pollutants are hydrocarbons,
heavy metals (cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, zinc,
mercury and arsenic), herbicides, pesticides, oils, tars,
PCBs and dioxins.
• Until the 1970s, there was little talk of soil pollution
and its devastating effects.
 Causes of Soil Pollution
• Agricultural processes : Pesticides applied to plants, Heavy
metals can arrive in the soil by using polluted water to wet
crops and by using mineral fertilizers.

• Industry is to blame for some of the biggest soil-pollution

disasters. Heavy metals come from iron, steel, power and
chemical manufacturing plants that recklessly use the Earth
as a dumping ground for their refuse.

• Companies that try to dispose of their waste properly

contribute to the problem when faulty landfills and
bursting underground bins leach undesirable toxins into the
soil.
 Prevention of Soil Pollution
• Naturally, prevention is the best cure for soil pollution.
• Most countries have enacted tougher legislation to stop illegal
dumping.
• Educating consumers about the dangers of littering, while
encouraging recycling programs
• It is a good way to ensure everyone does their part to keep debris
where it belongs.
• Consumers can also make a concerted effort to buy organic foods to
demand that chemical pesticides aren't used on their foods.
• Over the years, stronger and more indestructible bins were created
to store hazardous materials.
• Researchers will continue to look for ways to improve
manufacturing and agricultural processes to avoid the need for
toxic byproducts.