Soil

Dirt is simply misplaced

soil!

SOIL: A RENEWABLE
RESOURCE
Soil is a slowly renewed
resource that provides most of
the nutrients needed for plant
growth and also helps purify
water.
Soil formation begins when bedrock
is broken down by physical,
chemical and biological processes
called weathering.

Mature soils have developed over

a long time are arranged in a
series of horizontal layers,
soil horizons.

Erosion
Transportation

Weathering
Deposition

Igneous rock
Granite,
pumice,
basalt

Sedimentary
rock
Sandstone,
limestone

Heat, pressure
Cooling
Heat, pressure,
stress

Magma
(molten rock)

Melting

Metamorphic rock
Slate, marble,
gneiss, quartzite

Fig. 15-8, p. 343

SOIL: Horizons

Figure 3-23

Soil Profiles

Soil Horizons
O horizon:
A horizon:
E horizon:

leaf litter
top soil
eluviation zone;

B horizon:
C horizon:
Bedrock

subsoil
parent material

eluviation is the lateral or

downward movement of dissolved or
suspended material within soil when
rainfall exceeds evaporation,
a.k.a. infiltration.
A & E horizons comprise the zone
of leaching

Soil Profiles
of the
Principal
Terrestrial
Soil Types

Figure 3-24

Mosaic of
closely
packed
pebbles,
boulders
Weak humusmineral mixture
Dry, brown to
reddish-brown
with variable
accumulations
of clay, calcium
and carbonate,
and soluble
salts
Desert Soil
(hot, dry climate)

Alkaline,
dark,
and rich
in humus
Clay,
calcium
compounds
Grassland Soil
semiarid climate)
Fig. 3-24a, p. 69

Tropical Rain Forest Soil

(humid, tropical climate)

Acidic
light-colored
humus
Iron and
aluminum
compounds
mixed with
clay
Fig. 3-24b, p. 69

Forest litter leaf

mold
Humus-mineral
mixture
Light, grayishbrown, silt loam
Dark brown
firm clay
Deciduous Forest Soil
(humid, mild climate)
Fig. 3-24b, p. 69

Coniferous Forest Soil

(humid, cold climate)

Acid litter
and humus
Light-colored
and acidic
Humus and
iron and
aluminum
compounds

Fig. 3-24b, p. 69

Soil Color

All Soil is Brown,

Right?

Wrong! Soils vary in color

depending on material make-up and
location.
The Munsell System of Color
Notation is a color catalog.

Soil scientists compare the soil next

to the color chips to find a visual
match and assign the corresponding
Munsell notation with the soil.

The wide use and acceptance of the

Munsell System allows for direct
comparison of soils anywhere in
the world.

The Munsell
system
The system categorizes by three
components: hue, value, and
chroma.
Hue: the specific color
Value: the lightness or darkness
of color
Chroma: the light intensity

Color Chip
Comparison

Soil Color Factors

Parent Material:

to color

Minerals relate

Age/Time: Older soil is often more

red

Climate: May leach, remove

coatings, or even enhance red

Topography: Uplands are more brown
and red; low lands are more
grey.
Vegetation : Conifers are more
acid, more leaching, less color
and Grasslands are more organic,
darker colors

What do the colors

indicate?

Reddish, yellowish, or brownish:

Iron oxides (variation from amount
of:moisture)
Hematite red
Goethite yellowish brown
Ferrihydrite reddish brown

White: Carbonates, gypsum, other

salts, or very leached
Black/very dark brown: Organic
matter
Purple/black: Manganese oxides

Soil
Color
Variati
on

Soil Color
Variation
A horizon:
organic coatings

B horizon:
Iron coatings

C horizon:
little coating

Soil Color
Variation

Red Sands in
Arizona

Red Georgia Soil

Colorful Soils
Green Soils & Sands in Maryland, New
Jersey, & Hawaii

White Sands in New Mexico

Dark surface soils in

the Great Plains &
the Corn Belt are
from rich organic
matter.
Hwang Ho River in China
carries yellow sediment
creating a yellow river bed.

Surface Soil Rich

in Organic Matter

Soil Texture

Particle Size
Distribution
(Texture)
Important for
determining
suitability
for various
uses
Considered a
basic property
because it
doesnt change

Properties Related to
Texture
Porosity
Permeability
Infiltration
Shrink-swell
Water holding
Capacity
Erodibility

Soil Separates
Most soils have
a combination
of soil
particles sizes

Sand
Silt
Clay

Soil Particles
Soils vary in the
size of the
particles they
contain, the amount
of space between
these particles, and
how rapidly water
flows through them.

Figure 3-25

Sand
Gritty feel
Can be seen with the
naked eye
Hand sampling:
No residue left on hand

Silt
Dry: Powdery smooth feel,
flour-like
Wet: Creamy slick, slippery
feel
No sticky or plastic feel
Can be seen with a hand lens or
microscope
Hand sampling:
Coats hand, able to brush off

Clay
Dry: Hard feel
Wet: Sticky, plastic feel
Can be seen with an
electron microscope
Hand Sampling:
Sticks to fingers

Particle Sizes
Clay: less than 0.002 mm
Silt: 0.002-0.05 mm
Sand: 0.05-2 mm
0.05-0.24 mm fine
0.25-0.49 mm medium
0.5-0.99 mm coarse
1- 2 mm very coarse

Gravels: 2-75 mm
Cobbles:75-250 mm
Stones: 250-600 mm
Boulders: >600 mm

Texture by
Feel

Fine Textured Soil

Large amounts of silt and clay,
making it "muddy" when wet
Pore spaces are small, but
numerous and hold more water
As clay soils begin to dry, they
may still hold large quantities
of water, but adhesive and
cohesive properties of water make
it unavailable for root uptake

Fine Textured Soil

Coarse Textured Soil

Large pore spaces and
allows water to easily
run through it beyond
the reach of roots
Drought-prone
Little surface area for
the particle volume,
reducing fertility

Coarse Textured Soil

Loamy Soil
A mix of
sand, silt,
and clay
that
optimizes
agricultural
productivity

Sand + Silt + Clay = 100%

34 % Sand
33 % Silt
33 % Clay

Texture =
CLAY LOAM

General Influence of Soil

Separates on Properties and
Behaviors of Soils
Property/Behavior

Sand

Silt

Clay

Water holding

Low

Med-high

high

Aeration

Good

Med

Poor

OM decomposition

Fast

Med

Slow

Water erosion pot.

Low

High

Low

Compact-ability

Low

Med

High

Sealing (ponds)

Poor

Poor

Good

Nutrient supplying

Poor

Med-high

High

Pollutant leaching

High

Med

Low

Soil Texture and

Surface Area
As particle size decreases,
surface area increases
Clay has about 10,000 times as much
surface area as sand

Surface area has a big effect

on:
Water holding capacity
Chemical reactions
Soil cohesion
Ability to support microorganisms

Influences of Soil
Properties
Organic Matter is derived
from decomposing plant
and animal remains
Humus is the dark, moist
layer found on the top of
a soil profile. This is
because it is made up of
dead and decaying matter.
It is fairly fertile in
that the decay process
adds nutrients to the
soil that plants love to
soak up

Influences of Soil
Properties
Parent Material:
Rock or original source of soil particles
Effects soil quality
Glacial outwash sands tend to be
infertile, or hold few minerals and
nutrients important for growth
Soils derived from other sources may be
relatively rich in minerals and nutrients
Usually a combination of weathered parent
materials and organic matter make a soil

Sources of Parent
Material
Weathering or
erosive actions:
heating/cooling
freezing/thawing
glaciers
water
wind
chemistry
plants & animals

Other Uses of Soil

Native North American
cultures used earth
colors as body paints.
Modern American culture
uses colored earth in
cosmetics and ceramics
and as pigments for
paints.

Porosity and
Permeability

Porosity

A measure of the amount of

pore space between grains;
the ratio of the volume of
openings (voids) to the
total volume of material.
Porosity represents the
storage capacity of
geologic material

Permeability
A measure of the ability
for fluid to pass through
the pores.

Wetlands- rich in
humus and nutrients
-Hydrology, Soil type,
Species composition

Pond
Littoral zone has soil where
rooted plants live (water lillies,
cattails)
Aides in reducing erosion

Soil Nutrition

Nutrients in Soil
Nutrients are chemical elements
and compounds found in the
environment that plants and
animals need to grow and survive.
Nitrate (NO3-),
nitrite (NO2-),
ammonia (NH3),
organic nitrogen (in the form of
plant material or other organic
compounds), and
phosphates (PO43-)(orthophosphate
and others)

Other Tests
Percolation
(permeability)
Organic matter
Salinity
Ion Exchange
Heavy and Trace Metals

Soil Degradation
The breakdown of our most
important resource.

Soil: The Final

Soil is a Frontier
vital part of the natural
environment. It influences the
distribution of plant species and
provides a habitat for a wide range
of organisms.

It controls the flow of water and

chemical substances between the
atmosphere and the earth, and acts as
both a source and store for gases
(like oxygen and carbon dioxide) in
the atmosphere.

Soil: The Final

Frontier
Soils not only reflect natural
processes but also record human
activities both at present and
in the past.
They are therefore part of our
cultural heritage.
The modification of soils for
agriculture and the burial of
archaeological remains are good
examples of this.

Without it, what

would we do?
Soil helps to provide much of
the food that humans consume.
Only 25% of the Earths surface is
made up of soil and only 10% of
that soil can be used to grow
food.

I.E., without soil, we cannot

support primary producers.
By the way, they are the base of
the trophic levels!

Major Causes of Soil

Degradation
Overgrazing
35%
Deforestation
30%
Other Agricultural
Activities
27%
Other Causes
8%

Soil Exhaustion
Agricultural systems
disrupt natural mineral
cycling.
The soil may become mineral
deficient and lose fertility.
Plants need minerals to grow
and thrive such as nitrates,
phosphates and sulfates.

Soil Erosion
The removal of trees that
stabilize slopes result in
erosion.
Erosion is the removal of the
top soil by physical means.
Deforestation is one of the
major causes of soil erosion.

Erosion from
flooding
Floodplains and tropical
rain forests are areas where
there is a lot of erosion.
most concerns about erosion are
related to accelerated erosion,
where the natural rate has been
significantly increased mostly
by human activity

Chemical Emissions
Industrial processes and
vehicles release toxic
substances which are
heavier than air and
settle on the soil.
PCBs, Heavy metals

Pesticides

Pesticides that are applied to

fields can also destroy
beneficial organisms in the soil.
Bacteria that fix nitrogen,
organisms that break down soil
(worms)
Bioaccumulation causes the
concentrations of these pesticides
to increase up the food chain.
In the United States, farmers rely
heavily on pesticides to maximize
crop output.

Toxic Seepage and

Chemical
Contamination
Chemicals released into the
environment from industrial
discharges or improperly
disposed chemicals seep into
the soil and migrate or
leach.
These chemicals can impact the
aquifer as well as the soil.

Brownfields
A Brownfield is underused or
abandoned industrial site that
is available for re-use that
may or may not be contaminated
Contamination would be mostly in
the soil and due to the previous
industrial process
Heavy metals, organic by-products,
acidic soil, etc.

Salinization
Salinization is an increase in
salt (ionic compounds) in
soil. Irrigation in areas
where the bedrock contains
high salt levels will cause
these aqueous salts to be
brought to the surface.
This problem is compounded by clearing
native vegetation.
Irrigation of farmland and
deforestation has in Western and South
Eastern Australia has caused
widespread salinization.

Desertificaion
Desertification is the expansion
of dry lands due to poor
agricultural practices, improper
soil moisture management,
salinization and erosion, forest
removal, and climate change.
Overuse of agricultural lands is the
cause.
10% of the worlds land has been
desertified.
25% is at risk.
In Mali, the Sahara desert has expanded
more than 650 km in less than 20 years.

Desalination
Desalination is used to
remove ions from water.
The Middle East has the least
amount of freshwater than any
other area on the planet and
desalination is used to provide
freshwater for agricultural and
household purposes. This
prevents salinization of the
soil through agriculture.

Contaminated Soil
Cleanup
Site cleanup
depends upon the
pollutant
Acid = neutralization
Heavy metals = chelation, detoxification
Organic solvents = incineration
Other = secure landfill
Electrokinetic separation removes
metals and organic contaminants
from low permeability soil, mud,
sludge, and marine dredging

Remediation
Biological organisms can be
used to clean up
Phytoremediation uses plants to
remove pollutants from the soil;
as the soil takes up water
through the root systems, it
takes up the pollution and
incorporates it into the plant
tissue.
Bioventing introduces air into
the soil which promotes
biodegradation

Conservation
What is soil
conservation?
The protection of soil
against erosion or
deterioration

How can we do that?

Agricultural Methods
No-till or minimum tillage
methods protect the top soil
Shaping of the land
decreases runoff
Windbreaks prevent erosion
from wind
Crop rotation prevents
nutrient depletion

Aquatic Protection
Protection along riparian zone
Riprap

Lake zones with emergent

plants protect sediment
(littoral zone)
Wetlands are characterized by
the type of soil present, the
hydrology and the species of
flora and fauna

Alternative
Irrigation
Drip irrigation methods
deliver water directly to
the plant which
Reduces water loss through
evaporation
Increases crop yield and
efficiency
Reduces erosion potential
Protects the top soil