7 Pesticides: Background and Status

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CHAPTER 7
Pesticides
BACKGROUND AND STATUS
Pests cause a reduction in size, yield, storage, and market quality of crops and
food and serve as vectors in the spread of diseases. To control pests, a series of
chemicals, called pesticides, have been developed. Pesticides include acaricides or
miticides, used against mites; algicides, used against algae; attractants, used to attract
insects, birds, and other animals; chemosterilants, used to interfere with reproduc-
tion; defoliants, used to remove leaves from plants prior to harvest or to eliminate
unwanted plants; fungicides, used against fungi; herbicides, used against weeds;
insecticides, used against insects; molluscicides, used against slugs and snails; ovi-
cides, used against insect eggs; repellents, used to drive animals or insects away;
and rodenticides, used against rats, mice, and other rodents.
Pesticides are biologically active chemicals that kill or modify the behavior of
problem insects, animals, microorganisms, weeds, and other pests. Pesticides are
used as aerosols, sprays, and dust (in granular form) or as baits. They may be effective
on contact, be taken up by the plant, enter the lungs or trachea of animals, or be
eaten. The quantity of the pesticide used, the type of pesticide, and how it is used
are very important in the control of troublesome pests.
Pesticides produce useful and harmful effects, depending on the type and quantity
used and the method of application. About half of all pesticides are used in farming.
Roughly 5% is used by governmental agencies and the balance, by residential and
industrial users. Currently, we are using more than 1.1 billion lb of pesticides
annually.
Pesticides are categorized by their lifetime of effectiveness as follows: nonpersistent,
lasting several days to about 12 weeks; moderately persistent, lasting 1 to 18 months;
persistent, which includes most of the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as dichlorodiphe-
nyltrichloroethane (DDT), aldrin, and dieldrin, lasting many months to 20 years; and
permanent, including mercury, lead, and arsenic, lasting indefinitely. Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) used in asphalt, ink, and paper behave very much like the persistent
pesticides and require close control to avoid contamination of the environment.
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© 2003 by CRC Press LLC

348 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Pesticides that degrade or deteriorate rapidly are also of great concern because
of their extreme toxicity and because of their nonselectivity in their action on
animals, humans, and pests. Organophosphates would be an example of this type of
pesticide.
A pesticide moves through an ecosystem in numerous ways. It is introduced by
surface application, spraying, or other techniques and may stay in the air or be
washed down by rain. The concentrations of the pesticide continue to increase in
the soil over time; and where leaching occurs, the pesticide can move into surface
or underground water supplies. Some pesticides become tightly bound to soil par-
ticles, polluting the surface waters when the surface particles are washed into them
by the force of heavy rains. Some pesticides are ingested by minute, aquatic organ-
isms, and scavengers and become concentrated as they move up through the food
chain. It is known that oysters, for instance, will concentrate DDT in their tissues
70,000 times greater than amounts found in the surrounding waters. Fish also
concentrate pesticides as part of the food chain. Eventually, the pesticides may reach
humans and, at least in the case of DDT, are stored in the fatty tissues.
The major pesticide laws in effect in the United States were totally rewritten in
1972 and updated in 1978 and in 1988 as amendments to the 1947 Federal Insecti-
cide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). This law forbids anyone, including
the federal government, from using a pesticide contrary to label instructions and
gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to restrict the use
of pesticides to trained persons. The law applies to interstate and intrastate use and
sale of the product. It provides screening procedures for new pesticides suspected
of causing cancer, birth defects, or mutations. Based on this law, the EPA has taken
action against the use of kepone, DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, mirex,
and mercury-based pesticides. At present, the only exception to these actions is made
by the EPA if the agency believes that the benefits outweigh the potential adverse
effects and no alternatives are available, if a significant health problem occurs without
its use, or if an emergency exists.
In 1996, the Food Quality Protection Act became law. It made changes in FIFRA
as well as the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), with the EPA estab-
lishing tolerances (maximum legally permissible levels) for pesticide residues in
food. Tougher standards were set to protect infants and children from pesticide risks,
which include an additional safety factor to account for developmental risks and
incomplete data when considering the effect on infants and children, and any special
sensitivity and exposure to pesticide chemicals that infants and children may have.
As a result of this new law, the EPA announced in August 1999 the cancellation of
the uses of the organophosphate pesticide methyl parathion and significant restric-
tions on the use of the organophosphate azinphos methyl on food typically eaten by
children.
Under present EPA orders, all individuals, including public health workers, who
are involved in the use of pesticides, must take comprehensive examinations and be
registered in the use of pesticides by category of employment. Because the use of
pesticides is increasing, the dangers may increase and the current status in succeeding
years may deteriorate unless further action is taken.

PESTICIDES 349
Current Issues
The first pesticide act was enacted in 1947. When the USEPA was founded in
1970, the FIFRA authority was transferred from the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) to the EPA. In 1972, Congress passed the Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act as an amendment to the original pesticide act. It provided for direct
controls on the use of pesticides, for classification of certain pesticides into a
restricted category, for registration of the manufacturing plants, and for a national
monitoring program for pesticide residues. Environmental effects and risks were
added to the pesticide registration process.
The 1972, FIFRA amendments required a review of all the registered products
in use. The review was to be completed by 1975. Unfortunately, because of the large
amount of data to be collected and the large number of products to be assessed, the
General Accounting Office (GAO) determined it would take until the year 2024 for
this work to be done. As a result, the entire reregistration process simply broke down.
From the very beginning, the EPA had problems with the pesticide regulation
program and with the process of implementing the 1972 amendments to FIFRA.
However, this act still did not resolve the many problems related to pesticide regu-
lation. The issues were registration, tolerances (which are standards) for pesticide
residues, federal preemption of state tolerances, reregistration, inert ingredients of
pesticide formulations, regulatory options, and pesticides in groundwater.
Under FIFRA the regulation of pesticides was done through the registration of
the individual pesticide products. The products were not permitted to present unrea-
sonable adverse effects to people or the environment if the pesticide was used on a
food crop or animal feed. The regulations also required that a maximum acceptable
level of pesticide residues remaining on a treated crop be determined by the EPA,
and be monitored and enforced by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The
data required for registration of pesticide products included health and environmental
data, environmental fate, carcinogenicity, chemistry of the product, toxicity to fish
life, and mutagenicity.
The EPA established tolerances for pesticide residues in foods. Tolerances deter-
mined the maximum amount of pesticide residue that could be permitted in food or
animal feed so as not to be considered an adulteration of the product. Tolerance-
setting procedures to protect human health include anticipated amount of pesticide
residues found on food; toxic effects of these residues; estimates of the types and
amounts of food that make up our diet; field trials of pesticide use and residues;
toxicity studies; product chemistry data; and plant and animal metabolism studies
including metabolites.
The EPA recognizes that the diet of infants and children may differ substantially
from those of adults and that they may be exposed to pesticide residues in food at
levels higher than adults receive. By using a computerized database known as the
Dietary Risk Evaluation System (DRES), EPA combines survey information on food
consumption and data on the pesticide residues to estimate dietary exposure. DRES
breaks out a number of subgroups in the population, including infants, children and
other age groups, several different ethnic groups, and regional populations. EPA

appropriately identifies childhood or infant exposures for special consideration when

looking at the risks for discrete periods of time. EPA also calculates a cumulative
lifetime exposure that integrates the exposure rates experienced in infancy and
childhood and takes the exposures experienced in adulthood. If risks are at an
unacceptable level, then the EPA takes action to reduce those risks.
The federal government, under the 1988 law, preempted the tolerances estab-
lished by state law. The problem was that the EPA standards were currently consid-
ered to be a floor and not a ceiling for standards for any given pesticide. Therefore,
the states could have more stringent standards. However, if this occurred, it could
have interfered or hindered the flow of products through interstate commerce and
hindered the marketing of pesticide products, pest treatment services, and treated
commodities. The states argued that the data that had been used to determine the
allowable amount of pesticides in the food or feed product may not have been
accurate, and over a long term it was the right of the states to protect their citizens.
The FIFRA amendments authorized the EPA to conduct a “generic” review of
the safety of the active ingredient. The EPA had identified some 600 active ingre-
dients considered to be commercially important among the 1500 active ingredients
officially registered with them. An estimated 40,000 studies about these pesticides
were in the EPA files. Only two pesticide active ingredients had been reregistered
under this process until this point. Also under the 1988 law, all existing pesticides
must be reviewed and reregistered, with industry required to provide the test data
for the review. By 1993, the EPA had issued 31 reregistration documents.
The EPA also investigates inert ingredients. An inert ingredient is that part of
the pesticide formulation that is not intended to have any pesticidal activity. It is
used either to dilute the pesticide or to propel it or deliver it in some manner.
Unfortunately, some of the inert ingredients have potentially adverse effects on
people. Vinyl chloride gas is a human carcinogen that has been used as an aerosol
propellent. Of the approximately 1200 compounds used as inert ingredients in
pesticides, the EPA has determined that 55 are known toxics that may cause animal
cancer or nerve damage; 51 compounds are structurally related to the known toxic
compounds; and 900 compounds are of unknown toxicity.
In the past 3 years, the federal government, under the 1996 law, has registered
48 new safer pesticides that have a lower risk for infants and children than that of
the organophosphates. Children are at a greater risk than adults because their internal
organs are still developing and maturing; and their enzymatic, metabolic, and
immune systems may provide less natural protection from chemicals, especially
pesticides. At critical times in human development exposure to a toxin can perma-
nently alter the way an individual’s biological system operates. Children may also
be exposed more to certain pesticides because they often eat different foods than
adults. For example, children typically consume larger quantities of milk, applesauce,
and orange juice per pound of body weight than adults. Children play on the floor
or on the lawn where pesticides are commonly applied. They also put objects in
their mouths, thereby increasing their chance of exposure to pesticides. The EPA is
requiring hundreds of additional studies on pesticides to better understand their effect
on children, especially developmental, acute, and subchronic neurotoxicity. All

PESTICIDES 351
organophosphate residue limits have been reassessed. Other high-risk pesticides are
receiving priority review including atrazine, aldicarb, and carbofuran. The EPA is
requiring registrants of pesticides to provide additional data on approximately
140 pesticides. Many of these currently registered conventional food use pesticides
have been observed to affect the nervous system in humans, laboratory animals, or
both. Outstanding questions about these neurotoxic effects include:
1. Do these chemicals harm the nervous system following exposure during critical
developmental stages before birth in the fetus, and after birth in infants and young
children?
2. Are the effects in the young different from those observed in an adult?
3. If similar effects occur in both the young and the adults, are the young more or
less sensitive than the adults to these effects?
The EPA uses the data collected in the studies in making decisions in the
implementation of certain aspects of the Food Quality Protection Act tolerance-
setting process, especially in making the “reasonably certain of no harm” finding
and addressing the requirement that “in the case of threshold effects…an additional
tenfold margin of safety for the pesticide chemical residue and other sources of
exposure shall be applied for infants and children….” Additional studies will be
done on the following compounds:
1. Cholinesterase-inhibiting carbamates including aldicarb, carbaryl, and carbofuran

2. Thio- and dithiocarbamates including mancozeb, maneb, and triallate
3. Pyrethrin and synthetic pyrethroids including deltamethrin, fenvalerate, and
permethrin
4. Persistent organochlorines including dicofol, endosulfan, and lindane
5. Formamidines including amitraz, tridimefon, and tridimenol
6. Mectins including abamectin and emamectin
7. Phosphides including aluminum phosphide, magnesium phosphide, and zinc
phosphide
8. Organotins including cyhexatin, fenbutatin oxide, and fentin hydroxide
9. Organoarsenicals including disodium methanearsonate, and cacodylic acid
10. Dipridyl compounds including diquat chloride, mepiquat chloride, paraquat bis-
methyl sulfate and chloride
11. Other neurotoxic pesticides including carbon disulfide, imidachloprid, and nicotine
The Food Quality Protection Act not only established a new safety standard for
pesticide residue limits in food but also for pesticide limits in feed (tolerances). To
ensure that the new standard applies to all pesticides the EPA is required to reassess
all 9721 tolerances and tolerance exemptions in effect when the law was passed in
August 1996. The EPA surpassed the required 33% needed by August of 1999. By
August 2002, 66% must be reassessed, and by August 2006, 100% must be reas-
sessed. Two thirds of the reassessment completed are for pesticides in the highest
priority group including the organophosphates, carbamates, carcinogens, and high
hazard inert ingredients. This group consists of 228 pesticides and 5546 tolerances.

The reassessments at present have resulted in the revocation of over 1500 tolerances
out of 3300 tolerances reassessment decisions. Approximately 500 of the revocations
have been for organophosphates, 100 for carbamates, 1 for an organochlorine, and
220 for carcinogens.
The EPA can revoke the registration for a pesticide if the information indicates
that the product presents an unreasonable risk to human health or the environment.
This process is called deregistration. If the chemical is canceled, the stockholders,
owners, and other individuals can demand payment of the EPA for their losses. In
the last 23 years the EPA has canceled the registration of 36 potentially hazardous
pesticides and has eliminated the use of 60 toxic inert ingredients in pesticide
products.
The National Water Quality Assessment, Pesticide National Synthesis Project is
conducted by the United States Geological Service. The first phase of intensive data
collection was completed from 1993 through 1995 in 20 major hydrologic basins
in the United States.The groundwater land-use studies are designed to sample
recently (generally last 10 years) recharged groundwater beneath specific land-use
and hydrogeologic settings. Pesticides were commonly detected in shallow ground-
water in both agricultural and urban settings in the United States. Of the agricultural
settings, 56.4% showed pesticides whereas of the urban settings, 46.6% showed
pesticides. The maximum contaminant levels established by the EPA for drinking
water were exceeded by only one pesticide, atrazine, which was greater than 3 µg/l
at a single location. However, the relative infrequency with which pesticides
exceeded drinking water criteria may not provide a complete assessment of the
overall health and environmental risks associated with the presence of pesticides in
shallow groundwater. Water quality criteria for protecting human health have only
been established for 25 of the 46 pesticide compounds evaluated in the study. The
drinking water criteria only consider the effects of individual compounds and do
not consider additive or even synergistic toxic effects of exposure to multiple chem-
icals. Other pesticide compounds and their degradates exist that were not studied.
Recent research also suggests that some pesticide compounds may cause harmful
health effects at levels considered safe by current standards. Drinking water criteria
do not provide for potential effects of pesticide compounds on aquatic systems, and
the concentration of the compounds within aquatic life.
The contamination of major aquifers is largely controlled by hydrology and land
use. Concentrations of nutrients and pesticides in 33 major aquifers were usually
lower than those in the shallow groundwater underlying the agricultural and urban
areas. Because the water that replenishes the major aquifers comes from a variety
of different sources and land-use settings, higher quality water helps reduce the
levels of contaminants in the aquifers. Deeper aquifers are usually more protected
than shallow groundwater by impermeable layers. Fertilizers, manure, and pesticides
have degraded shallow groundwater. Concentrations of nitrate exceeded the EPA
drinking water standard of 10 mg/l as N in 15% of the samples collected in shallow
groundwater beneath agricultural and urban land. Herbicides are also frequently
found in the wells. In the groundwater and surface water, 58 pesticides were detected
at least once at or above 0.01 µg/l.

PESTICIDES 353
Pesticides and Groundwater
Pesticides can reach the groundwater supply through misuse or mismanagement

related to waste disposal, spills, leaching, etc. The four main issues related to
pesticides in groundwater are:
1. Pesticides need to be detected in groundwater.

2. The EPA needs to determine at what level pesticide residues in groundwater should
trigger action.
3. If a pesticide is detected in groundwater as a result of normal use and if the
groundwater pesticide limits are exceeded, the EPA needs to decide upon an
appropriate remedy.
4. The EPA needs to decide whether a pesticide should be immediately prohibited
if it reaches substantial levels.
The National Pesticide Survey was conducted by the EPA in all 50 states between
1988 and 1990. Preliminary results indicate that 10% of the nation’s community
drinking water wells and about 4% of rural domestic wells have detectable residues
of at least one pesticide. One or more pesticides exceeding health advisory or
maximum containment levels are found in 1% of community wells and 0.8% of
rural wells. More than 50% of the nation’s wells contain nitrates, but fewer than 3%
have concentrations of health concern.
Pesticides and Groundwater Strategy
“Pesticides and Groundwater Strategy” was released by the EPA in 1991. It

includes the following six federal policies:
1. Encourage, where appropriate, less burdensome environmental agricultural prac-

tices concerning use of pesticides and fertilizers.
2. Determine appropriate regulatory approach to cancel chemicals that may threaten
groundwater.
3. Confine legal sale and use of canceled pesticides to states that have EPA approved
state plan.
4. Provide research and technical assistance supported by EPA to Department of
Agriculture and U.S. Geological Survey to assess groundwater problems and
vulnerable groundwater systems.
5. Provide clear instructions for the field use of pesticides by improving training and
certification programs.
6. Promote and encourage companies to conduct more monitoring studies, develop
safer pesticides, and prevent degradation of groundwater.
Risk–Benefit Balancing Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,

and Rodenticide Act
There are four steps in the EPA risk assessment process: hazard identification,
dose–response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. The two
steps in benefit assessment are biological analysis and economic analysis.

In hazard identification, the EPA evaluates the inherent toxicity of a pesticide,

that is, the types and degrees of harmful effects a pesticide may cause by determining
the effects on animals, especially cancer, in laboratory studies. In dose–response
assessment, laboratory animals are exposed to various doses of the chemical during
various time periods. The acute or chronic effects are determined and a no observed
effect level (NOEL) is established where noncancer effects were found. The NOEL
is divided by an uncertainty factor of 100 or more to determine the reference dose
(RFD). At or below this level it is assumed that a lifetime exposure would not cause
harmful effects. A negligible risk standard is used for cancer, where an individual’s
chance of cancer is 1 in 1 million if exposed for a lifetime.
Exposure assessment refers to the level, duration, and route of exposure of people
to chemicals identified in laboratory tests as causing harmful effects. Risk charac-
terization is the estimate of the risk from exposure to pesticides to people by
integrating the preceding factors and extrapolating exposure in animals to humans.
In benefit assessment, the EPA decides whether to cancel or approve a new pesticide
by determining the effectiveness and economic value of a pesticide compared with
alternative chemical and nonchemical controls.
Other Issues
Additional issues in the use of pesticides include food contamination, air pollu-
tion, potential indoor air pollution, preparation of professional pesticide applicators,
and pesticides related to fish and wildlife. Pesticides in foods or on foods have
become a major issue today. The scare related to the purposeful contamination of
two grapes in 1990 brought an entire food supply to a total halt and created untold
problems for the country providing the food, the agencies evaluating the food, and
the public (who in some way ended up paying for the food through taxes or through
the disposal of the rotted fruit). Some questions remain concerning the amount of
pesticides that are introduced into the food chain and the concentration of these
pesticides in the finished product because of the use of raw products that have been
exposed to the chemicals. The consumer must be protected, but the food supply
must not be destroyed.
Pesticide application can cause an air pollution problem. Air currents may carry
pesticides to the wrong area or chemicals may be dumped on the wrong area and
potentially affect people and animals.
A variety of pesticides are used on lawns and on pets. The individuals applying
these pesticides are untrained in the storage, mixing, application, and disposal of
the pesticides. Pesticides may be stored in garages or other enclosed areas, and
therefore, constitute a potential indoor air pollution problem.
Professional pesticide applicators need to be certified and recertified by their
state agencies. Many states have more stringent standards than the minimum stan-
dards established by the EPA. It is therefore necessary to determine the standards
of a given state and then decide how best to train the applicators and test them.
Pesticides may have a long-range effect on fish and wildlife, depending on the
type of accumulation that may occur. It has been known for years that DDT causes
the thinning of egg shells, which in turn prevents the successful hatching of the

PESTICIDES 355
chick in a variety of birds. Even a pesticide that is as valuable as diazinon has been
found to be harmful to fish and wildlife and, therefore, can no longer be used on
golf courses and sod farms.
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND GENERAL INFORMATION
Types of Pesticides of Public Health Importance
This section is basically concerned with the types of pesticides used to control
insects, ticks, mites, spiders, rodents, and plants of public health significance. Pes-
ticides should have certain qualities to be acceptable for use. They should be spe-
cifically toxic to harmful insects and so forth, harmless to humans, inexpensive and
easily used, rapidly degradable to nontoxic substances, nonflammable, noncorrosive,
nonexplosive, and nonstaining.
Insecticides may be used as stomach poisons, contact poisons that penetrate the
body wall, fumigants that enter through the insect’s breathing pores, desiccants that
scratch or break the body wall or absorb into the waxy protective outer coating.
Pesticides may also be listed as larvicides that kill larvae, ovicides that kill the
insect’s eggs, or adulticides that kill the adults.
Inorganic Insecticides and Petroleum Compounds
Prior to 1945, numerous inorganic pesticides were used widely. These included
the arsenical, Paris Green, used against the potato beetle; hydrogen cyanide, used
against red scale; lead arsenate, used against the gypsy moth; and sodium arsenite,
an insecticide and a weed killer. All arsenicals are now banned. Compounds of
copper, zinc, and chromium were also used as pesticides. Chlorine and sulfur made
extremely toxic compounds and were used along with salts of arsenic, lead, mercury,
and selenium. Unfortunately, many of these compounds were quite toxic to humans.
Also, some of the insects developed resistance to certain inorganic pesticides.
Petroleum oils, such as kerosene, diesel oil, and no. 2 fuel oil, were used as
mosquito larvicides. These oils, which are still in use, have certain toxic properties,
because they penetrate the tracheae of larvae and pupa of mosquitoes and anesthetize
them. A fraction of these oils mechanically interfere with the breathing process of
insects, causing suffocation. Sulfur acts as a repellent against chiggers. Borax, or
boric acid powder, is still used in buildings for roach and ant control with varying
results.
Botanicals
Probably the earliest pesticides used were pyrethrum, which is extracted from
the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium; rotenone, which is derived from
Peruvian cuve; and red squill, which is derived from the inner bulb of the plant
Urginea maritima belonging to the lily family. These chemicals are highly specific
to the pests and have a very low toxicity to humans. Today pyrethrum is used

primarily in combination with other insecticides. However, permethrin synergized

by piperonyl butoxide seems to be effective against mosquitoes that are organophos-
phate resistant. Piperonyl butoxide is derived from sesame. It is a synergist, because
it enhances the effects of many botanicals. It inactivates enzymes on the bodies of
insects and mammals that breakdown toxins. It reduces the amount of insecticide
needed and increases the chance that insects will be killed instead of just temporarily
paralyzed. Chronic exposure of humans to this synergist can cause damage to the
nervous system. Further, sumithrin is effective against mosquitoes and mites. It is
especially used to “disinsect” aircraft coming from foreign countries prior to landing.
Methoprene is directly ovicidal to cat fleas and it also sterilizes the adult. Pyrethrum
continues to be a quick insect knockdown agent. Pyrethrins are nerve poisons that
cause immediate paralysis to most insects. Human allergic reactions are common,
and cats are susceptible to pyrethrins.
Synthetic compounds similar to pyrethrum, called allethrin, resmethrin, sumith-
rin, and permethrin, have been developed and are utilized in the same manner as
natural pyrethrum. Pyrethroids are axonic poisons (they poison the nerve fiber). They
bind to a protein in nerves called the voltage-gated sodium channel. Pyrethroids
bind to the gate and prevent it from closing properly, which results in continuous
nerve stimulation. Rotenone is used to kill fish without leaving toxic by-products
for human beings. Natives of some tropical countries crush and throw plants such
as Derris and cuve into the water, and the chemicals present in the plants paralyze
the fish. Rotenone is also utilized for killing of fleas and other ectoparasites on
domestic pets. Red squill in its fortified state is used effectively in killing Norway
rats. Because of the difficulty of obtaining these pesticides from abroad during World
War II, and the military need for chemicals to kill disease-producing insects, the
United States developed a series of organic pesticides in the early 1940s. In addition,
such insecticides as DDT were recognized in Switzerland in 1939. Benzene
hexachloride was recognized as an insecticide in 1940 in France and England.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are combinations of chlorine, hydro-

gen, and carbon, They act primarily as central nervous system poisons. The insect
goes through a series of convulsions and finally dies. The first major chlorinated
hydrocarbon was dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). DDT has been highly
useful for the control of mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice, ticks, and mites, reducing
considerably the level of malaria, plague, typhus fever, yellow fever, encephalitis,
and so forth.
Although DDT has been banned for general use in the United States, with the
exception of a serious uncontrollable emergency, it is still an effective chemical for
the control of mosquitoes, which may cause malaria or other diseases. DDT enters
the ecosystem and is stored in animal fat. However, in public health a decision must
be frequently made as to the relative importance of one hazard vs. another. Therefore,
DDT is still used abroad in the interior of homes in areas where malaria is prevalent.
The DDT, if applied carefully, leaves a residue on the structures that will last from

PESTICIDES 357
6 to 12 months. It also does not readily escape into the environment. The dosage in
the residual spray should be 100 to 200 mg/ft2.
Methoxychlor and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) are part of the DDT
group. Methoxychlor, safer than DDT because it is less toxic to mammals, is utilized
in many household sprays and aerosols, is readily metabolized and eliminated in the
urine of vertebrates, and also does not remain within the environment for more than
a short period of time. Methoxychlor is used to kill mosquito larvae and control
flies and insects that attack livestock or occur in agricultural areas. As a larvicide,
methoxychlor is applied at a rate of 0.05 to 0.20 lb/acre. DDD is now banned.
Benzene hexachloride (BHC), with a musty odor and a short residual life, was
widely used in public health and in agricultural programs. BHC has now been
canceled. The gamma isomer of BHC has significant insecticidal activity. BHC is
currently used abroad as a residual spray at a dosage rate of 25 or 50 mg/ft2 for the
control of mosquitoes causing malaria or other diseases. It has a residual effect for
about 3 months. Benzene hexachloride is a misnomer. It should be, technically,
hexachlorocyclohexane.
Lindane, the pure gamma isomer of BHC, is highly effective as an ingested
poison and as a residual contact insecticide; and has been used for control of lice,
ticks, and other insects. Lindane vaporizers, used to control flies in food establish-
ments, are dangerous and should never be used. Short-term exposure can cause high
body temperature and pulmonary edema. Long-time exposure can lead to kidney
and liver damage. Its use has been restricted. In Southeast Asia, lindane was used
in irrigation waters to control rice stem borers. Unfortunately, the chemical killed
the fish that were the protein sources for the local population. In overseas areas
where the vector of plague, the flea Xenopsylla cheopis, still exists and where DDT
is not effective, it is recommended that a 1% lindane solution be applied to ensure
adequate control of this rodent flea. Lindane in a 1% emulsion may be used for
treating infested household sites within the house and in the yard. To control body
lice 1% lindane powders are used. The brown dog tick can be controlled with a
0.5% lindane spray, with spot treatments on baseboards, floors, wall crevices, and
areas where the animal sleeps. Lindane can still be used for dogs. It is banned for
any type of fumigation.
Chlordane, dissolvable in many solvents but not in water, is used to produce oil
solutions, emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, and dusts. This chemical acts
as a stomach poison, contact insecticide, and fumigant; is effective in spot control
of ants, American roaches, silver fish; and has also been used extensively on soil
insects, particularly termites. Chlordane had been extremely effective, although
German roaches have built up a resistance to it. It is probably the least toxic of the
chlordane series, which includes chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
isodrin, and toxaphene. In July 1975, the EPA suspended the use of chlordane
because it is suspected of causing cancer in animals and it readily contaminates the
environment.
Heptachlor had been used effectively for mosquito larvicide control. Heptachlor
production was also suspended by the EPA as a suspected link to cancer in animals
and because it is highly toxic to humans. It remains for long periods of time in the

environment and readily contaminates the water, soil, and air. Aldrin and dieldrin,
considered to be effective chemicals for insect control, were found to be highly toxic
when misused, because of killing fish, birds, mammals, and even human beings.
These chemicals are also suspected of carcinogenic activity; and these too have been
suspended from use since 1974. However, dieldrin still is used overseas at a rate of
25 or 50 mg/ft2 as a residual spray in those areas where malaria or other mosquito-
borne diseases are prevalent.
Endrin, one of the most poisonous of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, is highly
toxic, persists in the environment, and is a hazard to animals and humans. This
chemical should be used only when necessary and under strict supervision, is not
recommended for general use, and is now banned for general use.
Isodrin and toxaphene are both highly toxic chemicals, persisting for long periods
of time in the environment. They are not recommended for use as insecticides. They
are now banned for general use.
Chlordecone, better known as kepone, is a very effective chlorinated hydrocarbon
when used as insect bait. Kepone may last as long as 1 year without being altered.
When used in proper dosages, that is, 0.125% peanut butter bait, kepone is effective
against both roaches and ants, and produces a high kill; however, when used improp-
erly or produced improperly, it can be very toxic to humans. Therefore, the produc-
tion of the chemical should be closely monitored, the disposal of waste in the
chemical process controlled, and the bait carefully handled. Kepone can be placed
in a paraffin bait and still be very effective for the control of American roaches.
Kepone has been banned.
Endosulfan is a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide and acaricide of the cyclo-
diene group that acts as a poison to a wide variety of insects and mites on contact.
It is a hazardous, restricted-use pesticide.
Organophosphates
The organophosphates are derived from phosphoric acid and inhibit the enzyme
cholinesterase. The poisoned synapse cannot stop the nerve impulse after it crosses
the synapse. In many cases, these chemicals have replaced the chlorinated hydro-
carbons, because they are effective against insects that have become resistant to the
chlorinated hydrocarbons; they are biodegradable; they do not contaminate the
environment for long periods; and they have fewer long-lasting effects on organisms
that are not meant to be treated with these chemicals. However, organophosphates
vary tremendously in toxicity. The organic phosphorous insecticides include tetra-
ethylpyrophosphate (TEPP), chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, phosdrin, and parathion,
which are highly toxic; bayer 29493, baytex, dimethoate, fenthion, dimethyldichlo-
rovinyl phosphate (DDVP), and diazinon, which are moderately toxic; and abate,
gardona, dipterex, malathion, and ronnel, which are slightly toxic.
TEPP is used in greenhouses and on fruits and vegetables. It is highly toxic
when mishandled and causes severe poisoning. It contaminates the environment for
short periods of time. As of the year 2000, all eight tolerances have been revoked
by the EPA.

PESTICIDES 359
Phosdrin and parathion are highly toxic insecticides that are fatal to humans if
only one drop is placed in the eye. They should only be used by highly experienced,
licensed, commercial operators. They are used as larvicides for mosquitoes at a rate
of 0.1 lb/acre in rural areas away from children and animals. Phosdrin is now banned
by the EPA. Most uses of parathion has been voluntarily canceled.
DDVP, dichlorvos, and vapona are all the same compound. This pesticide is
useful as a fumigant because it is highly volatile; is highly toxic, but breaks down
quickly; and is generally used in fly control as a spray or fog or in impregnated
strips. In strip form DDVP is effective for mosquito control for 2.5 to 3.5 months
if used at a rate of one strip per 1000 ft3. It may also be used in catch basins with
one strip suspended 12 in. below the catch-basin cover, per basin. Dichlorvos is used
in a sugar solution as a bait for fly control. This chemical is mixed with water and
used as an outdoor space spray for flies or mixed with water and used as a fly
larvicide.
Dichlorvos, because it has only a short residual life, is most effective rapidly
and presents a short residual hazard to the environment. However, vapona strips
should not be suspended over food, because a drop of the chemical could collect at
the bottom of the strip and fall into the food, creating a potential chemical food
poisoning. It would not be wise to hang vapona strips in areas where individuals
suffer from upper respiratory ailments, because the chemical is discharged slowly
over a long period of time and could become either an irritation or a hazard to the
individual. Dichlorvos should not be used around food. It is a restricted-use pesticide
and may be used only by certified applicators.
Diazinon is utilized in fly and roach control and other insect control problems
related to vegetables and fruits. It is a toxic chemical and should never be used in
cases where there is potential contact with humans or pets. The residual period in
the environment is fairly short, varying from 1 week to at most 2 months. Diazinon
should not be used in poultry farms, because it is toxic to birds. In fly control,
diazinon is mixed with petroleum compounds or water and used as a space spray,
or mixed with water and used as a larvicide. In roach control, diazinon is effective
in reducing or eliminating all roaches, including German roaches. At this time, only
the German roach appears to be developing some resistance in some areas of the
country to the compound. Solutions usually contain the following concentrations of
diazinon: spray, 0.5%; dust, 1%. However, pest control operators are permitted to
use 1% spray and 2 to 5% dust. Diazinon cannot be used on golf courses or sod
farms. It is a restricted-use pesticide and may be used only by certified applicators.
Dipterex or trichlorfon is used in sugar and water as a bait for flies. In areas
where garbage, organic materials, and manure are controlled, the fly bait works
effectively and rapidly. Dipterex is also used as a bait with some success in roach
control. It is a general use pesticide.
Abate, or temephos, is used at a rate of 0.05 to 0.1 lb/acre for larvicidal control
of mosquitoes. It is a general use pesticide. Chlorpyrifos is used in mosquito control
for ground-applied outdoor space, spraying at a rate of 0.0125 lb/acre; and also is
used as a mosquito larvicide at a rate of 0.05 to 0.125 lb/acre. The chemical is
effective in control of roaches at a 0.5% concentration. When painted on a surface

over which German roaches crawl, chlorpyrifos has a strong residual effect, causing
a kill of 90% of roaches for up to 1 year. The chemical persists in the environment
from several days to as long as 1 year. Chlorpyrifos is a general use pesticide.
Dimethoate is used for outdoor space spraying for flies and also for larvicidal
control outdoors for flies. Fenthion must be used by trained mosquito control per-
sonnel only, and is used in ground-applied outdoor space spraying for mosquitoes
at a rate of 0.001 to 0.1 lb/acre. Fenthion is used as a larvicide at a level of 0.05 to
0.1 lb/acre, but must be carefully handled by trained personnel. Also, this chemical
is effective in roach control, but must only be used by pest control operators as a
spray at a rate of 2.0% concentration.
Gardona is a relatively safe, nonsystemic, broad-spectrum organophosphate used
for fly and tick control. However, gardona is highly toxic to bees, but it persists in
the environment for only short periods of time. Naled is moderately toxic to animals.
It has a very short residual period in the environment, and is used as an outdoor
ground-applied space spray at a rate of 0.02 to 0.1 mg/ft2 for mosquito control. It
is also used as an outdoor space spray for flies in liquid form, and as a bait in a
sugar solution. Naled is corrosive to the eyes. Ronnel, or korlan, is used to control
flies in an agricultural area. Its toxicity is slight and its residual period in the
environment is very short. It is hazardous to livestock or dairy food. Ronnel has
been canceled.
Malathion is a slightly toxic compound available for general use. It is a nonsys-
temic, wide-spectrum organophosphate insecticide used for control of flies, mosqui-
toes, household insects, ectoparasites, and head and body lice. It is available as an
emulsifiable concentrate, a wettable powder, a dustable powder, and a liquid.
Malathion may also be found in formulations with many other pesticides.
Carbamates
The carbamates are derived from carbonic acid. Most of the carbamates are
contact insecticides. They inhibit the cholinesterase activity and act as nerve poisons,
similar to the organic phosphorous compounds, but inhibition is reversible without
antidotal treatment. Several of them produce a rapid knockdown, as produced by
pyrethrum. The carbamates include sevin, which is also called carbaryl and dimeti-
tan; baygon, which also called propoxur; and landrin.
Carbaryl is widely used in public health and agriculture. It is one of the safer
insecticides for animals, but is highly toxic to bees. Carbaryl is formulated only as
a solid, which is then used as a wettable powder, slurry, or dust. This chemical
remains for a relatively short period of time in the environment. Carbaryl dusts are
used in a 2 to 5% concentration to kill fleas on dogs and cats older than 4 weeks.
It is also used in the United States to kill the oriental rat flea in murine typhus control
programs. The sprays and dusts have been used in adult mosquito control. Carbaryl,
when used as an outdoor space spray, is concentrated at a level of 0.2 to 1.0 lb/acre
for the control of mosquitoes. It is a general use pesticide.
Dimetitan is highly toxic when ingested and moderately toxic when absorbed
through the skin. It is impregnated into plastic bands and suspended near the ceilings
of farm buildings for use in fly control.

PESTICIDES 361
Propoxur (baygon) acts as a stomach poison and contact poison in roach control
and also in tick control. The spray has a long-lasting residual contact. This insecticide
also differs from others in that it has a flushing or irritating action that forces insects
out of hiding areas, and it has a rapid knockdown action. Baygon is used to control
mosquitoes, flies, sandflies, ants, other insects, and the resistant brown dog tick. It
has some toxicity for animals. Apparently, it lasts for short periods of time in the
environment as a contaminant. Baygon is used in a dosage of 100 to 200 mg/ft2 for
residual spraying in mosquito control. For roach control, it is used either as a 1%
spray or a 2% bait.
Landrin has been tested by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a residual
spray in anopheles mosquito control.
Biolarvicides
Biolarvicides are naturally occurring crystalline delta-endotoxins produced by

Bacillus thuringiensis, which is lethal to the larva of mosquitoes. The mosquito
larvae ingest the delta-endotoxin, which reacts with gut secretions, causes gut paral-
ysis and disruption of the ionic regulation capacity of the midgut epithelium, and
results in death within minutes.
Insect Energy Inhibitors
Several chemicals that inhibit the production of energy are currently used as
insecticides. Hydramethylnon belongs to the chemical class amidinohydrazone. This
chemical binds to a protein called a cytochrome in the electron transport system of
the mitochondrion. This binding blocks the production of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), thereby causing the insects to die while standing. Another insecticide cur-
rently available that inhibits energy production is sulfluramid. This chemical belongs
to the halogenated alkyl sulfonamide class. The parent chemical is converted to toxic
metabolites by enzymes in the body. Many new chemicals are under development
for use as energy production inhibitors. Chemicals in the class pyrrole, thiourea, and
quinazoline are showing great promise as pesticides that inhibit energy production.
Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors
Chitin synthesis inhibitors are often grouped with the insect growth regulators.
The most notable chemical in use is benzoyphenyl urea. These chemicals inhibit the
production of chitin, which is a major component of the insect exoskeleton. The
insect is unable to synthesize new cuticle, thereby preventing it from molting suc-
cessfully to the next stage. This class of insecticides include lufenuron, used for flea
control on pets; diflubenzuron, used against fly larvae in manure; and hexaflumuron,
used in termite bait stations.
Insect Growth Regulators
Insect growth regulators are chemicals that act on the endocrine or hormone
systems of insects, causing them to remain in the immature state and preventing

them from emerging as adults. Methoprene, hydroprene, pyriproxyfen, and fenoxy-

carb, mimic the action of juvenile hormones and keep the insects in the immature
state. Insects treated with these chemicals are unable to molt successfully to the
adult stage and cannot reproduce normally. The ingestion of the insecticide by the
larva maintains the high level of juvenile hormone and therefore the insect does not
develop the physical features for adult emergence and it dies.
Pheromones
Insects send out chemical signals or pheromones that allow them to communicate
with other members of their species. Usually the adult female produces these chem-
icals to attract males. Pheromones can be used in traps. However, the effectiveness
of the trap can be lowered by rainfall, cool temperatures, and wind speed and
direction. Each trap is specific for a different type of insect. Mating disruption with
synthetic sex pheromones has been used for some fruit and forest trees. Further
research is needed to see if this technique can be used with insects of public health
importance.
Fumigants
Fumigants are gases that kill body cells and tissues after penetrating the body
wall and respiratory tract of insects. They are purchased in either solid, liquid, or
gaseous form. Fumigants are of limited use in public health work due to special
hazards. They are flammable, toxic, highly reactive, and costly; tend to corrode
metals or damage dyes in fabrics; and lack chemical stability. The fumigants include
hydrogen cyanide, which is extremely hazardous to animals and humans; methyl
bromide, which has little or no warning odor; carbon disulfide, which is highly
flammable and explosive: chloropicrin (tear gas), which is highly irritating; ethylene
dibromide, which is now banned and desorbs very slowly from certain products;
ethylene oxide, which is highly flammable and explosive; phosphine, which may be
a fire hazard; and sulfuryl fluoride, which is not recommended for food fumigation.
In the year 2000, methyl bromide was phased out as an ozone-depleting substance.
The fumigants are important because they provide a means of destroying large
quantities of insects that infest food and may also be utilized in homes where severe
insect infestations exist. It is extremely important that all fumigants be handled very
carefully and that they be applied only by trained, licensed pest control operators
who understand the nature of the chemicals and their hazards.
Desiccants or Absorptive Dusts
Certain desiccants, which in effect damage the outer waterproof layer of the
arthopod exoskeleton either by absorbing the fatty or waxy material or by abrasion,
are used in insect control. These desiccants include finely powdered silica gels, silica
aerosols, and diatomaceous earth. The desiccants affect the water balance, causing
rapid water loss and death.

PESTICIDES 363
Other Types of Insecticides
Attractants are materials used to lure insects into traps or to make poison baits
more inviting. Attractants include, for example, sugar, peanut butter, and fish. Sex
hormones have also been tried. Some chemical attractants include methyl eugenol,
ethyl acetate, and octyl butrate.
Repellents are substances that produce a reaction in insects that makes them
avoid animals or humans. A good repellent works for several hours; is nontoxic,
nonirritating, and nonallergenic; has a pleasant odor; is harmless to clothing and
accessories; is effective against many insects; and is stable in sunlight. Some repel-
lents include oil of citronella, sulfur, dimethyl phthalate, indalone, and N,N-diethyl-
metatoluamide (DEET).
Piperonyl butoxide is a compound that acts as a synergist when added to insec-
ticides. It is a low hazard compound in itself, is not known to create environmental
problems, and is most effective when used in combination with insecticides that
require a booster to do an effective killing job.
Red Squill
Red squill is an extremely effective rodenticide against Norway rats. It may be used
fresh with live bait or water bait. Fortified red squill should be used, because the
effectiveness of this natural chemical, which comes from the inner bulb scales Urginea
maritima, varies with production techniques and the time of storage of the pesticide.
Red squill kills very rapidly, and although a single rat may develop shyness to bait,
rats in general continue to come back and feed on it for periods of time if the bait is
mixed properly. In the past, it had always been recommended that red squill be mixed
with fresh baits. This is an effective means of control of rats for a short period of time.
However, if the red squill is mixed with cracked corn and rolled oats and bound with
peanut oil, the peanut oil not only helps preserve the bait for weeks under all types of
conditions but also acts as an attractant to the rats, who return and feed on the red
squill bait. The poison is of considerable usefulness in public health, because it is one
of the least hazardous rodenticides to humans and domestic animals. Red squill causes
animals to regurgitate; because Norway rats cannot regurgitate, the poison produces
cardiac arrest, convulsions, and respiratory failure. It is used at a ratio of 3.5 to 10.0%
in baits. Red squill has been discontinued in the United States.
Cholecalciferol
Cholecalciferol is the activated form of vitamin D (vitamin D3). Its toxic effect
affects probably a combination of liver, kidney and possibly myocardium, with the
last two toxicities due to hypercalcemia. This may cause death.
Anticoagulants
The anticoagulant poisons include fumarin; diphacinone; indandione; 2-iso-

valerylindane-1,3-dione (PMP), also known as valone; warfarin; warfarin plus, also

known as sulfoquinoxalin; chlorophacinone; and brodifacoum. Each of these poisons

can be used in liquid or dry bait, with the exception of brodifacoum, which is used
in dry bait. They provide excellent control of Norway rats, roof rats, and also mice.
Because the anticoagulant poison depends on an accumulative action, it is necessary
for rodents to feed on poison bait for a period of several days. Generally, it takes
from 1 to 2 weeks to get an effective kill of the rodents present. Brodifacoum can
cause death in 4 or 5 days and present a lethal dose in one feeding. Some resistance
has been noted to warfarin in Europe and also in some parts of the United States.
However, the anticoagulants are still extremely useful and safe. It would take a large
dose of anticoagulant poison bait to cause any harmful effects in humans or animals
with the exception of brodifacoum, where smaller doses may be harmful. The
chances of getting such large doses are apparently insignificant.
Fumarin is odorous, nonflammable, and soluble in water and oil. this anticoag-
ulant is highly toxic to rats and mice and does not deteriorate in baits. It does present
a slight problem of secondary poisoning to cats, dogs, and individuals applying the
poison. Diphacinone is highly toxic to rats, cats, dogs, and rabbits. Again, the
quantity of poison necessary to harm cats, dogs, and rabbits tends to protect them.
Diphacinone is only hazardous to wildlife and fish if they feed on it continuously
for a period of days. No deterioration is found in the bait. There is a slight possibility
of hazard to the individual who is using the poison.
Indandione is an odorless compound that is also known as pival. It is soluble in
water and oil, is moderately toxic to dogs, and is hazardous to fish and wildlife if
eaten continuously over a period of time. This compound is slightly hazardous to
the person applying the poison. PMP is odorless, is insoluble in water but soluble
in oil, does not deteriorate in baits, has a slight chance of causing secondary poi-
soning to cats and dogs, and creates a slight problem for the applicator.
Warfarin is relatively insoluble in water and should not be added to baits that
contain much vitamin K. It is highly toxic to cats, moderately toxic to dogs, and
relatively nontoxic to humans, with a slight hazard to the applicator. No deterioration
occurs in the baits. Warfarin plus is warfarin containing hydroxycoumarin and
sulfaquinoxalin. This compound is available in ready-to-use baits. Sulfaquinoxalin
inhibits vitamin K-producing bacteria in rodents and therefore increases the effec-
tiveness of the warfarin. Smaller amounts are needed for control. Chlorophacinone
in laboratory tests has shown good results against Norway rats. Difethialone is a
newer anticoagulant. It is a single-feed anticoagulant that is effective on mice as
well as on rats. Bromadiolone is another single-feed anticoagulant.
Brodifacoum is an effective anticoagulant that kills warfarin-resistant Norway
rats and house mice, and can also be used for roof rats. It may be harmful or fatal
if swallowed and must be kept away from humans, domestic animals, and pets. The
product reduces the clotting ability of blood and causes hemorrhaging. The bait
should be in permanent bait stations resistant to destruction and kept away from
children, pets, domestic animals, and nontarget wildlife. It can be used around homes,
industrial, commercial, agricultural, and public buildings, and in transportation facil-
ities. It should not be used in sewers.

PESTICIDES 365
Warfarin and related compounds (coumarins and indandiones) are the most
commonly ingested rodenticides in the Unites States, with 13,345 exposures reported
in 1996. Care must be taken around these pesticides.
Other Rodenticides
Bromethalin is an effective rodenticide for rats and mice who are anticoagulant
resistant. It may be harmful or fatal if swallowed and must be kept away from humans,
domestic animals, and pets. It also causes eye irritation and should not come in contact
with skin. The product causes an uncoupling of oxidative phosphoxlation in mito-
chondria with ATP depletion and leads to fluid buildup between the myelin sheath,
pressure on the nerve axons, and increased spinal pressure. Acute poisoning has
symptoms of headache, confusion, personality change, seizures, coma, and possible
death. The bait should be in tamper-proof bait boxes or in areas inaccessible to
children, pets, domestic animals, or wildlife. It can be used for control of Norway
rats, roof rats, and house mice in and around homes, industrial and agricultural
buildings, and similar structures. It may also be used in alleyways located in urban
areas, and in and around port or terminal buildings, but should not be used in sewers.
Various other rodenticides are available. They each are discussed. Alpha naphthyl
thiourea (ANTU), is a compound that causes death by inhibiting the clotting of
blood and causing internal hemorrhaging. It is very toxic to Norway rats, but less
effective on other species. A medium degree of hazard exists in its use, because no
antidote is known. Tartar emetic is the best substance used when the compound is
ingested accidentally. ANTU should not be used more than once a year, because the
rat population will refuse the bait. The poison has also been used as a 20 to 25%
tracking powder. ANTU is quite toxic to dogs, cats, and hogs, but is ineffective
against roof rats.
Phosphorus bait is a fast-acting poison effective on Norway rats, roof rats, and
roaches. It is highly toxic to humans, especially children. Phosphorus baits should
only be used when absolutely necessary, in the absence of children, away from food,
and under the strict supervision of pest control operators. Yellow phosphorus is no
longer sold in the United States.
Zinc phosphide, usually used to kill rats and mice, is generally prepared as a
1% bait with meat or diced fruit. Tartar emetic can be added to this product to make
it less hazardous to humans; however, it should never be placed in any area where
children, dogs, or cats could consume it. This compound is an extremely hazardous
poison and therefore should be used with the greatest of care. Its use is restricted.
Sodium fluoroacetate, or 1080, is an extremely effective poison against rats and
mice. However, the poison is extremely hazardous to people, and therefore should
only be used with the greatest of care by highly skilled, licensed pest control
operators. this rodenticide causes death by paralyzing the heart and central nervous
system. The degree of hazard of this chemical is so great that it is recommended
that it never or rarely be used. The residue of the poisons must be destroyed by
burning in an open field away from any possible human or animal activity. The

operator must be extremely cautious in the destruction of this residue. This chemical
has now been banned.
Fluoracetamide, or 1081, is very effective for rat control in sewers, in either dry
or watered baits. This chemical should not be used for any other purpose because
it is extremely toxic to both humans and animals. It should be applied only by trained
pest control operators and should never or rarely be used. The remains of the poison
and the dead rodents must be burned in an open field or buried so that they cannot
be dug up. Extreme caution must be utilized if 1081 is used in rodent control. The
sale of 1081 has been discontinued in the United States.
Norbormide, better known as raticate, is a dicarboximide. It is highly toxic for
rats; slightly toxic for mice. It is extremely stable in all baits and environments.
Thallium sulfate is used as a slow-acting rat and mouse poison. It produces a variety
of neurological, circulatory, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Because of the danger
in the use of thallium sulfate, it has been banned since 1972 by the EPA.
Arsenic trioxide, sodium arsenate, and sodium arsenite are odorless powders
used for mouse and rat control. They are fast acting, but tolerance to the chemical
can develop. The arsenic compounds are extremely toxic to humans. They should
only be used by trained pest control operators where absolutely necessary, away
from children and animals. Arsenicals are now banned.
Strychnine and strychnine sulfate are odorless compounds used in mouse baits.
They may also be toxic to rats and are highly toxic to humans. It is extremely
important that strychnine compounds are not used unless absolutely necessary and
then away from humans, pets, and other animals; and used only by professionally
trained pest control operators. These chemicals have now been banned.
Crimidine is a synthetic chlorinate pyrimidine that is very hazardous, causing
violent convulsions similar to strychnine. Only specially trained personnel are
allowed to use crimidine.
Zinc phosphide is effective against rats and mice. Because it is extremely toxic
to all animals, including humans, it should only be used where absolutely essential
and should be kept away from all animals and humans. It should be applied only
by trained pest control operators.
As can be seen, many of the rodenticides are extremely dangerous to humans
or other animals. It is essential that rodenticides be selected with great care and that
they be used by trained professional people. It is preferable, whenever possible, to
utilize anticoagulants or raticate, instead of the other types of rodenticides, because
the chance of harming nontarget animals and humans is reduced.
Herbicides
Over 100 different chemicals act effectively as herbicides. They affect plants
either through contact, as a systemic poison, or as a soil sterilant. Herbicides are
important in public health work because they are used for the control of weeds and
therefore reduce insect and rodent harborage, as well as decrease the amount of
pollen present in the air. Contact herbicides kill plants through direct contact. These
chemicals may be selective or nonselective and kill all plants. Systemic herbicides
are also either selective or nonselective, therefore posing a problem to plants other

PESTICIDES 367
than those that one would want to destroy. Soil sterilants unfortunately may remain
in the environment for long periods of time, and therefore pose a problem to the
environment. Inorganic herbicides are derived from the inorganic acids in which
hydrogen is replaced by a metal. These herbicides produce a burning effect when
coming into contact with the plants. Examples are calcium arsenate, sodium chlorate,
and sodium borate. The metal organic compounds include those that have a metal
ion complex combined with an organic portion of the molecule. The herbicides are
usually used to control large areas of weeds, such as on railroad and highway right-
of-ways. An example is disodium methane arsenate.
A third group of herbicides includes the carboxyl aromatic herbicides. This group
has a carboxyl group and an aromatic group. These herbicides work as contact,
systemic, and soil sterilants. The chemicals are categorized by five basic types:
1. Phenoxy herbicides, which are systemic in nature and usually last 30 to 60 days,
are only slightly toxic to humans and animals. Examples are 2,4-dichlorophe-
noxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (cautionary statement now added for grazing animals)
and sesone.
2. Phenolactic acid is used for aquatic weed control and weed control in right-of-ways.
3. Benzoic acid compounds have a longer soil resistance and low toxicity to mam-
mals. Examples are benzac and trysben.
4. Phthalic acid compounds act to prevent weed germination. They are persistent for
about 30 days in the soil and are relatively nontoxic to mammals. Examples are
dacthal and endothall.
5. Phthalamic acid compounds also prevent weed germination. They are relatively
safe to humans and other warm-blooded animals. An example is alanap.
Other herbicides include aliphatic acid herbicides, which contain a carboxyl

group and are temporary soil sterilants. Examples are dowpon and trichloracetic
acid. Substituted phenol herbicides are used for contact killing and are applied by
sprays in such areas as railroads and highway right-of-ways. These include dinoseb
and pentachlorophenol. Their toxicity to mammals varies from moderate to very
toxic. The nitrile herbicides are used for killing the seeds of broadleaf weeds. They
are usually used in agricultural weed control.
The herbicides include chlorophenoxy compounds such as 2,4,-D and 2,4,5-
trichlorphenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). These chemicals are used for the control of
weeds and unwanted plants. They affect the kidney, liver, central nervous system,
and skin. They cause chloracne, and weakness or numbness of the arms and legs,
resulting in long-term nerve damage. Dioxin, or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(2,3,7,8-TCDD), is an inadvertently produced trace contaminant in 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
and poses the most serious health risk of these chemicals. Dioxin is a colorless solid
with no distinguishable odor. It does not occur naturally, and is not produced
intentionally by any industry, except as a reference standard. Dioxin is inadvertently
produced during the incineration of municipal and industrial waste containing chlo-
rinated organic compounds. The compound is formed when accidental transformer-
capacitor fires occur involving chlorinated benzenes and biphenyls. Dioxin may enter
the body through contact with the skin and contaminated soils or materials. It may
also enter through the ingestion of food that is contaminated. This food includes fish,

cow’s milk, and other foodstuffs. Inhalation of contaminated ambient air may contrib-
ute a small amount of total body intake; however, the inhalation of particulates such
as fly ash may constitute a major source of exposure. In humans, 2,3,7,8-TCDD causes
chloracne, which is a severe skin lesion that usually occurs on the head and upper
body. It is disfiguring and may last for years after the initial exposure. Evidence
suggests that 2,3,6,7-TCDD causes liver damage in humans as indicated by an increase
in levels of certain enzymes in the blood. There is also suggestive evidence that the
chemical causes loss of appetite, weight loss, and digestive disorders in humans. In
rodents, the chemical, if administered during pregnancy, results in malformations of
the offspring. 2,3,7,8-TCDD has been demonstrated to be a carcinogen in animals.
Biological Controls
Several techniques are being tried on an experimental basis to sterilize male

insects and set them loose in areas where females are present. The aim is to reduce
the fertility of the insects and therefore utilize a biological control. Bacillus thur-
ingiensis is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that produces toxins causing disease
in insects. This microbial insecticide is ideal for pest management because of its
specificity to pests and its safety for humans and natural enemies of pests. To be
effective, larvae must consume the bacteria during feeding. Predators have also been
utilized to destroy insects. The only problem is that the predator may become a pest
itself. In rodent control, biological control occurs when various environmental forces
are utilized in the destruction of the rats by eliminating food supplies and harborage.
The rat population density decreases. If a rat population is not tampered with by
humans, it usually expands beyond the ability of the environment to support the
number of rats. The overcrowding results in disease and competition, and therefore
an increased mortality rate and decreased natality rate. Eventually, the population
drops to a size that the environment can support.
Other Types of Pesticides
In addition to the pesticides mentioned, fungicides and bactericides are used to

prevent plant disease caused by fungi and bacteria. The nematicides are used to
control nematodes, which attack plants. Molluscicides are used to control mollusks,
which affect fishing areas or plant areas. Piscicides (fish killers) are used to treat
public waters. Their objective is to remove rough or trash fish from restocking lakes
or game fish lakes. Avicides (bird killers) are used to control birds and pigeons in
areas where they are troublesome and damage crops.
PROBLEMS CREATED BY PESTICIDES
Pesticides in the Environment
Pesticides may enter the environment by means of the air route, the food route,
and the soil route. The environment is contaminated through the indiscriminate,

PESTICIDES 369
uncontrolled, unmonitored, and excessive use of pesticides by all types of people,

including the owners of households.
Air Route
Pesticides enter the air by means of aerial spraying, the use of mists and fog
machines, and the application of pesticides by individuals using pressure containers.
The pesticides, depending on the size of the particles and the volume discharged,
the velocity of the air current, the temperature of the air, and other factors, may stay
within a given area or may contaminate areas other than those intended. It is essential
that great care be taken in the application of pesticides by the air route. The drift
and weather conditions must be considered carefully. The human hazards are caused
by inhalation, skin absorption, and ingestion of the pesticide. Pesticides may be
transported over long distances if they attach to dust particles in the air. Further,
they may be mixed in with other chemicals produced by a variety of air-polluting
situations, causing secondary chemicals to form, which are in themselves very
hazardous.
Water Route
Pesticides enter surface waters by being washed from the surface of the soil or
from plants, houses, and agricultural areas. Some pesticides percolate down into
underground water supplies through a water flow, providing access to pesticides
injected into the soil purposely for the control of insects; or through rain or snow,
washing the pesticides into the soil and slowly helping them percolate into the
underground water (Figure 7.1). The use of pesticides must be carefully controlled
and bodies of water should be regulated. Lakes and other bodies of water should be
studied carefully before pesticides are used for either mosquito control or water
weed control, because the pesticides may end up causing more harm than good. It
should be recognized that pesticides and fertilizers are used extensively by home-
owners and farmers. All these chemicals have a tendency to be washed into bodies
of water through surface drainage and through storm sewer pipes.
Food Route
Pesticides, from time to time, have caused disastrous consequences when stored
in the same vehicles transporting food. It is essential that this be forbidden, because
any breakage or leakage would cause chemical food poisoning. Food treated with
pesticides must contain the minimum quantity for effectiveness on insects and must
not cause harm to humans.
Soil
The persistence of pesticides in the soil creates a situation in which not only is
the soil contaminated but also the air may become contaminated by soil particles,
or water may become contaminated by runoff. The chemicals used should not be

regional transport
precipitation
dry deposition evaporation
spray drift
point source wind erosion
pollution
waste
water runofff
seepage
runofff
organic and inorganic materials

to downstream communities
seepage
ground water
discharge
to streams
Figure 7.1 Pesticides in the hydrologic system. (Adapted from Pesticides in Surface Waters,
U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet, FS-039-97.)
hazardous and should degrade rapidly within the soil. Those chemicals that are taken
up by plants in the soil and are hazardous to humans should not be utilized.
The persistence of a pesticide in the soil depends partially on how it is transferred
to the soil. Is it done through leaching, erosion, evaporation, or uptake of plants?
The persistence also depends on how the pesticide is degraded. Erosion is still
another factor. The algae, fungi, and bacteria found in the soil may use the organic
chemicals present as a source of energy, and therefore may reduce some of the
amounts of pesticides found in the soil. Chemical reactions may destroy some of
the activity of pesticides, while enhancing the activity of other pesticides. Diazinon
is broken down in acid conditions; however, the opposite is true for malathion
(Figure 7.2).

PESTICIDES 371
atmosphere
photochemical degradation
drifting
volatilization
incorporation into
plant tissues surface runoff
and erosion
adsorption
plant uptake microbial degradation chemical transformation
infiltration or mechanical
incorporation into soil
unsaturated zone
immobilization into soil
leaching to groundwater
groundwater
Figure 7.2 Fate of pesticides in soil.
Household Use
Homeowners are often the ones most apt to contaminate their immediate envi-
ronments or to provide opportunities for accidental poisoning of their children,
themselves, and others around them. Many homeowners have no concept of the
proper use of pesticides. They fail to read and understand the labels, use the pesticides
under hazardous conditions, and generally store pesticides in areas where children
play or can gain access, or where fires may occur. Pesticides are misused in gardens,
in homes, and in the care of household plants.
Effects of Pesticides on Humans
It is difficult to evaluate fully the human risks of chronic pesticide problems,

because very few studies have been made in this area and because of the complex
nature of the problems involved. Further, variables such as age, sex, race, socioeco-
nomic status, diet, state of health, length and state of exposure, and pesticide con-
centration level all profoundly affect the human response to pesticides. Although
cases of acute pesticide poisoning occur, one should not extrapolate these results to
chronic low-level exposures. The individual is not only exposed to pesticides in the

environment but also to dusts and various environmental conditions that can alter
the human response to any specific pesticide.
It is known that the organochlorine compounds, such as aldrin and dieldrin, can
increase the excitability of the nervous system and may damage the liver. However,
it is difficult to establish a correct diagnosis, because the symptoms vary. Certain
compounds can penetrate the unbroken skin. Lindane is believed to cause hemato-
logic disorders.
The organophosphate insecticides inhibit cholinesterase enzymes. Acute toxicity
varies greatly from one compound to another. Organophosphates penetrate the skin
easily. Carbamate pesticides also inhibit cholinesterase, but because the enzyme
deactivates rapidly within the human body, it is difficult to measure the exposure
based on this deactivation.
DDT is an organochlorine compound that becomes stored in the fat tissues of
animals and humans. It also has considerable effects on fish and wildlife.
The difficulties involved in trying to gather adequate information on the human
effects of pesticides contribute to the considerable uncertainty in determining which
pesticides are safe and which are harmful. It is impossible to do a general epidemi-
ological study, because all individuals have had some pesticide exposure; therefore,
a control group cannot be selected. More often studies are made of acute poisoning
due to pesticides among occupational groups, children, or other individuals who
have accidentally poisoned themselves. From these data, we can generally determine
the kinds of effects that humans have in the event of acute poisoning. However, even
in acute poisoning, inadequate amounts of data are available; and it is difficult to
make careful judgments about the absolute danger of the given pesticide, unless the
pesticide is taken into the body in large amounts. Chronic poisoning becomes an
even more complex and confusing issue.
The routes of entry of the pesticide include absorption through the intestines due
to ingestion, absorption through the lungs due to inhalation of airborne pesticides,
and penetration through the intact skin or absorption directly into the bloodstream
through broken skin. The route of entry depends very much on the group of indi-
viduals studied and the use of the pesticide. Absorption through the intestine occurs
when the residues that remain on food are ingested. This is probably the major route
through which pesticides enter the body. In addition, accidental poisoning of children
generally occurs through ingestion. Inhalation occurs when bug bombs or aerosol
sprays are used to control roaches and other pests in the homes or when individuals
inhale particles from fogs and mists that are used to control mosquitoes in exterior
areas. Most skin contamination occurs in occupational environments. Pesticides may
also be hazardous to humans because of the possibility of fires or explosions. This
subject has been previously discussed. In 1998, in California, 34 farm workers
became ill after exposure to carbofuran, abemectin, and mepiquat chloride (a growth
regulator), following an aerial spraying that had occurred 2 hours earlier; 30 went
to the hospital. From 1994 to 1997, in New York City, 25 people became ill when
they used aldicarb as a rodenticide. From 1989 to 1997, as many as 16 cases of
pesticide-related illness were attributed to occupational use of flea control products.
Considerable study is under way on the possibility of pesticides causing cancer.
In the future, many of our existing pesticides may be banned because they are

PESTICIDES 373
carcinogenic in animals. These studies have to be conducted with great care to ensure
that false conclusions are not drawn. It is important not to ban pesticides that are
valuable to humans and, at the same time, to protect humans from a new burden of
additional carcinogenic agents.
Resistance to Pesticides
Pests, particularly insects, develop resistance to pesticides. Some insects are less
susceptible to certain insecticides, and some are affected but not killed by insecti-
cides. Over a period of time, resistant insects survive exposure to insecticides and
reproduce new generations of increasingly resistant insects. Generally, two forms
of resistance develop in insects: physiological and behavioral. In physiological
resistance, the insect develops an immunity to the poison. The exoskeleton becomes
less permeable to the insecticide, the insecticide is detoxified into less toxic chem-
icals, or the insecticide may be stored harmlessly in the body tissues or be excreted.
Behavioral resistance is the ability of the insect to avoid lethal contact with the
insecticide because it has developed protective habits or behavioral patterns. This
includes such activities as mosquitoes changing resting places and flies avoiding
baits. Resistance of insects to insecticides is increasing. In fact, cross-resistance has
been known to occur. Studies have shown that insects resistant to certain types of
chlorinated hydrocarbons may also develop resistance to the organophosphates.
Examples of these insects would be the housefly, and the mosquitoes Culex tarsalis
and Aedes nigromaculis. It is necessary from time to time to conduct surveys to
determine whether insects are developing resistance to a given insecticide, and if
so, the insecticide should be changed.
Economics
The major question in environmental economics as it relates to pesticides is

whether the damage costs resulting from blighted crops, poor health, and higher
death rates are greater or less than the potential benefits from increased crop yield,
reduction of disease, and so forth. It is difficult to obtain a true picture of the cost-
benefit ratio in the use of pesticides generally. Each pesticide needs to be studied
and judged on an individual basis.
POTENTIAL FOR INTERVENTION
Intervention strategies include the use of the techniques of isolation, substitution,

shielding, treatment, and prevention. The potential for intervention varies from poor
to excellent, based on the understanding of the short-range and long-range problems
associated with the particular pesticide; the preparation, storage, use, and disposal
of the pesticide; and the training and ability of the pesticide applicator. Proper storage
of pesticides to avoid fire and explosions, and contamination of individuals and their
food are techniques of isolation. Substitution is the use of a less hazardous pesticide.
Shielding is the use of safety glasses and protective clothing. Treatment is the

technique used on an individual who becomes contaminated with a given pesticide.

Prevention is the overall process of keeping pesticides out of the eyes, off the skin,
away from the lungs, and away from clothing. Good housekeeping is part of the
overall prevention technique.
RESOURCES
Scientific, technical, and industry resources include the Entomological Society

of America, Pest Control Operators Association, American Public Health Associa-
tion, National Environmental Health Association, various land grant colleges and
universities, chemical manufacturers associations, and National Safety Council.
Civic resources include the National Audubon Society, Wildlife Society, and Envi-
ronmental Defense Fund.
Governmental resources include state and local health departments, USDA,
National Bureau of Standards, Department of Defense, EPA (and its site for infor-
mation on its cross-office multimedia: Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chem-
ical Initiative), Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), National
Science Foundation, and so forth.
The area of pesticides continues to change so rapidly that what is used today
may be banned tomorrow, and what does not exist today may exist tomorrow. Public
health workers or environmental health workers should obtain a document from the
EPA titled, “Suspended, Canceled and Restricted Pesticides.” A second source is
titled Handbook of Pest Control by Arnold Mallis. The third set of references would
be the current rules, regulations, and laws of the EPA. A fourth resource is the
Library of Congress, and a fifth resource is the U.S. Senate Agricultural Committee.
The National Pesticide Telecommunications Network may be reached by phone
at 800-858-7378, which is a toll-free call. The Pesticide Producers’ Association
(1200 17th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.) is another resource. The Synthetic
Organic Chemical Manufacturers’ Association (1330 Connecticut Avenue N.W.,
Washington, D.C.) is also another useful resource.
STANDARDS, PRACTICES, AND TECHNIQUES
Application of Pesticides
Pesticides are applied to standing water by the use of spray equipment. Oil
solutions or emulsions may be utilized as well. The adult mosquito is controlled by
the use of aerosol bombs, which are successful in the destruction of flying insects
such as flies and mosquitoes. Fogging and misting techniques are used in large
community programs as the major method of controlling the adult insect, especially
the mosquito. Fog and mist are produced through specialized equipment mounted
on driven vehicles and blown into the open air from the equipment. Dusting is used
largely in agricultural areas. The dust is usually applied by airplanes (Figure 7.3).
Residual spraying is carried out by applying the spray to surfaces upon which the

PESTICIDES 375
Figure 7.3 Introduction of pesticides into the environment by aerial spraying.
insects will alight or rest, usually from handheld equipment. Fumigation is the
technique of releasing large quantities of aerosols quickly into an area. In catch
basins, vapona strips are hung. This insecticide, a fumigant, is slowly released from
the solid material.
The type of equipment utilized varies from the hand sprayer, which may be 1 to
3 gal in capacity, to the aerosol bomb; to the compressed air sprayer, which is usually
3 to 4 gal in capacity; to a variety of power equipment; to aircraft application.
Pesticide Labels and Names
All pesticides must be registered for use. The registration can be revoked by the
EPA if the pesticide is determined to be a hazard to the community. Pesticide labels
and names are very important. The label on a pesticide container specifies the name
of the manufacturer; the name of the product; the active chemical ingredients and
percentages of concentration; the type of chemical, whether it is an insecticide,
rodenticide, and so forth; recommendations for specific uses; directions for use;
precautions in storage; and precautions during use by personnel.
Because many chemicals can be sold under the same brand or trade name, it is
essential to identify the actual, active chemical ingredients. The generic or common
name of the ingredients must appear on the label. The label must state specifically
what pests are controlled and what rate of application of insecticide is needed to
control the pests affected by the particular pesticide. Because the application of the
pesticide is extremely important, instructions should be listed clearly and carefully
concerning correct and safe methods of application. All labels should specify the
necessary precautions to be taken by personnel. Insecticide labels must read, keep
away from children. Where highly toxic products are used, skull and crossbones are

required on the label along with the word poison in red letters. The label should
also contain the word warning, instructions for handling, the antidote, and the
statement, call a physician immediately. Where the pesticide is not as toxic as stated
earlier, the words warning or caution should be placed on the label; and it should
be stated that a pesticide is a hazard and should be kept out of the hands of children.
Common names of the pesticides should be used when possible.
Pesticide Formulations
To use pesticides properly, it is necessary to have some understanding of the

form in which they come and also dilution specifications to achieve the proper
formulation effective for a given pesticide in a given situation. Solvents dissolve
insecticides, dispersing them evenly through the solution. The solvent is a carrier as
well as a dilutant, depending on the amount used. Solvents may include volatile
liquids, such as xylene, which evaporate after use and leave a residual deposit; or
nonvolatile or semivolatile liquids, such as petroleum distillates, which leave the
surface coated with the solution of the toxicant. The emulsifiers are surface-active
agents that allow liquids to be mixed within liquids. The emulsifier forms a thin film
around each minute droplet of oil, thereby keeping the oil from coalescing or
separating into oil and water. Wetting agents or spreading agents allow the pesticide
to penetrate a surface. Adhesives are used to improve the quality of the deposits of
the pesticide. An example of such a material would be gelatin or gum. Perfumes
and masking agents are utilized to cover the unpleasant odors of certain pesticides.
An example would be oil of wintergreen.
Synergists are materials that help a pesticide work more effectively. Examples
of synergists are piperonyl butoxide, sesamex, sulfoxide, and propylisome. Carriers
and dilutants for dust are used to help deliver the insecticide more readily in an
inexpensive manner. Examples of these carriers would be aptapulvite, bentonite,
calcite, diatonmite, and talc.
An insecticide is used in various forms. The technical grade insecticide is the
insecticide in concentrated form plus inert material. It is basically the purest chemical
form. The insecticidal dusts are prepared by blending toxic ingredients, such as
diazinon, into an inert carrier, such as talc. Wettable powders are the toxic ingredients
plus the inert dust and a wetting agent such as sodium lauryl sulfate. Water is added
and the material is agitated to form a suspension. The material must be continually
agitated so that the chemical will not settle out. Wettable powders are used frequently
in outbuildings.
In another form, the insecticidal solution may be purchased or prepared either
as a concentrate or as a finished spray. The concentrates are diluted with oil to make
the usable solution, which becomes a finished spray. The solution is not soluble in
water. When a concentrate is mixed with water and an emulsifying agent is added,
the insecticide spreads throughout the water. A finished emulsion is made by diluting
a concentrate with sufficient water to form the concentration needed for use. Aerosol
bombs typically contain 0.1 to 0.6% pyrethrums; 1 to 2% of malathion, or baygon;
10 to 12% petroleum distillates, and 85% propellant.

PESTICIDES 377
It is essential to have the correct dosage of pesticides for the proper type of pest
control. Excess pesticides may cause unsightly residues, ruination of edible crops,
toxicity to crops and animals, excess costs, and specific hazards to animals and
humans. When preparing pesticides for use, it is necessary to determine the safe
time intervals for application, the amount of residue acceptable by the FDA, the
combination of pesticides that are safe or compatible, the treatment of products for
animals, the toxicity of the pesticide to be used, the manner in which the equipment
was cleaned prior to pesticide use, the rate of application of the pesticide, the size
of the area, and the safety precautions to be taken by the operators. Always follow
the instructions on pesticide containers to determine the dilution of the pesticide to
the proper concentration.
Pesticide Application and Equipment
Pesticides may be applied as solids, liquids, or gases. Solids are usually applied
as dusts by means of hand dusting, shaker cans, bellows, vault dusters, or power
dusters. Solids may be applied as granules, pellets, gelatinous capsules, or poisonous
baits. Liquids may be applied by pouring, painting, spraying, ejecting, or using
aerosol bombs.
The method of pesticide application is based on which one effectively kills the
pest, safety of the operation, expense, durability of the pesticide, and potential
problems. Hand sprayers range from something as old fashioned as a flit gun, used
for bedbug control, to various types of compressed air or other sprayers. The sprayers
are regulated for the type of spray desired, the quantity desired, and the most
desirable pressure for delivery of the spray. It is essential that all parts of the sprayer,
including the hose and all fittings, are checked carefully to make sure that they are
thoroughly clean and do not leak. A wand is a slender metal tube that is placed on
the sprayer and connected to a nozzle that extends the length of the range of the
sprayer. The nozzle is the most important part of the sprayer. It has to be fitted so
that it will effectively deliver the kind of spray and the concentration desired.
Ultralow volume (ULV) larviciding is very effective over land or water. It is neces-
sary to have an air inversion with a 4 to 6°F difference between the hot upper air
and the cooler lower air to have ULV work effectively. Late afternoon and early
evening are the best times to larvicide with this technique.
Dusters are utilized in areas where rodent ectoparasites are found, where a fire
hazard results from the use of oils, and where oil and water are not used advisably.
Powered sprayers or foggers are generally mounted on some type of mechanical
equipment. The power unit distributes a large amount of spray at a high pressure.
It is essential that this type of spraying be carefully controlled to avoid annoying
residents of a home and also to avoid creating an accident hazard. Children have a
habit of traveling in and out of fogging machine units, thereby creating accident
hazards to the spraying crews, to automobiles, and to themselves. Wind direction
and wind velocity must be taken into account whenever power fogging or spraying
is utilized. The equipment should be operated to spray perpendicular to the wind
and should be directed as close to the ground as possible. Mists and fogs are generally

utilized to quickly knock down high concentrations of adult insects. They are eco-
nomical and can be utilized to cover large residential areas in short periods of time.
The mechanical fog generator breaks the insecticide into fine particles and then
blows it into the air at high speed. Other types of fog generators are available that
operate on either a pulsation principle, thermal principle, or steam principle.
Insecticides may also be injected into the soil to control a variety of pests,
especially termites. Fumigation equipment is used to kill insects and rodents in large
areas where people are not present. These would include railroad boxcars, hulls of
ships, certain aircraft arriving from overseas, places where arthropodborne diseases
are prevalent, food storage warehouses, and food-processing plants. Great care must
be taken in fumigation.
Insecticides may also be applied by airplanes or helicopters (Figure 7.3). Care
must be taken that the aircraft not be used as terrorist weapons. The insecticide must
not drift into residential areas and affect animals or humans. Weather conditions,
time of day, and so forth must be taken into account when aerial dispersion of
insecticides is used.
Storage of Pesticides
Pesticides must be stored with great care, because they may be highly flammable,
explosive, or toxic. Most insecticides, fungicides, and rodenticides can be stored in
the same room. However, herbicides are quite volatile, and special precautions should
be taken with their storage so that they do not contaminate the storage area or escape
to the outside, thereby damaging plants.
All storage areas should maintain the following precautions: storage areas should
be locked and located away from food, animal feed, plant seed, or water; pesticides
should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated place, as directed on the labels; storage
areas should be clearly marked as a pesticide storage area; signs should be posted
listing the types of pesticides stored and the hazards therein; pesticides should be
kept in their original containers; containers should be checked periodically for leaks,
tears, and spills; inventory lists should be kept so that outdated materials are elim-
inated and shortages are clarified.
In the event of a fire, it is extremely important that the firefighters and the general
public be protected from the fumes, residues, or washings due to the fire. Fires may
originate because petroleum distillates are present; aerosol containers become over-
heated and explode; other flammable or explosive solvents are present; finely divided
dust or powders explode; chlorates, which are flammable or explosive, are present;
ammonium nitrate fertilizers are stored; or calcium hypochlorites are present, and
may cause spontaneous ignition and explosion if contaminated by organic substances.
The hazards that exist are due to the presence of organophosphates, carbamates,
and chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are highly toxic. Further, fumes from solvents,
presence of gases, or any combination of substances may be toxic. Care must be
taken that runoff water from firefighting, which may contain highly toxic pesticides
in quantity, does not enter any of the environmental pathways.
In the event of a pesticide fire, a qualified physician should be available, hospitals
should be alerted as to the type of potential hazard, and firefighters should be

PESTICIDES 379
protected from poisoning by use of proper protective clothing and special self-
contained breathing equipment. Great care must be given to the cleanup after the
fire to make sure the firemen have removed all traces of the pesticide from their
clothing and boots. All the areas where the pesticides are present must be cleaned
with the utmost of care, and the resulting contaminated water must be trapped and
treated.
Transportation of Pesticides
Transporting toxic chemicals can be very hazardous, with the possibility of

accidents or leakage. It is essential that all regulations of the Interstate Commerce
Commission and the Department of Transportation concerning proper identification
of vehicles carrying hazardous chemicals be followed. The individuals operating
these vehicles must be fully aware of procedures to follow in the event of an accident
or emergency. Volatile pesticides should never be within the section of the vehicle
holding the passengers or the driver.
The transporting vehicles should be properly built so that powders within paper
bags are protected from rain and are not be punctured or torn. A vehicle should be
able to be easily cleaned. Where pesticides are in liquid form, they must be in tightly
closed original containers. Glass containers are not recommended. If they must be
utilized, they should be packed and transported in such a way as to avoid breakage.
Because pesticides are affected by high and low temperatures, they should be removed
from trucks as soon as possible after delivery and stored in safe, locked facilities.
In the event of an accident involving the vehicle transporting pesticides, the
drivers should immediately avail themselves of protective clothing and respirators,
and should inform the fire department, police department, and health department of
the accident. It is essential that fire, police, and health personnel understand the
nature of the toxic material and the hazards therein. It is also extremely important
that the public be kept as far away from the accident site as possible.
Disposal of Pesticides
Because pesticides in concentrated form or even in diluted form may constitute

extremely serious hazards, unused pesticides and empty containers, must be disposed
of in a safe manner. In all cases it is necessary to follow the laws, rules, and
regulations stipulated by the states, federal government, and local legal bodies. Some
types of disposal include ground disposal and incineration. Ground disposal may be
very dangerous if the pesticide can contaminate either surface or groundwater sup-
plies. Where this does not occur, it is possible to bury the pesticide in containers
that do not deteriorate. This must be a deep burial so that the pesticide cannot be
dug up inadvertently. Burial should not occur in normal landfills (see Volume II,
Chapter 2 on solid and hazardous waste).
Many pesticides are destroyed during incineration. Incineration is acceptable if
the resultant fumes or resultant waste escaping into the air is scrubbed out of the
gases, concentrated, and either reincinerated or finally buried in containers that will
not deteriorate. Pesticide containers should be handled separately and should be

buried only in areas in which the water percolating through the ground cannot carry
the pesticide into water supplies.
Ethylene dibromide (EDB), which has now been banned, is a perfect example
of a chemical that is now considered to be very harmful. Leaking drums of EDB in
Missouri showed how bad the disposal process had become.
The two classifications for wastes that affect the disposal of pesticide wastes are:
1. Hazardous waste
2. Solid waste
Pesticide waste consists of empty containers, excess mixture, rinse water, and
material generated from cleanups of spills and leaks. If the pesticide or material is
a solid waste, it can be disposed of with other solid wastes. If it is a hazardous
waste, as determined by the label, it must follow the regulations of the Resource
Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA). Farmers are exempt from complying with most
of the RCRA, whereas commercial applicators are not. However, farmers still have
to be concerned with local and state laws as well as the potential for contaminating
the soil and groundwater.
Container rinsing is required by law and also helps save money. A typical 5 gal
container will yield 0.5 oz of formulation, which saves between $8 and $10 per
container. Immediate and proper rinsing removes more than 99% of the container
residues. Properly rinsed pesticide containers pose a minimal risk for soil, surface
water, or groundwater contamination.
Agricultural Pesticides and Water
Cleaning groundwater contaminated with one or more pesticides is complicated,

time-consuming, expensive, and usually not feasible. The best solution is prevention.
Good management practices include the following:
1. Determine the susceptibility of the soil to leaching by knowing the soil texture,
organic matter content, soil moisture, and permeability affect on pesticide move-
ment. Also determine the depth of the water table and if possible the geologic
layers between the soil surface and groundwater.
2. Evaluate the pesticides to determine which one is less likely to leach into the
groundwater.
3. Evaluate location of water sources such as wells, and make sure they are properly
cased and grouted. Unprotected wells act as an immediate conduit for surface
contamination to get into the aquifer. Mixing, storing, or disposing of pesticides
should not occur within 100 ft of a well.
4. Read the label before you purchase, use, or dispose of a pesticide. Check for
groundwater advisories or other water protection guidelines.
5. Consider the weather and irrigation. Delay pesticide applications if heavy or
sustained rain is anticipated.
6. Measure pesticides carefully, calibrate the sprayer, mix and load pesticides care-
fully, and dispose of wastes properly.

PESTICIDES 381
Good management practices for surface waters follow the same items listed
previously. In addition, the slope of the field, and the relative location of lakes,
ponds, streams, canals, or wetlands need to be considered. It may be necessary to
construct a berm or bank between the application site and surface bodies of water.
MODES OF SURVEILLANCE AND EVALUATION
Surveillance and evaluation consist of the epidemiological approach, the major

incident approach, as well as analysis and monitoring. The epidemiological approach
is used to study the general population and its exposure to various pesticides over
long time periods. It is used on specific populations, such as workers exposed to
pesticides during production, use, and storage, or individuals in communities
exposed to large amounts of pesticides, especially individuals living in small farm
communities. The epidemiological approach is a technique evaluating mortality and
morbidity records of these individuals.
The major incident approach is used in situations such as the contamination of
the city of Hopewell, VA, and its surroundings by the pesticide kepone. This par-
ticular incident caused widespread kepone poisoning. At least 70 victims were
identified and 20 of these victims were hospitalized with untreatable ailments,
including apparent brain and liver damage, sterility, slurred speech, loss of memory,
and eye twitching. The National Cancer Institute reports that kepone causes cancer
in test animals. Kepone was found in shellfish 60 mi down the James River from
Hopewell. This type of incident is dangerous to a given community. It does provide,
however, large quantities of data for further analysis and evaluation. It is hoped that
these data can be utilized in preventing other types of major incidents.
Analysis and monitoring provide information on the methods by which chemicals
escape into the environment, the levels at which they are harmful, the types of
controls currently utilized, and effective control techniques. Analysis consists of
identification of the chemical, substance, and chemical entities, and the quantitative
measurement of amounts present. It also provides toxicological evaluation of the
product, its isomers, by-products, secondary products, and unreacted intermediate
products. During analysis, instruments capable of detecting concentrations in the
range of 0.01 to 100 ppm should be used. For some chemicals it is necessary to
detect even smaller quantities. Monitoring tracks specific chemicals through the
environment. To monitor properly, it is necessary to consider a wide range of
concentrations and potential toxicities and to understand the limit of detection of a
given analytic method and the behavior of the chemical in the environment. How,
when, and what to monitor, and when to stop monitoring are complex decisions that
must be made by competent professionals.
Chemical structure, reactivity, basic physical and chemical properties, proper
analytic methods and monitoring strategies, gathering of reliable analytic data,
storage of the data, and retrieval and use of the data are essential to the proper
techniques of surveillance and evaluation.

CONTROL OF PESTICIDES
Safety
Pesticides must be used with great care, because they are hazardous to humans.
Most victims of pesticide poisoning are either workers in the occupational prepara-
tion or occupational use area, individuals who inadvertently have been affected by
improper use of pesticides, or children who have eaten the pesticide. Individuals
may become chronically ill from exposure for long periods of time or acutely ill
from exposure to large quantities over a short period. Pesticides follow the respiratory
route, are absorbed through the skin, or are ingested with food.
The solvents used for dilution may also be toxic. Poisoning by pesticides of
children under 5 years of age is a serious public health hazard. It is essential that
these materials be stored out of the reach of children. Pesticides should not be stored
in pantries, under sinks, or in garages where children can reach them.
Safety rules include proper reading and understanding of labels; proper preparing
and applying of the insecticide; proper storing of the insecticide in the original
containers with the original labels; mixing of pesticides in well-ventilated areas;
mixing and applying flammable pesticides in such a way that they are not near fires,
defective wiring, smoking, or hot areas; avoiding eating, drinking, or smoking where
pesticides are used; wearing of appropriate clothing and headgear; avoiding contam-
ination of the food and water of humans and animals; avoiding inhalation of sprays
and dusts; keeping equipment in good operating condition; avoiding the storage of
partially used pesticides; proper disposing of pesticide containers; proper transport-
ing of pesticides; proper storing of pesticides; and understanding of first aid measures
where needed.
When accidental poisoning occurs, speed is the most essential concern. Proper
treatment must be given at once and the individual taken to a hospital immediately.
Poison information centers are available and usually can be reached by the telephone
operator or local hospital. The poison information center or physician supplies
information on immediate first aid, depending on the poison taken. It is essential
that the label be read to determine the chemicals present and the antidotes and
techniques used to counteract the poison. In no case should an individual be made
to vomit if unconscious, in a coma, convulsing, or after consuming petroleum
products and corrosive poisons. If eyes have been affected, they should be washed
immediately with cold water for at least 5 min. Any delay may result in permanent
injury. If the individual is in a poisonous atmosphere, remove this person as soon
as possible to fresh air. It is best to reiterate that speed is absolutely essential in any
type of pesticide poisoning. It is also essential to determine as soon as possible what
chemicals are used and to get proper help from medical authorities.
Laws and Regulatory Agencies
The FIFRA of 1947 was superseded by the Federal Environmental Pesticide

Control Act of 1972. The law forbids anyone, including the government, from using
pesticides in a manner contrary to the label instructions and gives the EPA the

PESTICIDES 383
authority to restrict use of certain pesticides to trained personnel in approved pro-

grams. It also extended control to all pesticides sold intrastate and interstate. In June
1975, regulations were published to establish a screening procedure. If a new pes-
ticide was chemically suspected of causing cancer, heart defects, or mutations, it
had to undergo testing before it could be declared safe. Any suspected pesticides
that were already registered could retain their registration until a pending test proved
that they were dangerous. These regulations also required that data be developed to
determine when farm workers may reenter fields. On October 11, 1974, the EPA
suspended the registration of aldrin and dieldrin because new evidence showed that
they were imminent hazards. Animal experiments indicated that they were carcino-
genic. The courts held that the burden of proof of the safety of a pesticide rested on
the registrant and not with the government. The court also accepted animal test
results to indicate the cancer risk to humans. In July, the EPA issued a notice of
intent to suspend the use of heptachlor and chlordane based on animal experiments
indicating that these pesticides may cause cancer. Pesticides containing myrex and
phenyl mercury compounds had also been canceled. Although the EPA has the right
to lift a ban in the event of a public health or other national emergency, generally
the agency did not do so. The only one major exception involving the use of DDT
occurred in 1974 in the forests of the northwest. DDT has been banned since 1972.
Under the 1972 act, all pesticides distributed, sold, offered for sale, held for sale,
shipped, or delivered are required to be registered with the EPA. Registration con-
sisted of filing a statement with the EPA administrator giving the name and address
of the applicant or any other name appearing on the label; the name of the pesticide;
a complete copy of the labeling of the pesticide, including directions for use; a full
description of tests made of the complete formula on request; and a request for the
type of classification, whether for general use, restricted use, or otherwise. The EPA
administrator then approves the registration of the pesticide.
Another important part of the 1972 law states that the pesticide must be used
only by certified applicators. Therefore, pest control operators have to obtain certi-
fication. Federal certification is handled by the EPA; state certification is submitted
by the governor of each state to the EPA for approval. All operators after certification
have to earn continuing certification hours credit to retain their licenses.
Registration of any pesticide is canceled if the registrant does not reapply within
a 5-year period. In addition, the EPA can cancel the registration if the pesticide is
found to be hazardous in any way. The EPA has the right to stop the sale and use,
and to order removal and seizure of any pesticide that it deems hazardous or being
used in a hazardous manner.
The 1972 law (section 171.3, categorization of commercial applicators of pes-
ticides category number 8) stipulates that all state, federal, or other governmental
employees using or supervising the use of restricted pesticides in public health
programs have to be certified. Therefore, under the 1972 law, all pesticide operators
and all public health workers involved in the control of pests of public health
importance had to be certified by October 21, 1976, by the EPA and also by the
state in which they were operating. The law was again updated in 1978 and in 1988.
The 1972 law was updated in 1975 to require impact statements and to require
the EPA administrator to submit actions concerning health matters related to pesticides

to a scientific advisory panel. The comments of the advisory committee and the
administrator have been published in the Federal Register (see current issues for
update on 1988 FIFRA amendments and 1996 Food Quality Protection Act in this
chapter).
SUMMARY
Pesticides move through the various ecosystems in the environment in a variety

of ways. When pesticides are ingested or otherwise carried by the target species,
they stay in the environment. They may be recycled rapidly or further concentrated
through bioconcentration as the pesticides move through the food chain. Most of
the large volume of pesticides utilized do not reach their intended areas and therefore
become contaminants. Pesticides are introduced into the environment by spraying
or by surface application. The storage in body fat of a pesticide is based on its
chemical nature, physical state, means of application, and atmospheric conditions.
The persistence of pesticides in the air is influenced by both gravitational fallout
and the washout caused by rain. The chemicals build up in the soil to concentrations
that affect the various ecosystems, possibly contaminating soil, water, air, and various
organisms. Pesticides can cause direct problems to humans through airborne con-
tamination, drinking water, or food contamination. The pesticide problem is increas-
ing, despite the fact that the Department of Health and Human Services, and the
EPA, are working diligently to remove dangerous pesticides from the market. How-
ever, without pesticides our society would be in great trouble, because insects and
rodents would consume valuable food supplies and cause a variety of serious dis-
eases.
It is obvious from the preceding material and concerns under discussion in this
chapter that the problem of various pests is unresolved and will probably continue as
long as we exist. It is also clear that pesticides are hazardous and must be used with
the greatest of care. Public health officials and pest control operators must be constantly
on the alert to ensure that pesticide usage is proper. With new research, effective
pesticides may be eliminated from the market because of their potential hazards as
toxins, fire, and explosion hazards, and because they are potential carcinogens.
RESEARCH NEEDS
Research is needed on all common pesticides used for the control of pests of
public health significance. It is necessary to determine whether the various chemicals
can cause a resistance in the pest that might reduce or eliminate the effectiveness
of large groups of pesticides. Chlorinated hydrocarbons must be studied to determine
their reactions with food constituents and their potential harmful effect on humans.
Recent epidemiological studies suggest that there might be a link between orga-
nochlorine compounds and breast cancer. Several pesticides have been shown to be
altered by sunlight. It is important to study photochemical alterations to determine
whether the efficiency of the pesticide is reduced in the natural environment. What

PESTICIDES 385
are the issues relating pesticides binding to macromolecular components of plant

and animal tissues used as food? Little is known about the chemistry of these bound
residues. Organophosphate pesticides may be affecting commercial sprayers,
because they have a significantly higher anxiety score on standardized tests than the
control groups. This area also needs further study. Laboratory animals have difficulty
in learning and memory because of exposure to pesticides. Chemical agents, such
as the anticholinesterase pesticides in high doses, acutely affect the nervous system.
Studies should be made over long periods of time at low-level doses to determine
if they cause irreparable damage.
Under the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), the EPA, in cooper-
ation with the USFDA, sets allowable limits for pesticide residues in food. These
limits, which are called tolerance levels, are supposed to protect human health while
allowing for the production of an adequate, wholesome, economical food supply.
Tolerance limits need to be reevaluated for many existing chemicals
Techniques of genetic engineering, as they relate to the production of genetically
engineered microorganisms under the FIFRA, need to be studied further. Although
many pesticides have been approved in the past, they need to be further studied to
determine if more stringent standards should be applied to their use. Studies should
be conducted on dioxins, which are by-products of the production of pesticides.
Studies should be conducted of the gas stream to determine the chemicals present
and their potentials for causing serious health effects when pesticides are destroyed
through incineration. Additional research is necessary in reducing the health risk of
pesticides and also in reducing the risk to the environment. Evaluations of indoor
air should be conducted to determine the level of pesticides present in the indoor
air of the home and also the potential hazards. All new and previously registered
pesticides should be screened for their potential to contaminate groundwater. Con-
tinuing studies are needed to determine the potential health effects of inert ingredients
found in pesticide formulations.

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BACKGROUND AND STATUS

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appropriately identifies childhood or infant exposures for special consideration when

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1. Cholinesterase-inhibiting carbamates including aldicarb, carbaryl, and carbofuran

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Pesticides and Groundwater

Pesticides can reach the groundwater supply through misuse or mismanagement

1. Pesticides need to be detected in groundwater.

Pesticides and Groundwater Strategy

“Pesticides and Groundwater Strategy” was released by the EPA in 1991. It

1. Encourage, where appropriate, less burdensome environmental agricultural prac-

Risk–Benefit Balancing Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,

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In hazard identification, the EPA evaluates the inherent toxicity of a pesticide,

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SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Types of Pesticides of Public Health Importance

Inorganic Insecticides and Petroleum Compounds

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primarily in combination with other insecticides. However, permethrin synergized

The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are combinations of chlorine, hydro-

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Biolarvicides are naturally occurring crystalline delta-endotoxins produced by

Insect Energy Inhibitors

Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors

Insect Growth Regulators

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362 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

them from emerging as adults. Methoprene, hydroprene, pyriproxyfen, and fenoxy-

Desiccants or Absorptive Dusts

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Other Types of Insecticides

The anticoagulant poisons include fumarin; diphacinone; indandione; 2-iso-

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364 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

known as sulfoquinoxalin; chlorophacinone; and brodifacoum. Each of these poisons

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Other herbicides include aliphatic acid herbicides, which contain a carboxyl

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