PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INSECTICIDE USE PRACTICES AND

POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR ADDRESSING INSECTICIDE USE ISSUES

(ASSIGNMENT # 01 SEMESTER 4 SPRING-2022)

Submission Date (June 10, 2022)
BY
AYESHA AMIR
ROLLL # 20012514-037
Zoo-354(Insect Toxicology)
MSc Zoology (Evening)
Submitted To
Dr. Sumera Afsheen
Department of Zoology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
I agree to take part in the above research project Problems associated with insecticide
practices……………….03
Introduction ……………………………………………………03
The problems…………………………………………………... 04
Pesticide registration and safety………………………………04
Toxicity and phytotoxicity…………………………………….05
Missmanagement and maintainence of equipement………...05
Poor availabiltyof insecticides………………………………..05
Lack of safety measures………………………………………06
Wrong dosage of insecticide………………………………….06
Pesticide missuse………………………………………………06
Low government intervention……………………………….07
Human exposure to pesticide………………………………..07
Pesticide and human health…………………………………08
Pesticide and the environment………………………………10
Potential strategies for addressing insecticide use issue…..12
Solution………………………………………………………12
Ways to make progress……………………………………..13
Before using pesticide……………………………………….14
Pesticide exposure…………………………………………...14
Personal protective equipement……………………………..14
When mixing or applying insecticide……………………….14
Storage ………………………………………………………15
Indoor aplication…………………………………………….15
Outdoor aplication…………………………………………..15
After applying an insecticide………………………………..16

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Conclusion……………………………………………………17

problems associated with insecticide use practices and potential

strategies for addressing insecticide use issues
Problems associated with insecticide practices
INTRODUCTION.
Poor insecticide coverage resulting from the use of inefficient application equipment, wrong timing,
irregularity and wrong technique of spraying are capable of accelerating the rate at which insects
develop resistance to pesticides. Hence, along with the screening of new insecticides, fungicides and
herbicides, new spraying pumps are usually evaluated.
some of the pesticides still undergoing screening and the previously recommended pesticides were
banned. This new regulation, which came into effect September 1, 2008, has left very few pesticides
Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and
other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high product
quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to function with
reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment, serious concerns
have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and from residues in food
and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the case of agricultural
workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of
house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs primarily through eating food
and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas substantial exposure can also
occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the environment (water, soil and air
contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as the detrimental effects on wildlife,
fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these effects depend on the toxicity of the
pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the dosage applied, the adsorption on soil
colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after application, and how long the pesticide persists in
the environment. Therefore, the risk assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or
on the environment is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the
periods and levels of exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and
the environmental characteristics the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of
the criteria used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on
human health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the
already approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new
tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the
potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human
health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping systems
that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action
and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide formulations
towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the adverse effects of
farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of appropriate and well-
maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are required in all stages of
pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and their potential adverse effects
on the environment.

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THE PROBLEM:
Pesticide Registration and Safety
Pesticide registration is a scientifically-based, legal, and also administrative process, where a wide
variety of effects associated with the use of a pesticide product and its potential effect on human
health and the environment is assessed. The registration is an important step in the management of
pesticides as it enables authorities primarily to determine which pesticide products are permitted to
be used and for what purposes, and also to exercise control over quality, usage rates, claims,
labelling, packaging and advertising of pesticides, thus ensuring that the best interest of end-users as
well as the environment are well protected. In addition, the registration process is restricted to the
assumption that pesticides are only used for their intended function and envisages proving that such
use does not promote unreasonable effects either on human health or on the environment. Therefore,
before any pesticide can be used commercially, several tests are conducted that determine whether a
pesticide has any potential to cause adverse effects on humans and wildlife, including endangered
species and other non-target organisms, or potential to contaminate surface waters and groundwater
from leaching, runoff, and spray drift. Effects in any non-target species may translate into ecosystem
unbalance and food-web disruption that ultimately may affect human health and edible species.
Pesticide registration is a complex process and takes considerable time, resources, and expertise on
the part of the registration authority, the pesticide manufacturing industry, and various public interest
groups. An expanding series of tests based on improved technology is used to provide precise
pesticide residue detections and toxicological assessments in response to public concern. In addition,
improved methods for hazard predictions, novel approaches to hazard reduction measures, and
incorporation of the broadening scope of relevant scientific knowledge into industry and government
policy decisions contribute to changes and improvements in the pesticide registration process.
The basic pathway for the registration of a pesticide is:
(1) research conducted by the manufacturer prior to its decision to pursue registration;
(2) submission of data report by the manufacturer to the registration authority;
(3) review of the data by the registration authority; and
(4) a decision by the registration authority either to register the pesticide, based on the merits of the
submitted data, or to deny registration.
The decisions of the registration authority to register a pesticide hinges on a benefit-to-risk analysis
of the required data. Therefore, it is essential that all steps in the registration process are transparent,
based on sound and published criteria and guidance documents, with full information shared with the
applicant on the outcomes of the various steps in the registration procedure. Also, the registration
authority ensures that each registered pesticide continues to meet the highest standards of safety to
protect human health and the environment as these standards are becoming stricter over the years
with regard to our ability to evaluate the potential effects of pesticides. Within this context, older
pesticides are being reviewed to ensure that they meet current scientific and regulatory standards.
This process, called re-registration, considers the human health and ecological effects of pesticides
and results in actions to reduce risks that are of concern. Indeed, very drastic changes have occurred
in the list of legally marketed pesticides over the last years in the EU as a result of the EU legislation
on marketed pesticides, which was enacted in 1993 and lasted effectively until December 2008.
During this period, approximately 704 active substances were banned, of which 26% were
insecticides, 23% herbicides and 17% fungicides [32]. Also, EPA in USA has completed several
individual pesticide re-registration and tolerance reassessment decisions (the results of reviews are
summarised in Re-registration Eligibility Decision documents), which improved food safety, human
health and environmental protection in the United States. The registration process for a pesticide
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usually requires the manufacturer (registrant) to conduct, analyze, and pay for many different
scientific tests. These tests define the product chemistry, risks to humans and domestic animals, the
environmental fate of the pesticide, and the impact on non-target organisms. Data required to support
an application of a registration should cover all relevant aspects of the product during its full life-
cycle. They should include the identity and physical and chemical properties of the active ingredient
and formulated product, analytical methods, human and environmental toxicity, proposed label and
uses, safety data sheets, efficacy for the intended use as well as residues resulting from the use of the

pesticide product, container management, and waste product disposal. Generation of such data for a
single compound may take several years and costs a great amount of money. Also, toxicological
testing is conducted under stringent guidelines, approved methodologies, and specified reporting
requirements. Exacting standards are necessary for consistency in the evaluations of pesticide safety
and also for the comparisons among chemicals. Ecological risk assessments to determine what risks
are posed by a pesticide and whether changes to the proposed use(s) of the product are necessary to
protect human health, wildlife, and the environment. To evaluate the environmental risks of a
pesticide product, scientists of the registration authority look at all the data together. If the risk
assessment indicates a high likelihood of hazard to wildlife or any phytotoxicity to non-target plants,
the registration authority may require additional testing and extra data or require that the pesticide be
applied only by certified individuals (i.e., restricted use). Alternatively, the registration authority may
decide not to allow its use.

Toxicity and phytotoxicity

Many of the Class I (highly or extremely toxic) pesticides are still being used in developing countries
(Friedrich, 1996). A major cause of poisoning when using knapsack or trombone sprayer is the
spilling of pesticides over the back of the operator because of a faulty locking cap of the container.
Cracks and leaks in containers and in over aged rubber hoses, and not renewing or loosing washers
are a great cause for leakages that often poison the user, wastes pesticides, causes environmental
pollution and may become phytotoxic where pesticides fall on crops at high doses (Meijden, 1998).

Mismanagement and maintenance of equipment

There have been reports of high incidence of mismanagement of equipment by farmers such as
incorrect handling, leaving mixed pesticides in the sprayer overnight etc. The farmers also
occasionally damage nozzles by enlarging the hole to increase the discharge rate. The lack of
maintenance of pesticide application equipment is as a result of lack of spare parts (due to
unavailability and unaffordability) and specialised mechanics to repair and maintain the equipment.
Most of the farmers are not literate, hence they indulge in serious malpractices in pesticide
application such as; wrong use of nozzles, mixing together of different classes of pesticides, unable
to distinguish one pest from the other, use of wrong formulations and doses, wrong timing of
application and lack of knowledge on the time needed for degradation of pesticides (Asogwa, 2006,
2008).

Poor availability of pesticides/equipment

A major constraint to good pest management in ecologies is that of inconsistent pesticide
availability. Due to limited infrastructure and inefficient supply chain, pesticides are not present
when needed, thus defeating one of its most significant advantages, that of rapid effectiveness during
sudden pest population increases. There are also serious cases of fake, adult rated and banned
pesticides still been sold in the local markets (Victor, 2008; Auwal-Ahmad and Awoyale, 2008).
Majority of the farmers still make use of substandard and inappropriate spraying pumps such as the
‘Lancet’.
However, even in cases where they use recommended pumps, little attention was paid to the use of
appropriate (cone/fan) jets and extension lances. Most of the trees are not covered adequately by the
pesticides, the target pests are missed or partially attacked, resulting in the gradual emergence of

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resistant strains (Idowu, 1989). The relatively higher deposition of spray fluids on cacao trees by the
use mainly, of high volume spraying with the pneumatic knapsack sprayer in Nigeria, as compared
with the use of low-volume spraying with motorized mist blower in Ghana, and with fogging
sprayers (insecti- cide/oil smoke) in the Cameroon, accelerated the deve- lopment of resistance in
Nigeria (Collingwood, 1976).

Lack of safety measures

Lack of safety precautions causes contaminations and poisoning in the field. Unfortunately,
investments in protective clothings, masks or gloves only pay back in terms of health and well being,
not in financial terms. Most of the cocoa farmers are ignorant of the hazardous effects of pesticides
and are very unlikely to buy protective clothings, especially in cases where they are scarce.
generally, farmers do not wear any protective materials at all, no matter what pesticide is being
applied (Meijden, 1998). Other precautionary measures are scarcely observed by these farmers as
they are found eating, smoking or drinking in-between spraying activities. The left over pesticides
and empty containers are not properly disposed as the containers are sometimes washed and used for
domestic purposes.

Wrong dosage of pesticide

Sprayer calibration is usually proposed and taught in research and training institutions, but is hardly
ever done in practice, which usually results in the use of wrong dosage of pesticides. Calibration of
sprayers is very essential even when they are in perfect working conditions. The spraying of farms
with overdose of pesticides will result in farmers incurring huge financial losses due to wastage and
phytotoxicity, which will decrease the yield. However, the major risk of overdose or underdose is the
increased likelihood for the pests to develop resistance against pesticides, which can have
devastating large-scale effects (Meijden, 1998).

Pesticide misuse
There is evidence of poor pesticide education and misuse. for instance a situation where over dosage
for the purpose of effecting rapid kill of crop pests is common among government trained, or agency
trained and assisted small-scale farmers (Ivbijaro, 1998). It has also been noticed that these farmers
sometimes use these pesticides for purposes other than that for which they are manufactured. Some
stunning revelations of pesticide misuse have been reported by some scientists (Ivbijaro, 1977;
Youdeowei, 1989; Ivbijaro, 1990, 1998) as follows:
i) Lindane formerly used for the control of cocoa mirids is poured into rivers, lakes and streams to
kill fish, which is then sold for human consumption.
ii) Mixing of fungicides and insecticides together during fungicide application period to reduce
workload of spraying each differently.
iii) Spraying Gamalin 20 on drying cocoa beans to pre- vent moulds and maggot development.
iv) Careless disposal of expired pesticides and use of pesticide containers for domestic purposes.

Poor extension services

It is the primary duty of the front line staff of the extension system to enlighten the farmers on safety
precautions as well as general knowledge on pesticide application., these systems are limited in terms
of poor staffing and mobility. Extensionists generally lack support, are poorly trained in pesticide
management, lack motivation, and there are hardly any follow-up (Meijden, 1998). The extensionists
are generally trained more on which pesticides should be used for which pest rather than on the
equipment and application techniques. Also, for the fact that extension workers are not always

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available for advice, the farmers rely on pesticide vendors and product labels for information on how
to apply the pesticides and the safety precautions. The major producers and distributors of pesticides
have in most cases not taken responsibility to provide training for their retailers to enable them assist
the end users with precautionary measures.

Low government intervention

the pesticide regulatory role of the government is generally not carried out satisfactorily. The
effective control of pesticides in the West-African sub-region remains poor and seriously hampered
by several factors including lack of proper legislative authority; shortage of personnel in pesticide
regulatory procedures, lack of infrastructure, transportation, equipment and materials, very low
budgetary allocation of operating funds, lack of formulation control and pesticide residue analysis
facilities and capabilities

According to the National Toxicology Program, there are over 80,000 registered chemicals in use in
the US — from plastics, to building materials, to pesticides, to electronics, and more. These
chemicals are not only found in the products we use at home. They are also used heavily at industrial
sites, resulting in massive environmental releases and workplace exposure.
While many of these chemicals have long-term impacts, many also have acute toxicity, posing an
immediate threat of poisoning, injury, or death from high levels of these chemicals.
And this is just what we know. What we don’t know may be the bigger danger, as the vast majority
of the 80,000+ chemicals on the market are untested and unregulated. For example, recently the EPA
encouraged scientists to reconsider a plan to ban two deadly chemicals: methylene chloride, which if
found in paint strippers, and trichloroethylene, which is used in dry cleaning. Because these toxic
chemicals are rubber stamped, we come across thousands of unregulated toxins everyday and are
forced to face the consequences. In the system we have, we are the guinea pigs, as chemicals are
Innocent until proven guilty.
Products on the market contain a vast array of
chemicals with few requirements to disclose which
chemicals are contained in which products. These products may pose threats throughout their
lifecycle, from manufacture, to use, to disposal Eventually these chemicals make their way into our
air, water, and land
Hazardous waste sites are places with high concentrations of this pollution. Among the worst are the
1,400 sites on the Superfund: National Priorities list. This exposure often leads to “body burdens,” or
the amount of chemicals and toxins that accumulate in the human body. In fact, the average
American carries dozens of industrial chemicals in their body.
Unfortunately, real world effects on health and quality of life have become commonplace. Disease
clusters are notoriously controversial investigations because we are exposed to thousands of
chemicals and disease-causing agents every day. Because of this, it is nearly impossible to
conclusively prove that a given exposure caused a given health effect. Nevertheless, we know that
these chemicals are contributing to chronic diseases and other health problems.
Marlborough, MA: Homeowners near a Citgo gas station were shocked to find that the station spilled
2,000 gallons of gasoline underground. We teamed up with this community and helped residents
engage in a budget process to raise the cleanup cap from $1.8 million to $2.8 million, reserving extra
funds to help homeowners secure a full cleanup.

Human Exposure to Pesticides and Factors Affecting Exposure

Human exposure to pesticides may occur through occupational exposure in the case of agricultural
workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of
house pest. However, irrespective of whether the occupation involves the use of pesticides, the
presence of such chemicals in the working environment constitutes potential occupational exposure.
Evidently, workers who mix, load, transport and apply formulated pesticides are normally considered
7
to be the group that will receive the greatest exposure because of the nature of their work and are
therefore at highest risk for possible acute intoxications. In some situations, exposure to pesticides
can occur from accidental spills of chemicals, leakages, or faulty spraying equipment. The exposure
of workers increases in the case of not paying attention to the instructions on how to use the
pesticides and particularly when they ignore basic safety guidelines on the use of personal protective
equipment and fundamental sanitation practices such as washing hands after pesticide handling or
before eating. Several factors can affect exposure during pesticide handling. The form of
formulation of pesticide products may affect the extent of exposure. Liquids are prone to splashing
and occasionally spillage, resulting in direct skin contact or indirect skin contact through clothing
contamination. Solids may generate dust while being loaded into the application equipment, resulting
in exposure to the face and the eyes and also respiratory hazards. The type of packaging of pesticide
products can also affect potential exposure. For example, the opening of pesticide bags can result in
some kind of exposure depending on the type of packaging in combination with the formulation of
the active ingredient. Also, the size of cans, bottles, or other liquid containers may affect the
potential for spillage and splashing. Moreover, adjuvant chemicals used in pesticide formulations to

enhance their efficiency in terms of biological activity (e.g., enhance the contact between the active
ingredient and its specific molecular target) as well as to facilitate application and reaching target
species, may show toxicity themselves, thus contributing to the overall effect of exposure to a
commercial pesticide product. Weather conditions at the time of application, such as air
temperature and humidity, may affect the chemical volatility of the product, the perspiration rate of
the human body, and the use of personal protective equipment by the users. Wind increases
considerably spray drift and resultant exposure to the applicator. The amount of pesticide that is lost
from the target area and the distance the pesticide moves will increase as wind velocity increases, so
greater wind speed generally will cause more drift. In addition, low relative humidity and high
temperature will cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray nozzle and the
target than high relative humidity and low temperature. General hygiene behaviour of workers
during pesticide use can also have substantial impact on exposure. For example, workers who
avoid mixing and spraying during windy conditions can reduce the exposure. Proper use and
maintenance of protective clothing are considered important behaviours associated with reduced
chemical exposures. Furthermore, the frequency and duration of pesticide handling both on a
seasonal and lifetime basis affects the exposure. In particular, the exposure of an individual farmer
that applies a pesticide once a year is lower than that of a commercial applicator that normally
applies a pesticide for many consecutive days or weeks in a season. Exposure of the general
population to pesticides occurs mainly through eating food and drinking water contaminated with
pesticides, whereas substantial exposure to pesticides can also occur when living close to a
workplace that uses pesticides or even when workers bring home contaminated articles. Non-
occupational exposure originating from pesticide residues in food, air and drinking water
generally involves low doses and is chronic (or semi-chronic). However, clear links between
individual pesticides and individual health effects can only be shown in animal studies, but the doses
used in these studies are far higher than the enforced legally pesticide limits. Therefore, the risk to
human health from these studies appears to be negligible. The actual acute exposure, however,
may be higher than that anticipated due to certain food preferences, residue variability between
individual food items and the greater than average consumption of a particular food item only at one
sitting. As a result of pesticide use in or around the home, individuals can be exposed during the
preparation and application of pesticides or even after the applications are completed, whereas
delayed exposure can occur through inhalation of residual air concentrations or exposure to residues
found on surfaces, clothing, bedding, food, dust, discarded pesticide containers, or application
equipment. Also, accidental poisoning with pesticides in the home is a possibility from pesticide use
around the house or garden. Exposure is likely to occur from pesticide spills, improper use, or poor
storage as a result of use without reading or accounting to the pesticide label. Pesticide mishandling
such as transferring the products from their original packages into household containers and also the
lack of compliance with instructions of the label can be also sources of exposure

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Pesticide and Human Health
Risk assessment of pesticide impact on human health is not an easy and particularly accurate
process because of differences in the periods and the levels of exposure, type of pesticides (regarding
toxicity), mixtures or cocktails used in the field, and the geographic and meteorological
characteristics of the agricultural areas where pesticides are applied [45,46]. Such differences refer
mainly to the people who prepare the mixtures in the field, the pesticide sprayers, and also the
population that lives near the sprayed areas, pesticide storage facilities, greenhouses, or open fields.
Therefore, considering that human health risk is a function of pesticide toxicity and exposure, a
greater risk is expected to arise from high exposure to a moderately toxic pesticide than from little
exposure to a highly toxic pesticide. However, whether or not dietary exposure of the general
population to pesticide residues found on food and drinking water consists of a potential threat to
human health, is still the subject of great scientific controversy. Regardless of the difficulties in
assessing risks of pesticide use on human health, the authorization for pesticide commercialization in
Europe currently requires data of potential negative effects of the active substances on human
health. These data are usually obtained from several tests focused on e.g., metabolism patterns,
acute toxicity, sub-chronic or sub-acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity,

teratogenicity, generation study, and also irritancy trials using rat as a model mammal or in some
cases dogs and rabbits. The respective toxicity tests for human health isk assessments required by
EPA [29] are
(1) the acute toxicity test, which assesses the effects of short-term exposure to a single dose of
pesticide (oral, dermal, and inhalation exposure, eye irritation, skin irritation, skin sensitization,
neurotoxicity),
(2) the sub-chronic toxicity test, which assesses the effects of intermediate repeated exposure
(oral, dermal, inhalation, nerve system damage) over a longer period of time (30–90 days),
(3) the chronic toxicity test, which assesses the effects of long-term repeated exposure lasting
for most of the test animal’s life span and intended to determine the effects of a pesticide product
after prolonged and repeated exposures (e.g., chronic non-cancer and cancer effects),
(4) the developmental and reproductive tests, which assess any potential effects in the fetus of an
exposed pregnant female (i.e., birth defects) and how pesticide exposure may influence the ability of
a test animal to reproduce successfully,
(5) the mutagenicity test which assesses the potential of a pesticide to affect the genetic components
of the cell, and
(6) the hormone disruption test, which measures the pesticide potential to disrupt the endocrine
system (consists of a set of glands and the hormones they produce that regulate the development,
growth, reproduction, and behavior of animals including humans). The acute toxicity experiments
are required for the calculation of the median lethal dose (LD50), which is the pesticide dose that is
required to kill half of the tested animals when entering the body by a particular route. For example,
if the substance is swallowed the figure is an oral LD50, whereas if absorbed through the skin it is
a dermal LD50. In addition, the acute inhalation lethal concentration (LC50), which is the
pesticide concentration required to kill half of the exposed (for 4 hours) tested animals to a
pesticide, is also calculated. Lethal concentration values are used when the route of administration
is by inhalation or intake via drinking water (rather than oral, dermal, etc.).
Pesticide and the environment
Pesticides, in addition to their potential negative effects on human health, pose adverse effects also
on the environment (water, soil and air contamination, toxic effects on non-target organisms)

In particular, inappropriate use of pesticides has been linked with:

(1) adverse effects on non-target organisms (e.g., reduction of beneficial species populations),
(2) water contamination from mobile pesticides or from pesticide drift,
(3) air pollution from volatile pesticides,
(4) injury on non-target plants from herbicide drift,
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(5) injury to rotational crops from herbicide residues remained in the field,
(6) crop injury due to high application rates, wrong application timing or unfavourable
environmental conditions at and after pesticide application.

Physiochemical properties
Many of the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment depend on the interactions between the
physicochemical properties (vapour pressure, stability, solubility, pKa) of the pesticide, soil
adsorption and soil persistence, the soil factors (pH, organic components, inorganic surfaces, soil
moisture, soil microflora, soil fauna), the plant species, and the climatic variation. Also, the
toxicity, the dosage applied, the weather conditions prevailing after the pesticide application, and
how long the pesticide persists in the environment could account for its adverse effects on the
environment. Soil factors and weather conditions have long been recognised as the most important
factors that affect the fate of the pesticide in the environment and consequently the activity,
selectivity, and adverse effects on the environment. Unfortunately, since these factors vary from site
to site and from year to year, the results from any field study on the fate and behaviour of the
pesticide are specific for one particular location and season. Therefore, for the environmental risk
assessment, the behaviour and the fate of a pesticide are initially assessed by the calculation of the
predicted environmental concentration (PEC), which in the United States is referred to as estimated
environmental concentration (EEC). These concentrations are calculated for soil, water, sediment,

and air, and the validation is performed by comparison with the data obtained from the three levels of
tests (needed for approval-registration purposes) to assess the pesticide toxicity on key non-target
organisms. Also, the toxicity exposure ratio (TER) is also calculated to determine whether the risk
to the organism is acceptable or not. TER is calculated from the LC50 or equivalent measure (LD50,
NOEC = no observed effect concentration) of the susceptibility of an organism divided by the PEC
relevant to the situation in which the organism is living. In general, a detailed higher tier risk
assessment is needed when TER is below 100, whereas a chronic risk assessment is required in the
case of TER < 10. If TER is less than 5, the Annex VI of the EU Directive 91/414 EEC requires that
‘no authorisation shall be granted…unless it is clearly established through an appropriate risk
assessment that under field conditions no unacceptable impact occurs after the use of the product
under the proposed conditions of use.
Although the agricultural soil is the primary recipient of pesticides, water bodies that are adjacent to
agricultural areas are usually the ultimate recipient for pesticide residues. This issue is the reason for
European authorities to require data (before the pesticide commercialization in Europe) related
with the risk of non-target terrestrial and aquatic organisms when addressing potential adverse
effects of pesticides on the environment. Considering the adverse effects linked with the use of
pesticides in agriculture, the use of criteria to select pesticides that are effective, cost efficient and
safe for the operator and the environment now appears as an imperative need. Moreover, the use of
certain environmental risk indicators as alternatives to direct pesticide impact measurement
linked to methodological difficulties (i.e., impossibility of measurement due to complexity of the
system) or due to practical reasons (i.e., time and costs) has also been a reality. These indicators have
already been used by Reus et al.and Bockstaller et al. to assess potential risks of pesticides for water
contamination, soil organisms (mainly earthworms), bees, air emissions, bioaccumulation, and
human health. Calculation of the environmental indicators used in these two studies was based on
the pesticide persistence in soil (half-life, DT50), mobility in soil (organic-carbon adsorption
coefficient, Koc) and toxicity to water (lethal concentration for aquatic organisms, LC50) and soil
organisms (NOEC). Regarding the contribution of the environmental indicators on pesticide
selection, the study conducted by Reus et al.

to evaluate 15 individual pesticide applications by using eight indicators showed the following:

10
(1) some of the 15 pesticide applications had a high ranking (higher impact on the environment) with
all the indicators used, but their ranking differed considerably when the score for the environment
was concerned as a whole;
(2) the ranking based on the indicator ‘kilograms of active ingredient’ did not correlate with
most of the rankings obtained by the other pesticide risk indicators;
(3) the pesticide risk indicators used gave similar rankings of the 15 pesticide applications for the
individual region surface water, groundwater, and soil contamination. For the latter, the scores for
surface water contamination were argely determined by the pesticide toxicity to aquatic organisms,
whereas the scores for groundwater contamination were largely determined by DT50 and Koc.
However, an exception was recorded with two pesticides that were found toxic or mobile although
they had been applied at extreme low rates. These results indicate that new indicators with greater
reliability than those already existing are needed to predict potential risk of pesticides and thus
contribute to reduction of the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment

Minimizing the Negative Impact of Pesticides

Despite continuing disagreements over the degree of risk posed by pesticides, it appears that people
have become increasingly concerned about pesticide use and particularly about their impacts on
human health and environmental quality. These increased concerns resulted mainly from reduced
trust in the agricultural and industrial methods of production as well as on the authority’s regulations
aimed at protecting both the environment and human health. Therefore, considering the existence of
several uncertainties in the evaluation of pesticide safety, scientific data, policy guidelines, and
professional judgment must be incorporated when estimating whether a pesticide can be used
beneficially within the limits of an acceptable risk. The probability of reducing the environmental

risk associated with the pesticide use is very low because the producers believe that lowering risk
implies either decreased output or increased input resulting by the substitution for the pesticide
inputs. Thus, policies aiming at reducing the risks associated with the use of pesticides will impose
costs on the agricultural community, which in turn has implications for agricultural commodity
prices. This has been confirmed by the cost-function-based production model used by Paul et al.
which indicated that substantive costs would be imposed on the agricultural sector by the
requirements to reduce environmental risk deriving from pesticide use. These costs are directly
associated with increases in demand of effective pesticides, for a given level of agricultural output,
and implies induced innovation to augment pesticide quality associated with increased cost.
Concerns about impacts of pesticide use on human health and the environment led the EU to
develop a ‘Thematic Strategy on Sustainable Use of Pesticides’ Moreover, agricultural scientists
started to develop alternative crop management systems to minimize the negative effects of farming
(based mainly on pesticide use for crop protection) to the environment and to human health.
In particular, the Integrated Crop Management (ICM) includes guidelines to be used by the farmer
unions to enforce actions for production of safe agricultural products with simultaneous
respect to the environment. In addition, ICM includes measures for implementation of good
agricultural practices (GAP), the safety and hygiene of workers, the safety of the products, the full
traceability of the measurements, and specific actions for the preservation of the environment. For
the control of pests, ICM encourages the use of complementary methods of pest management
(such as crop resistance against insects and fungi, biological control, and other cultural or
physical measures) to reduce the animal pest or weed population below its economic injury level and
to minimise pesticide impacts on other components of the agro-ecosystem. Concerning pesticide
use, ICM allows pesticide use only through an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program, where
certain criteria are used for pesticides selection, specific instructions are followed for their
application on cops, and residue analysis is used as one of the tools for enforcement.
Pesticides that are selected for use in IPM are:
(1) biologically effective (high selectivity, fast impact, optimal residual effect, good plant tolerance,
low risk of resistance),

11
(2) user friendly (low acute toxicity and low chronic toxicity, optimum formulation, safe
packaging, easy application method, long store stability),
(3) environmentally friendly/compatible (low toxicity to non-target organisms, fast degradation in
the environment, low mobility in the soil, no residues in food and fodder above the MRLs, low
application rate),
(4) economically viable/profitable (good cost/profit ratio for the farmer, broad spectrum of
activity, applicable in IPM, innovative product characteristics, competitive, patentable

Specific instructions:
Specific instructions that are followed during pesticide application on crops include
(1) the use of pesticide at the recommended dose when a pest is found or a precautionary treatment
thought necessary,
(2) the optimisation of pesticide use for economic saving through adjusted doses according to pest
population density, and
(3) the minimization of pesticide need by altering the cultivation system to lower the risk of pests.
Regarding the analysis of the amount of active ingredient applied or the money spent on pesticides,
these variables should be used only as a first approximation, because the dosage of active ingredients
is not closely related to environmental activity, while environmental friendly and innovative
compounds are often more expensive than obsolete, hazardous ones. All the previously mentioned
indicate clearly that the introduction of IPM system would contribute to a significant reduction
of the pesticide impact on human health and the environment without affecting crop
productivity or increasing the probability of crop losses.
Apart from the already mentioned above, chemical crop protection has been changed tremendously
over the last years, not only in the development of new active ingredients, but also in the assessment
of the behaviour of these chemicals in the environment, the residues in crop plants, and of their
potential toxicity to humans and the environment. This is attributed to the great scientific progress in
many disciplines such as chemistry, biology, and molecular biology which has improved
considerably the way of searching for new agrochemicals and the re-assessment of safety for the
already used pesticides. Thus, new agrochemicals with novel modes of action and improved safety
profiles are now a reality. Moreover, these new agrochemicals in combination with the appropriate
measures taken for safer and more effective pesticide application make the chemical crop protection
as one of the most well-established technologies in agriculture which seems that it will continue to
play an important role in the agribusiness in spite of the rapid emergence of novel biotechnological
solutions

potential strategies for addressing insecticide use issues

THE SOLUTION:
In order to eliminate the threat that releases petroleum products and hazardous chemicals that are
harmful to human health and the environment, all hazardous waste sites should be cleaned up to the
strictest level possible. In order to prevent the creation of new hazardous waste sites, toxic chemicals
need to be phased out in favor of safe alternatives. Halting the manufacturing of bioaccumulative
toxins decreases the amount of harmful chemicals used by industries and sold on store shelves. By
adopting safer technologies, companies can reduce hazardous waste and stop exposure at the source.

Pesticideidoseishouldibeisufficientibutinoigreaterithanitheilevelirequirediforibestiresults.iTheipestici
deimanufacturerisetsitheidoseitoiensureianiacceptableilevelioficontrol,iproducingiacceptableiresiduei
levels,iandimaximizingireturnsiperiunitiofiformulatediinsecticide.iPersistentipesticidesihaveitheiribe
nefitiofilongeripersistenceionitheitargetiandithereforeirequiresilessifrequentisprayingicompareditoino
n-
ipersistentipesticides.iButicareishouldibeitakeniwhileiusingipersistentipesticidesisinceitheseimightidi
minishibenefitsifrominaturalienemiesieveniatiloweridoses.iIfianiinsecticideiisipersistentiininature,ich
ancesiofiinsecticideiresiduesibeingiharmfulitoinaturalienemiesiareigreatlyiincreasedi(Dent,i2000).

12
 Chemical control
Sometimes cultural and other agrotechnical practices
areinotisufficientitoikeepipestipopulationibelowieconomiciinjuryileveli(lwestipestipopulationidensity
ithatiwillicauseieconomicicropidamage).iTherefore,itheichemicalicontroliagentsiareiresorteditoibothi
asipreventiveiandicurativeimeasuresitoiminimizeitheiinsectipestidamage.iAigoodipesticideishouldibe
ipotentiagainstipests,ishouldinotiendangeritheihealthiofihumansiandinon-
targetiorganisms,iandishouldiultimatelyibreakidowniintoiharmlessicompoundsisoithatiitidoesinotiper
sistiinienvironment.iBothirelativeiandispecificitoxicitiesiofitheipesticideineeditoibeiestimatediiniord
eritoidetermineiitsipotency.
Theieffectivenessiofianiinsecticideiusuallyidependsioniwheniandiwhereitheipestiencountersiit.iiiMos
tiinsecticidesiareiabsorbedidirectlyithroughianiinsect’siexoskeleton.iiiTheseicompoundsiareiknownia
sicontactipoisonsibecauseitheyiareieffectivei“onicontact”.iiiOtheriinsecticidesiactiasifumigants.iiiTh
eyiareireleasediinitheivaporistatei(asigases)iandienteritheiinsect’sibodyithroughiitsitrachealisystem.ii
iFumigantsiareimostieffectiveiwhenitheyiareiusediinianienclosediareaisuchiasiaigreenhouse,iaiwareh
ouse,ioriaigrainibin.iiiStilliothericompoundsimustibeiingestedibeforeitheyihaveianieffect.iiiTheseiare
iknowniasistomachipoisons.iiiTheyiofteniworkimoreislowlyithanifumigantsioricontactipoisons,ibutit
heyiareistilliusefuliforicertainitypesiofipesticontroliinihomesiandibusinesses.
Systemiciinsecticidesiareiaispecialitypeiofistomachipoison.iiiTheseicompoundsiareiabsorbedibyithei
tissuesiofiaiplanti(orianimal)iwithoutiillieffects.iiiInsectipestsiingestitheiinsecticideiwhenitheyifeedi
onitheitreatediorganism.iiiSystemiciinsecticidesiareisometimesiincludediinitheidietsiofidomesticiani
malsitoiprotectithemifromiinternaliparasitesi(e.g.,icattleigrubsiandiotheribotiflies).iiiPlantisystemicsi
canibeiincorporatediintoitheisoiliaroundiornamentalsioribeddingiplants.iiiTheiinsecticidesiareiabsorb
edibyitheirootsianditranslocateditoileaves,istems,iandiflowers.iiiIfitheiinsectithatifeedsioniaitreatedip
lantidoesn’tiacquireiailethalidoseiofiinsecticide,iitimayiatileastibeideterredifromifurtherifeeding.i
iiAlthoughisystemiciinsecticidesiareicommonlyiapplieditoihorticulturaliplantings,itheyiareinotiasiuse
fuliforimanyifoodicropsibecauseitheiinsecticideiremainsiinitheifoodiafteriharvest.

Biorational pesticides
Biorationalipesticides/ibiopesticidesiareiconsiderediasithird-
generationipesticidesithatiareirapidlyigainingipopularity.iTheiwordibiorationaliisiderivedifromitwoi
words,i“biological”iandi“rational”,iwhichimeansipesticidesiofinaturalioriginithatihaveilimitediorinoi
adverseieffectsionitheienvironmentioribeneficialiorganisms.iBiopesticidesiencompassiaibroadiarrayi
ofimicrobialipesticides,iplantipesticidesiandibiochemicalipesticidesiwhichiareiderivedifromimicro-
organismsiandiotherinaturalisources,iandiprocessesiinvolvingitheigeneticiincorporationiofiDNAiinto
iagriculturalicommodities.iTheimosticommonlyiusedibiopesticidesiincludeibiofungicidesi(e.g.,iTrich
odermaispp.),ibioherbicidesi(Phytopthoraispp.),ibioinsecticidesi(sporeiformingibacteria,iBacillusithu
ringiensis,iandiB.ipopilliae,iActinomycetes),inaturallyioccurringifungii(Beauveriaibassiana),imicros
copiciroundwormsi(Entomopathogenicinematodes),iSpinosad,iinsectihormonesiandiinsectigrowthire
gulatorsi(GuptaiandiDikshit,i2010;iSinghietial.,i2013).
Hostiplantiresistance
Hostiplantiresistancei(HPR)iisitheigeneticiabilityiofitheiplantitoiimproveiitsisurvivaliandireproductio
nibyiairangeiofiadaptationsiasicompareditoitheiothericultivarsiwheniexposeditoitheisameileveliofipe
stiinfestation.iHPRioffersitheimostieffective,ieconomicaliandieco-
friendlyimethodiofipesticontroli(SharmaiandiOrtiz,i2002),iandiisiconsidereditoibeiaikeyielementiofit
heiIPMistrategy.iDueitoithis,iidentifyingiandidevelopingiHPRihasialwaysibeeniaimajorithrustiareaio
fiplantibreeding,iandiainumberiofibreedingiprogramsiaimingitoidevelopipestiresistanticropsihaveibe
enideployediinialmostiallitheicultivatedicropispecies

WAYS TO MAKE PROGRESS:

 Cleaner and Safer Practices:
Environmentally sound and safe materials and business practices should be promoted.
 The Polluter Pays:
13
 Any and all responsible parties to pollution should pay for the cleanup of hazardous waste sites. Any
companies that use or handle toxic chemicals should pay a tax to fund future cleanups.
 Timelines And Precautionary Standards:
The cleanup of hazardous waste sites should be as quick and as strict as possible to reduce human
exposure to toxic chemicals.
 Citizen Involvement:
Local residents, those most affected by toxic pollution, should be included in the cleanup process.
Technical assistance grants should be made available to residents so they can have access to and
interpret data and cleanup standards.
 Prioritize The Worst Sites:
States should prioritize sites that pose the largest risk to public health ensure that there is adequate
funding and aggressive deadlines to ensure the worst sites are cleaned up without delay.
Permanent Cleanup Over Temporary Cleanup:
When possible, toxic chemicals should be removed from our communities and permanently cleaned
up rather than covered over or capped.

Before Using a Pesticide

Read the label thoroughly!
Be familiar with all precautions.
Be familiar with First Aid information.
Put on the proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Pesticide Exposure
Pesticides can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption by the skin and eyes. The
skin usually receives the most exposure, so it is important to cover as much of the body as possible.
Make sure you wear the required protective clothing (printed on the label) before opening the
pesticide container.

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment is clothing and other equipment worn to protect the body from contact
with pesticides or pesticide residues. Wear the items of protective clothing the label requires: for
example, long-sleeved shirts, long pants, overalls, nonabsorbent gloves (not leather or fabric), rubber
footwear (not canvas or leather), a hat, goggles, or a dust mist filter. If no specific clothing is listed,
non-absorbent gloves, long-sleeved shirts, long pants, socks, and closed shoes are recommended.
Contact lenses may trap materials on the eyes; wear eye protection or remove contact lenses before
mixing and applying pesticides.

When Mixing or Applying a Pesticide

 Never smoke or eat while mixing or applying pesticides. You could easily carry traces of the
pesticide from your hands to your mouth. Also, some pesticide products are flammable.
 Follow the “Directions for Use” on the label carefully.
 Use only for the purpose listed.
 Use only the amount directed, at the time, and under the conditions specified.
 Twice the amount will NOT do twice the job. You could harm yourself, others, or the plant/area/pet
you are trying to protect.
 Always mix or dilute the pesticide outdoors or in a well-ventilated area. Only use the amount listed
on the label and measure the pesticide carefully. (Never use the same measuring cups or spoons that
you use in the kitchen.)

14
 Mix only the amount that you need for each application. Do not prepare larger amounts to store for
possible future use. The pesticide will degrade and become ineffective over time. (See “Calculating
the Correct Amount To Use”).
 Keep children, pets (including birds and fish), and toys (including pet toys) away from areas where
you mix and apply pesticides for at least the length of time required on the label. If no time is listed
on the label, wait until the pesticide has dried before reentering the area.
 If clothing becomes saturated in spray solution or contaminated with the pesticide concentrate,
dispose of it immediately. Wash any parts of the body that may have been exposed to the pesticide,
with soap and water, and finish the job in fresh, clean clothing.
 Bait StationIndoors or outdoors, never put bait for insects or rats, mice, and other rodents where
small children or pets can reach it. Pesticides that are formulated as baits (containing a feed
attractant) are still pesticides.
 Consider selective insecticides, with a limited range of target pests, to avoid harm to non-target
organisms.

Storage
Never put pesticides into food containers, such as empty soft drink, or milk bottles. Keep pesticides
in their original containers – ones that clearly identify the contents. Refasten all childproof caps
tightly.
If a spill occurs, clean it up promptly. Don’t wash it away. Instead, sprinkle the spill with sawdust,
vermiculite, or kitty litter. Sweep it into a plastic garbage bag, and dispose of it as directed on the
pesticide product label. Cleanup materials that are contaminated with a pesticide must be handled as
pesticide waste.

Indoor Applications
Make sure that the pesticide label indicates that the product can be used indoors. Never use
pesticides labeled “for outdoor use only” inside a building.
Provide adequate ventilation. If the label directions permit, leave all windows open and fans
operating after the application is completed. If the pesticide product is only effective in an
unventilated (sealed) room or house, do not stay there. Put all pets outdoors, and take yourself and
your family away from treated areas for at least the length of time prescribed on the label.
Apply most surface sprays only to limited areas such as cracks; don’t treat entire floors, walls, or
ceilings unless the label recommends this use.

When using total release foggers to control pests, the most important precautions you can take are:
use no more than the amount needed and
keep foggers away from ignition sources (ovens, stoves, air conditioners, space heaters, water
heaters, etc.).
Do not place foggers in small, enclosed places such as closets and cabinets or under tables and
counters.
In the Kitchen
Remove food, pots and pans, and dishes before treating kitchen cabinet
Don’t let pesticides get on any surfaces that are used for food preparation.
Wait until shelves dry before refilling them.
Wash any surfaces that may have pesticide residues before placing food on them.
Cover aquariums with plastic during pesticide applications.

Outdoor Applications
Drift is the movement of pesticides away from the target area or plants. You should always follow all
label directions for both the pesticide and application equipment to prevent drift. Also: Never apply
pesticides outdoors on a windy day (sustained winds higher than 8 mph) or when winds are gusty or
variable in direction.
15
Use coarse droplet nozzles on your sprayer to reduce misting. Larger droplets help prevent drift.
Spray as close to the target as possible, you want to get good coverage, while still preventing drift
Do not apply pesticides on very hot days, with temperatures above 90°F. The active ingredients in
some pesticides can vaporize and drift onto non-target surfaces.
Do not over apply pesticides.
Excessive application could cause the pesticide to run off or seep into water supplies and
contaminate them. Once contaminated it is difficult or impossible to clean water sources.
Excess spray may leave harmful residues on your homegrown fruit and vegetables, This could affect
other plants, wildlife, and fish.
Read the label to determine if the pesticide should be watered-in by irrigation
Never mix or apply a pesticide near wellheads, stormwater drains, or bodies of water, such as creeks
and streams.
Keep pesticides away from plants and wildlife you do not want to treat.
Some pesticides are toxic to pollinators, so read the label carefully to determine if there are
application timing or other restrictions. A detailed brochure on pollinator protection can be
downloaded from the Coalition for Urban Rural Environmental Stewardship (CURES).
Do not spray bird nests when treating trees.
Cove outdoor ornamental fishponds (do not allow to overheat).
When applying pesticides to food crops and gardens, always check to make sure they are labeled and
follow the reentry time and time-to-harvest waiting period on the label. This varies by pesticide and
crop.

After Applying a Pesticide, Indoors or Outdoors

Proper cleaning procedures should always be followed after applying pesticides.
To remove pesticide residues, use a bucket to thoroughly rinse tools or equipment that you used
when mixing the pesticide. Pour the rinse water into the pesticide sprayer and dispose of it by
applying to a labeled site. (See “Safe Disposal of Pesticides”.)
Wash non-absorbent gloves and rubber boots thoroughly with hot soapy water.
To prevent exposure to the hands, wash your gloves prior to removing them.
To prevent tracking pesticides inside, remove and/or rinse your boots or shoes before entering your
home.
Wash any parts of your body that may have come in contact with the pesticide.
LaundryDo not mix contaminated clothing worn during pesticide applications with other family
laundry, in the hamper or the wash.
Wash all protective equipment as soon as possible following each use.

16
If someone else washes the protective equipment, make certain this person is aware of safe handling
and cleaning procedures.
Dispose of clothing saturated with diluted pesticide, or heavily contaminated with the concentrated
chemical. Place the clothing in a plastic bag and in the garbage outdoors.
Evaluate the results of your pesticide use. If the pesticide did not control the pest, consider using a
different chemical, a non-chemical method, or a combination of non-chemical and chemical methods
(See Understanding Pest Management). Again, using more pesticide than the label recommends will
NOT do a better job. Applying more pesticide than instructed by the label is illegal.

Conclusion:
Pesticides can be important tools in pest management, but by their nature, pesticides are toxic.
Pesticide products can pose risks to humans, animals and the environment. Before choosing a
pesticide, it is important to read and understand the directions on the product label. This will
minimize your chance of having a problem with the pesticide once you use it.
To reduce risk, choose pesticide products with low toxicity by looking for the "signal word"
CAUTION. This is one of the core concepts in Integrated Pest Management. You can also search for
pesticide products registered in your state. The databases vary by state, but they often allow you to
search for a product by the pest to be controlled, by active ingredient and/or by product name. Also,
your local Cooperative Extension Office may be able to provide a product recommendation to
control your pest. Extension agents are often familiar with products and pests in your area. Ask about
pesticide resistance.
Learn about the pest. Has it been properly identified by a professional or an expert? Time and money
may be wasted due to misidentification.
Look for your pest on the label. Choose a product that is designed with your pest in mind. The pests
that the product targets will be listed on the label.
Decide how much pest activity you can tolerate. It may not be possible to completely eliminate the
pest, but you may be able to keep the population down to a comfortable level.
Consider the treatment area. Are there sensitive areas near the treatment area? Does the area slope
towards a vulnerable area like a stream, garden, well, or playground? Are valuable plants nearby that
could be affected by drift.
Select an effective product. Consider contacting a professional, such as your local extension office,
for advice on which products will be best suited for your pest problem.
Look for the signal word. Products labeled "CAUTION" are low in toxicity, and some of the lowest
toxicity products may not have a signal word.
Read about the required safety equipment. Make sure you use protective equipment if required by the
label. This could include gloves, goggles, chemical resistant clothing, or other items. Learn about the
ingredients of the products. Does it target a specific pest group or a broad range of pest groups? Call
NPIC and speak to one of our Pesticide Specialists for more information. Buy only what you need
this season; mix only what you need today. Pesticides may have a limited shelf life, and stored
pesticides can be a hazard.
Read the entire label every time you use the product. Following the label will reduce risks and allow
the product to work as the manufacturer intended.

17
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