Center for International Forestry Research

Report Part Title: Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

Report Title: Forest Products, Livelihoods and Conservation
Report Subtitle: Case Studies of Non-Timber Forest Product Systems
Center for International Forestry Research (2004)

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep02032.14

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Chapter 9

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

in Kerala, India

T.K. Raghavan Nair1 and M. Govindan Kutty2

Common names Part of the Management Degree of Scale of Geographic

resource used transformation trade range

Cardamom, Fruit Cultivated Low International Small

Elam

OVERVIEW
In this case study we look at the production and processing of cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum Maton) in the High Ranges and Nelliampathy hills in
the state of Kerala, India. At present virtually all produced cardamom is
grown in managed forest plantations. Some 90% of the households in the
study area are involved in production or processing of cardamom in some
way or other, deriving most of their cash income from cardamom. Of the
cardamom produced, most is sold dry as a food additive while a small
percentage, mostly of poor quality, is processed further into oil, oleoresin,
medicinal preparations and ground cardamom (powder). The growing of
cardamom involves the use of chemicals, disturbance of undergrowth and
shade regulation. Still, the cardamom agroforests are considered less
detrimental to the local ecology than most alternative agricultural land uses.
Further expansion of the growing area in the natural forest is prohibited by
strict and enforced regulations.

INTRODUCTION

Cardamom through the ages

Since time immemorial India has been known as the land of spices, and
cardamom is the most important spice the country produces and trades. Its
known history dates back to first millennium B.C., when the ancient Assyrians,
Egyptians, Arabians, Mesopotamians and Chinese established a wide network
of trade arrangements for cardamom and other spices with India (Mitra 1987).

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 131

It was the Indian spices, particularly cardamom and pepper, that attracted
Europeans to this part of the Asian continent. This subsequently led to the
opening of a sea route from Europe to the East around the Cape of Good
Hope, which was first used by Vasco de Gama in 1498, the first European
to arrive in India by this route. Traders from the ancient Indian ports of
Alleppey, Cranganore and Calicut were already shipping cardamom to Arabia
and Europe. Competition among European forces to acquire supremacy
over the spice trade with India resulted in many a battle leading to the rise
and fall of empires. Cardamom has been, over the centuries, a witness to
vigorous political activities staged among Western forces and between
them and the East.
Today the most common use of cardamom is as a food additive, and it is
also widely used in Indian medicine. Essential oil and oleoresins extracted
from cardamom are used as food additives and in medicines and cosmetics.

The study area

The cardamom zone, the area in India where cardamom naturally grows and
is commercially cultivated, is located in the forest belt of the Western
Ghats mountain range. Of the cardamom zone, 60% lies in Kerala, 30% in
Karnataka and 10% in Tamil Nadu (APK 1999). The study area (Figure 1) is
located in the state of Kerala, in south-west India. In Kerala, cardamom is
cultivated mainly in the High Ranges of Idukki district, in the Nelliampathy
hills of Palakkad district, on the Wynad Plateau in north Kerala and in Kochu
Pamba in Pathanamthitta district. The High Ranges and the Nelliampathy
hills, constituting 85% of the cultivated area of Kerala, are taken as the
study area (GOK 2000).
The forest in this area can be classified as primary tropical rainforest,
disturbed to a certain degree because of shade control, tillage, soil improvment
activities and removal of rank weed growth. The soils are deep, well drained
and rich in humus, and belong to the group of Ultisols. The climate is warm
and humid with a mean annual temperature of between 10°C and 30°C and a
mean annual rainfall varying from 2,500 mm to 3,850 mm, which falls mostly
from the end of April through December. The study area terrain is highly
undulating with good drainage and an elevation ranging from 600 m to 1,500
m a.s.l. Thinly populated, the study area has a total population of 78,061 in an
area of 350 km2 (GOK 1996, 1998; GOI 2001). The cardamom zone, in particular
the study area, is fairly well served by a network of roads; the average
distance to a trafficable (‘vehicle worthy’) public road from any raw material
production holding is estimated at only 2 km.
Human settlements in the cardamom zone could be called cardamom
villages. About 90% of the households of the study area are in one way or
another connected to the production, processing and/or trade of cardamom.
Of the total number of households in the study area, 50% can be classified as
cardamom labour households, while 40% are producers and/or involved in
the cardamom trade.

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132 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

Figure 1. Map of the study site

Source: ESRI Data and Maps 2002.

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 133

(Elettaria cardamomum)

THE PRODUCTION-TO-CONSUMPTION SYSTEM

Cardamom: a description
Small cardamom, scientifically known as Elettaria cardamomum Maton, takes
its name from the word elattari, which means ‘seeds of cardamom’ in
Malayalam, the language of Kerala. The plant is indigenous to the tropical
rainforests of the Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka. It is also cultivated
in Guatemala, Tanzania, El Salvador, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Papua-
New Guinea. The product is known by different names in different parts of
the world. In Italian, Spanish and Portuguese it is known as cardamomo. The
Arabs call it hal, while the Chinese call it pai-tou-k’ou. In trade, it is generally
known as ‘cardamom (small)’. A sister species, Amomum subulatum Roxb.,
known as ‘large cardamom’, is grown in the Darjeeling district of West
Bengal in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Large cardamom is a cheap substitute
for small cardamom. Here small cardamom shall be simply referred to as
cardamom.
Cardamom grows in clumps, 3 m to 5 m tall with long, narrow leaves
(Photo 1). The normal commercial life of a clump is 10 to 12 years, though the
rhizome is almost perennial. Tillers that produce fruits die out within two
years of producing new rhizomes and aerial shoots, and so growth is perpetuated
(Joseph and George 1998). Cardamom grows best in tropical wet/moist
rainforests, deep, fertile soils and around 50% filtered overhead shade. These
are the typical local (microclimatic) conditions for optimum growth of the
plant, so much so, that it grows well in disturbed primary forests.

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134 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

Photo 1. Cardamom plant (Photo by K. Kusters)

Flowering normally starts in March to April. The white, violet striped

flowers, locally known as saram, are hermaphrodite, appear on a long flexible
stalk arising from the base of the plant and are pollinated by the honeybee.
This characteristic of the species encourages cultivators to practice bee-
keeping to increase production. The lowermost flowers open first and develop
into fruits. It then takes 75 to 80 days for flower buds to form fruits ready
for harvest. Fruits are small and ovoid in shape, with a green leathery husk.
Each fruit has many small, round, dark seeds inside, covered by a thin layer
of pulp. Propagation is mostly through tillers with rhizomes. In its natural
state, in the undisturbed primary forests, the population density of cardamom
is low, ranging from 250 to 300 clumps per hectare. As a result, productivity
from undisturbed primary forest is low.

Management practices
In the study area, 99% of the cardamom produced comes from managed
cardamom lands on which cardamom plants are planted. Management systems
range from small forest gardens with a few plants to large intensively managed
plantations. Plant density on holdings varies from 1,200 to 3,000 per hectare,
1,600 on average. Around 40% to 45% of the cardamom holdings are under
intensive management in its strict sense, which means fertilisers and
pesticides are used on a regular basis and irrigation is applied. Other growers
apply chemicals irregularly and irrigation is partial or nil. In intensively worked

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 135

areas productivity has been increased up to 1,000 kg/ha/yr. However, the

average yield in such areas can safely be taken as 400 kg/ha/yr, whereas the
yield from ordinary cardamom lands is approximately 125 kg/ha/yr. A
relatively small portion (less than 20%) of the growers can be classified as
marginal cardamom farmers, which means they have a financial resource
crunch that restricts them from intensive cultivation. Smallholders usually
keep 10% to 30% of their land for cultivation of other agricultural crops
(intercropped with cardamom in agroforestry gardens), as an additional
safeguard to spread their risks in case cardamom prices drop.
Till the 1960s, cardamom was propagated mainly from seed, but now
only tillers are planted. The Indian Cardamom Research Institute,
Myladumpara, and the Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, have
done elaborate work on the improvement of planting material and have
developed a number of varieties that are high yielding and reasonably disease
resistant (Spices Board 1999). The latest scheme is to propagate using tillers
(rhizomes with aerial shoots) selected from superior individuals with proven
qualities. This has the advantage that the planting stock already has a mature
root system enabling early and easy establishment. Offsets are cheaper than
seedlings or plantlets. New plants will have all the characteristics of the
mother plant and will bear fruits earlier than those originating from seedlings
or plantlets. The latest tiller cultivars in the field are reasonably disease
resistant, high yielding and early bearers, but demand higher inputs. They
readily respond to fertiliser application and irrigation. Higher expenditure
on inputs is then adequately compensated by higher production (KCPMC
2001). Tillers are collected at the beginning of the rainy season from ‘superior’
type plants in the same or different plantations and are planted in pits
immediately after collection. Management further requires periodic shade
control to the desired level by lopping branches of trees and the replacement
of dead, low productive and diseased plants with new ones. Applying manure,
weeding, forking3 , trashing4 and the application of fungicides and pesticides
to all plants are conducted periodically (Spices Board 1997). The cardamom
plant is susceptible to fungal and insect attacks, the worst problem being a
fungal disease called katte. Fungicides and pesticides are applied whenever
deemed necessary. Irrigation is beneficial during hot months and in low
rainfall areas and may increase productivity by 50%, but only the intensively
managed plantations have irrigation facilities, to varying degrees.
Mature cardamom plants flower and fruit every year and the harvesting
(picking) season extends from May-June to November-December depending
on local conditions, especially the availability of water. In irrigated areas
the harvesting season is likely to be extended to 8 to 10 months. Fruits are
collected just before they are fully ripe, because fully ripe fruits may split
and lose the much-desired green colour on drying. Only mature fruits are
picked, which are at the bottom end of the panicle (fruit stalk). In normal
plantations the harvest is spread out over a number of pickings at intervals
of 14 to 21 days. There are about seven to eight pickings per year. With
intensive cultivation using high yielding varieties, manure application,
irrigation and plant protection, the number of pickings will increase.

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136 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

Cardamom is cultivated on private lands or in areas that are leased out

by the government for cardamom production. Local tribal communities
harvest wild cardamom in areas that are not specifically designated for
cardamom production, but this activity constitutes less than 1% of total
production of cardamom in the study area (FWLD, GOK 1999). The state
government has given tribal communities permission to collect wild cardamom
on certain conditions, from time to time. As this cardamom, from undisturbed
forests is not contaminated by chemicals (fertilisers, pesticides and
fungicides), it is valued more highly for some medicinal preparations.

Cardamom producers
Cardamom producers—the holding-owners with a lease or ownership title
to their land—are a diverse group in terms of the size of the holdings (Table 1).
The producers are the ones making financial and technical investments in
their cardamom lands. Cardamom cultivation is highly labour intensive, the
average annual requirement of labour per hectare being 444 workdays. Most
producers hire labourers to assist them, but small owners do a considerable
amount of the work by themselves.

Table 1. Pattern of cardamom holdings in study area

Holdings

<2 ha 2-20 ha >20 ha Total

No. Area No. Area No. Area No. Area

Nelliampathy 28 29 47 398 27 2,522 102 2,949

Idukki 15,383 12,561 3,661 13,920 77 5,526 19,121 32,007

Total 15,411 12,590 3,708 14,318 104 8,048 19,223 34,956

Source: APK 2001.

In 1998, the average annual income for a plantation owner household

was US$3,408.5 The average value of the annual production from intensively
managed plantations was US$4,912 per hectare, total expenses amounting
to about US$2,717 per hectare per year. Under less intensive management
systems, the value of the average annual production of 1 ha was US$1,535,
with total expenses of US$1,087.
To increase their inputs growers can avail themselves of financial
assistance from various public and private financial institutions. All producers
who have legal rights over their holdings can get financial assistance subject
to the usual restrictions put forth by the financial institutions. However,
not all farmers go in for finance for various reasons. Some of the chief
factors determining whether a farmer will go in for high investment through
interest bearing loans are the geographical location of the plantation (e.g.,

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 137

the location’s potential for responding to treatment), the readiness of the

grower to take risks related to financial credit (mental preparedness of
the farmer to take out a loan) and the grower’s socio-economic situation.
Cardamom producers occupy the upper strata of local society financially,
socially and politically. Most are reasonably well educated: 83% of the owners
of more than 20 ha and 73% of the owners of less than 2 ha have at least
passed middle school (Joseph and George 1998). On a national scale producers
enjoy an upper middle level status. Some owners and workers have become
people’s representatives in the Panchayat (a local self-government
administrative unit comprising a group of villages) and state legislature.
There are a number of technocrats and bureaucrats among them. A few
large owners are non-resident producers and have other agri-horticultural
businesses or other occupations elsewhere.

Box 1. Financial assistance

The Spices Board, a government institution, has come up with several

promotional measures to help those in the field. Financial institutions
like the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development, Village
Co-operative Banks, Industrial Development Bank of India, Industrial
Finance Corporation of India and local private financing agencies are
also in the field of helping producers, processors and traders. There are
several schemes for aiding replanting, irrigation, plant protection works,
fertiliser application and the building of infrastructure for processing
and trade.

Cardamom workers
Workers on cardamom holdings are generally better off than their fellow
workers in other agricultural fields. The harvest season itself extends to
more than 210 days and hence a worker is assured of employment almost
throughout the year, while in other agricultural sectors the average number
of workdays per year may be only around 90 to 130. This keeps cardamom
workers at an advantageous position much above their fellow workers. The
annual income of a cardamom worker also is higher than that of other
agricultural workers. A cardamom worker’s annual household (consisting of
two workers) income is approximately US$904 (89% of which is derived
from cardamom related activities alone), while that of the general household
(consisting of two workers) in the study districts is only US$729. Approximately
75% of cardamom workers are women. Planting, harvesting and cleaning are
dominated by female labour, while men dominate in shade control, pitting,
soil conservation works, drying and rub cleaning.
Because the study area is thinly populated, holders rely partially on
imported labour from neighbouring areas (seasonal labour in-migration),
especially in the peak season (roughly from July to October). Also, temporary

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138 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

labour is imported from adjacent areas for highly skilled work such as shade
control, which needs to be carried out every few years. Approximately 43%
of the total workforce in the study area is seasonal.

Primary processing
Harvested fruits are sent for primary processing (curing/drying) immediately
after harvesting. Primary processing is an integral part of the production
process as fruits in the raw form will start to decay within two days. Of the
producers 85% have their own facilities for curing, the remaining 15% use
another producer’s facilities, on a payment basis. The primary processing
consists of five stages: preliminary cleaning, drying, rub cleaning, final cleaning
and grading, and packing. Harvested fruits are first cleaned removing parts
of inflorescence and then taken to the drying unit, which mostly uses firewood
to produce hot air. Dried fruits are brought out while they are still hot and
the fruits are rubbed till the chaff is separated from the fruits (Photo 2).
Winnowing to remove any further waste material is the final cleaning process
for cardamom. Because of a shortage of firewood and out of environmental
considerations6, some producers have begun using other fuels (e.g., oil,
LPG, and electricity) for primary processing. The process of improving dryers
and rub-cleaning machines is ongoing through trial and error. Some of the
newly developed drying units are superior to firewood units in terms of
ease of use, speed of drying and quality of end product.

Photo 2. Manual rub cleaning (Photo by T.K.R. Nair)

Final-cleaned fruits are graded using sieves and also by separation by

hand of substandard ones in terms of colour, size and shape. Graded
cardamom is packed in double gunny bags with a coloured polythene bag in

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 139

between. These are then sent to auction centres and entrusted to auctioneers
approved by the Spices Board. Some owners send their produce to auction
centres without final cleaning and grading. In such cases the auctioneers will
arrange cleaning and grading at the owner’s expense.
Of the total cardamom production, 95% is sold after primary processing
(in the cured fruit form) as a food additive. The remaining 5%, particularly
lower quality cardamom, is used for secondary processing.

Secondary processing
In the secondary processing sector essential oil and oleoresins are extracted
and the dried cardamom is ground into a powder. All three products are
used in the preparation of medicines. Until recently the extraction of the
essential oil and oleoresins was done by distillation. Now, ‘supercritical
fluid extraction technology’ is being used in most of the processing units,
using carbon dioxide as the solvent for extraction. The processing industries
involved in the extraction of the essential oil and oleoresins from cardamom
usually process several raw materials, cardamom being only one of them.
These industries are medium-scale, technologically intensive and require
high investments. At present there are 23 such units in India, 18 of which
are located in Kerala.
There are also smaller industries, where dry cardamom is husked and
ground into powder, sieved and packed for the market. In addition to medium
and large units with mechanical production systems, there are a large number
of small home-level producers of medicine throughout the country using
7
cardamom . Kerala alone has 888 such medicine-producing units (Thomas 2000).

Box 2. Extraction of oil

The oil content of cardamom is around 7% of dry weigh. The oil content
of the seeds does not depend on the grade of the fruits, which is based
mainly on shape, size and colour. Fourteen kilogram of dry fruit will give
1 kg of oil. Cardamom oil is valued at US$118 per kilogram. The average
price of low quality fruit is only US$6.54 per kg. The percentage of
oleoresins and other derivatives distilled from cardamom oil does,
however, vary.

Trade and marketing of cardamom

Most holding-owners sell their cardamom at public auction through auction
houses registered with the Spices Board, which arrange the auctions at
specified times and days. There are 296 registered (first order) traders in
India, 118 of whom are in Kerala. About 30 to 50 registered traders take part
in each auction. The producers can sell their product to any trader. The sale

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140 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

value is paid to the producer within 21 days after the auction. If any delay
occurs, the producer is entitled to interest as well. The producer has to pay
1% of the sale value to the auctioneer as a service charge and US$0.02 per
kg to the Welfare Fund. If by chance a producer’s product is not sold at
auction, the material is returned within three days and the producer is at
liberty to offer it again for sale. A prospective seller may withdraw his
produce from sale at any time before the conclusion of the sale.
Only about 5% of the cardamom produced in India is exported (Table 2),
most of it going to the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Japan, while
the domestic market consumes the rest. A simplified trade diagram,
representing the most important trade channels, is given in Figure 2. The
bold arrows represent the bulk of the traded cardamom. There are more
than 500 retailers in the study area and the number of retailers in India is
well above 50,000. Producers also sell their produce directly to traders at
negotiated rates. These traders may or may not be registered with the
Spices Board. The system is locally known as kaivella vyaparam, meaning
‘hand-to-hand trade’. This type of marketing takes place only rarely as the
price obtained is less than that at auction and payment is not guaranteed.
These are arrangements made between two individuals without adequate
legal cover, based on mutual trust. Hence payment in time or quantum has
no guarantee. But when immediate cash is required, this system may be
helpful. These traders sometimes extend financial help to the producers for
cultivation and processing and usually sell the material to second order traders
or retailers. Less than one percent of the product is marketed in this way.

Table 2. Production, export and value of cardamom (small) in India

Year Production Export Export value
(tonnes) (tonnes) (US$million)
1988–89 4,250 785 2.55
1989–90 3,100 175 0.68
1990–91 4,750 400 2.36
1991–92 5,000 540 3.39
1992–93 4,250 190 1.63
1993–94 6,600 385 3.16
1994–95 7,000 255 1.66
1995–96 7,900 527 2.82
1996–97 6,625 226 1.89
1997–98 7,900 370 2.75
1998–99 7,170 476 5.49
Sources: Ministry of Commerce, Government of India/Centre for Development Studies,
Trivandrum, India Association of Planters of Kerala, http://indianspices.com/html

Policy regulations
The entire forestland cultivated with cardamom in the study area had been
under government ownership until demand for land for cardamom cultivation
increased in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The government
started to assign or lease out a major portion of its forestland suitable for

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 141

Figure 2. Trade diagram

Producer/processor

Auctioneer

Hand-to-hand trader

First order trader

Secondary processing sector

Second order trader

Export

Retailer,
domestic
Processor, Retailer,
external external

Consumer, domestic Consumer, external

the cultivation of cardamom since it wanted to encourage cardamom

cultivation in a systematic manner. Some areas were given on permanent
assignment while others were on lease for different periods. Today, 69% of
the area cultivated with cardamom in the study area is under private
ownership, assigned by the government, and 31% is state owned, but on
lease. Both assignments and leases are governed by a number of regulatory
conditions. Cultivators are not authorised to cut or remove the tree growth
or switch to another crop without prior permission from the government.
These restrictions are to protect the tree growth and to eliminate the chances
of the area being cleared8. Before 1980 people were allowed to extend
cardamom production in forest areas if approved by the state government.
Since cardamom is by and large a rather remunerative crop, there was a
tendency to open up more and more fresh areas for its cultivation. The
government of India did not want to sacrifice any more forest areas and
therefore introduced the Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980, banning the use
of fresh forest areas for non-forestry purposes including cardamom cultivation.

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142 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

Box 3. Organisation of producers, workers and traders

Cardamom producers are well organised and have formed various

organisations, of which the most important ones are the Cardamom
Planters Association (over 60 years old), the Kerala Cardamom Growers
Union (since 1974) and the Cardamom Growers Association (since 1992).
Of the producers 98% are members of one or another formal organisation,
registered with the government. All workers are members of a labour
organisation backed by a political party—so much so, they enjoy a lot
of political support and possess considerable bargaining power. First
order traders have also formed various organisations. Active ones are
the Small Cardamom Traders Association (64 members), the Cardamom
Merchants Chamber (32 members) and the Thevaram Cardamom Chamber
(200 members). Second order traders and retailers are members of
local and state merchants associations.

The state government has also taken several measures to protect the
interests of cardamom growers. In May 1971 the government of Kerala
took over all forests possessed by individuals and companies without paying
any compensation and free of all liabilities. These forests thus got the status
of government forests. Forest areas principally cultivated with cardamom
were exempt from such vesting. Thus, the owners could retain the land because
of the presence of cardamom on it. Another concession was granted under the
Kerala Land Reforms Act (introducing restrictions to the maximum size of certain
agricultural holdings per household to 6 ha) in order to exempt cardamom
growers from the land ceiling. The government makes loans and extends subsidies
to the cultivators for planting, infrastructure development, water harvesting
and the purchase of fertilisers, manure, and plant protection chemicals. Besides
this, the government provides technical support through its R&D network.
With the expansion of the market within and outside the country it
became necessary to insist on quality control for the product. In order to
maintain the traditional quality of the Indian cardamom, and in keeping
with modern developments in the standardisation of agricultural products,
the Government of India introduced Cardamom Grading and Marketing Rules
(Agmark, a symbol of assured quality) in 1962. There are 30 grades for
cardamom fruits, 3 for seeds, and 1 for powder (ground cardamom) (Spices
Board 1996). The grading of cardamom ensures the quality of the produce,
resulting in higher returns for producers. It also encourages producers not to
harvest immature fruits.

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 143

Box 4. Cardamom exploitation versus selective logging

Logging of timber in natural forests has been prohibited in Kerala since

1987. Only trees that are dead, fallen or standing but dangerous to human
life and property may be felled. Nevertheless, it may be interesting to
(hypothetically) compare profits from selective logging with those from
cardamom cultivation. As per silvicultural principles applicable for
selective felling in rain forests, which is usually advised in such forests,
following a 30-year felling cycle with an upper ceiling limit of 25 m3/ha,
the annual working area is limited to one-thirtieth of the total extent.
The maximum volume of timber that could be harvested from 1 ha of
forest would be 25 m3. Considering an average price of US$270 per cubic
meter of timber (mainly low priced semi-hardwoods) and taking a forested
area of 30,000 ha, the value of total annual removal would be US$6.75
million. Compare this to the gross annual income from cardamom if the
tract is left for production of cardamom alone, which would amount to
US$46.05 million.

TRENDS AND ISSUES—DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION LESSONS

Dynamic changes
Till the end of the nineteenth century cardamom was not cultivated. It was
then purely a forest product of natural origin, and tribal communities residing
in the forest used to collect, dry and sell or barter wild cardamom thus collected.
Local rulers and chieftains developed the earliest regulations, according to
which the produce could only be sold to particular agents. These agents, with
prior permission from the local ruler, traded with retailers or foreign buyers
on behalf of the local ruler. Since the late nineteenth century the demand for
cardamom, and its value, has increased considerably, which led to its
‘scientific’ cultivation, initially by the British, who were the first to start
cultivating cardamom in an organised and systematic manner. At present
cardamom can better be designated as an agricultural product since the bulk
of it comes from cultivated lands and not from forests as a wild product.
Increase in production and trade of cardamom had a positive impact on
the lives of the people associated with it. Major auction centres have been
developed during the last 20 to 30 years and presently the economy of the
study area depends largely on cardamom. Over the last three decades there
has been an appreciable increase in the use of cardamom, in both domestic
and international markets, and this trend is continuing.

Conversion of cardamom lands by smallholders

As per Kerala Land Utilisation Order, the conversion of a cardamom crop
into other crops without prior permission from the government has been
deemed illegal. However, because of the fluctuations in market prices and

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144 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

the occurrence of diseases, some of the small farmers (especially those

with privately owned land) have shown a tendency to switch clandestinely
to other crops such as coffee, rubber or pepper. Many of these farmers
have experienced that the fate of the alternative crops is not much different
and that cardamom does not return easily after lands have been cleared.
Farmers have also attempted mixing cardamom with other crops like coffee
and pepper, but these attempts have not been very successful because
cardamom is highly sensitive to its environment and treatments: it requires
‘near natural forest’ conditions in and around the growing area and small
changes in the microclimatic conditions can destroy a cardamom crop.
Excessive removal of shade and clearance of surrounding forests also have
an immediate negative effect on the cardamom plant.
The switching of smallholders to other crops has resulted in a reduction
of the area under cardamom. At present few cardamom farmers switch to
other crops because prices are reasonably steady, varieties that are better
resistant to pests and diseases are available, and farmers have access to
plant protection techniques. If the price decreases, however, illegal
conversion can be expected to increase again.

Possibilities for further development of the cardamom sector

Even though demand is still rising, no further forest area in India can be converted
into cardamom plantations because of the restrictions introduced through the
Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980. This makes an increase in production possible
only through enhancing the productivity of existing cardamom plantations.
Attempts to increase production have been successful, as total production has
risen while the area under cardamom has decreased. Still, there are several
ways in which production, processing and marketing can be further improved.
Conservation of microclimatic conditions, timely application of appropriate
fertilisers, plant protection chemicals and sufficient water are essential for
optimum production of cardamom. Though organic manures and pesticides are
more eco-friendly, experience shows that by themselves these are inadequate
to keep up or increase production levels. Judicious combinations of organic
and chemical manures and fertilisers have to be further developed if the progeny
is to be continued. Improvement in primary processing techniques is necessary,
since the curing of cardamom requires huge quantities of firewood, which is
becoming scarcer by the day. As per studies conducted by the Regional
Engineering College, Calicut, 1 kg of firewood is required for drying 1 kg of
green cardamom. Substitutes like oil, electricity or solar power are needed and
in a few cases producers have already turned to the use of diesel and electricity.
As cardamom areas are bestowed with bright sunshine it should be possible to
make use of solar energy for curing work. Also, improvements are possible
regarding the storage of cardamom. As production and price are subject to
large-scale annual fluctuations, it would be helpful for producers and traders
if it could be held in stock for a longer duration, waiting for better days.
Cardamom can retain its qualities (e.g., its green colour, which is very important
in the market) for more than a year if stored properly. Finally, there should be

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 145

a vigorous search for new uses and markets for the product. In this regard it
may be of interest that Japanese consumers prefer lower quality (less colour,
shrivelled and less than 400 g to a litre) cardamom called the ‘sick variety’.

Socio-economic importance
In the study area, vigorous agricommercial activities associated with
cardamom production, processing and trade have caused fast development
of the tract in all aspects. Locations that even in the recent past were mere
forest camps for transit storage of wild gatherings have grown into townships
with all modern amenities including technical higher education and health
care facilities and a good network of roads, which is reflected in the lifestyle
of the people as well. These developments can be attributed mainly to the
commercialisation of cardamom. Had the product not been so valuable,
perhaps the present ‘cardamom villages’ would have remained remote forest
camps without modern facilities and high standards of living. In the present
situation, cardamom production—being economically more feasible than
production of other agricultural crops or logging—provides the livelihoods
of the majority of the population in the research area. The collapse of this
sector would render thousands of people jobless and result in a social and
economic crash of the study area.

Environmental considerations
The intensive management of cardamom causes disturbance to the ecosystem
by way of clearance of under-storey and middle-storey vegetation, shade
control through the cutting of branches, removal of trees and climbers
undesirable to cardamom cultivation, and widespread application of chemical
fertilisers and pesticides. Heavy demand for firewood for drying cardamom
has also had its impact on the environment. However, as cardamom does
not tolerate exposure beyond a certain limit—it needs specific microclimatic
conditions and its favoured habitat is primary forest with 50% filtered high
shade—lopping of trees has a built-in limitation. Furthermore, it is only the
fruit that is harvested, which causes no harm to the individual plant or to
the environment and there are no organisms that depend solely on cardamom.
The fauna is less plentiful in cardamom forests than in undisturbed forest
areas because of constant disturbance and application of chemicals such as
fertilisers and pesticides. But cardamom does not exclude wildlife altogether
and several species seem to enjoy the additional water and forage facilities
available in cardamom plantations. The sambar deer, several monkey species,
the great Malabar squirrel and a large variety of birds have been spotted in
cardamom estates in Nelliampathy and the High Ranges.
Natural cardamom occurs in the undisturbed rainforest and moist forests
of the Western Ghats, one of the well-known ecological hot spots of the
world. If original natural vegetation is considered the benchmark of
environment, managed cardamom plantations definitely have a negative
effect on the ecosystem and regional landscape. However, managed

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146 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Kerala, India

plantations came into existence more than 150 years ago and disturbance to
the primary ecosystem can therefore be taken only as a fait accompli. If
this argument is accepted, the eco-friendliness of cardamom has to be
viewed from a different angle. Had there been no cardamom, the present
cardamom lands would have been utilised for alternate purposes, namely,
cultivation of mono-crops like rubber, coffee and tea or even for human
settlements, resulting in greater environmental deterioration. Considering
this scenario, managed cardamom plantations have a positive effect on the
ecosystem, insofar as their presence helps to ensure that the current condition
of disturbed primary forests is maintained and the environment is protected
from further degradation. Further, there are strict regulations against the
extension of cardamom plantations into fresh forest areas and cardamom
plantations that border natural forests function as a buffer helping to prevent
illegal activities such as logging and encroachment. Growers are legally bound
to inform the forest department about illegal activities and have an interest
in protecting neighbouring natural forests, because degradation of these
forests would disrupt the microclimate necessary for cardamom production.

ENDNOTES
1. Sylva conS, Forestry Consultants. Vijaya Bhavan, Olai, Kollam-691 009,
Kerala, India. E-mail: [email protected]
2. Sylva conS, Forestry Consultants. T.M. 16/417, Aiswarya. Kuttimakkool
Road, Tellicherry-670 103, Kerala, India. E-mail: [email protected]
3. ‘Forking’, the raking of soil to a depth of 9 cm to 12 cm to a distance
of 90 cm around each plant, promotes root proliferation and better growth
of the plant.
4. ‘Trashing’, the removal of old tillers, dry leaves and leaf sheaths,
improves the hygiene of the plantation.
5. Exchange rate 1998: US$1 = Rs46.
6. Cardamom is highly sensitive to the environment and its impacts. If
the local environment is damaged, it will affect the performance and very
existence of the cardamom crop itself. Therefore the producer who is keen
to get maximum net returns from cardamom will be interested in maintaining
the tree cover.
7. Cardamom is an ingredient in many Indian medicines, ranging from
medicated oils to concoctions and powders.
8. As a result, fuel wood has become a rare commodity, which in turn has
stimulated the use of alternative fuels for cardamom processing.

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T.K. Raghavan Nair and M. Govindan Kutty 147

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