Hindawi

Journal of Renewable Energy

Volume 2021, Article ID 9221168, 8 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9221168

Research Article
Solvent Extraction of Jatropha Oil for Biodiesel Production:
Effects of Solvent-to-Solid Ratio, Particle Size, Type of Solvent,
Extraction Time, and Temperature on Oil Yield

Justin W. Ntalikwa
The University of Dodoma, College of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Department of Petroleum and Energy Engineering,
P.O. Box 259, Dodoma, Tanzania

Correspondence should be addressed to Justin W. Ntalikwa; [email protected]

Received 22 April 2021; Accepted 21 July 2021; Published 28 July 2021

Academic Editor: Abdurrahman Saydut

Copyright © 2021 Justin W. Ntalikwa. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of solvent-to-solid ratio, particle size, extraction time, and temperature on the
extraction of Jatropha oil using three organic solvents, i.e., n-hexane, petroleum ether, and ethanol. The Soxhlet extraction method
was used, and the parameters were varied in the following ranges: extraction temperature of 24–80°C, extraction time of 2 to 8 h,
solvent-to-solid ratio of 4 : 1 to 7 : 1, and particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm. After obtaining optimal conditions, a large volume of Jatropha
oil was prepared, purified, and subjected to analysis of quality parameters. It was found that the oil content of the Jatropha curcas
L. seeds used was 48.2 ± 0.12% w/w. The highest oil yield of 47.5 ± 0.11% w/w corresponding to an oil recovery of 98.6 ± 0.3% w/w
was obtained with n-hexane under the following conditions: solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1, particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm, extraction
time of 7 h, and extraction temperature of 68°C. This was followed by that of petroleum ether (46.2 ± 0.15% w/w) and lastly by
ethanol (43 ± 0.18% w/w). The quality parameters of the oil extracted compared favorably well with most of the values reported in
the literature, suggesting that the oil was of good quality for biodiesel production. Environmental and safety concerns over the use
of hexane pose a great challenge. Thus, ethanol, which is environmentally benign, is recommended for application. The conditions
for ethanol extraction that gave high oil yield were as follows: extraction temperature of 70°C, extraction time of 7 h, solvent-to-
solid ratio of 6 : 1, particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm, and oil yield of 43 ± 0.18% w/w corresponding to an oil recovery of 89.2 ± 0.4% w/w.

1. Introduction observed increasing demand for fossil fuels, their future dearth,
global warming, environmental pollution, and energy security
Energy is a primary input to any socioeconomic development. issues have driven the world to search for newer, safer, cleaner,
Consequently, as mankind strives towards attaining this de- and sustainable sources of energy.
velopment, the energy consumption also grows faster to catch Renewable energy sources such as biofuel production is
up with the required infrastructure and increase in population. considered to be one of the best alternatives to address the
For instance, the global fuel consumption was about 13,205 above challenge. However, production of biofuel from edible
million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2010, and this value is vegetable oils has been associated with conflicts of need for
projected to increase by 56% to about 20,664 Mtoe by 2040 [1, 2] land and other environmental resources for the production
due to the aforementioned reasons. The global energy con- of food. In addition, the high cost of edible feed stocks
sumption is mainly from fossil fuels and nuclear energy. In 2019, reduces the economic viability of the biofuel. Thus, the use of
the total global energy use from these two sources accounted for nonedible raw materials such as Jatropha curcas Linnaeus is
about 88.6% amongst which crude oil consisted of 33.1%, coal an alternative that can overcome this challenge. Jatropha
27%, natural gas 24.2%, and nuclear 4.3%, whereas the con- curcas L. plant (Figure 1(a)) is a multipurpose, drought-
tributions of the hydropower and renewable energies were very resistant plant belonging to the family of Euphorbiaceae. Its
small accounting for 6.4% and 5%, respectively [3]. The seeds (Figures 1(b) and 1(c)) provide nonedible lipids, and
2 Journal of Renewable Energy

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1: (a) Jatropha curcas L. tree with ripe fruits, (b) Jatropha curcas L. seeds with their shells, and (c) Jatropha curcas L. seeds with their
husks.

hence, they do not contravene food security. This property biodiesel obtained normally has desired physiochemical and
makes the plant suitable for application in biodiesel pro- performance characteristics comparable to the conventional
duction that can be used in transport, industrial, and ag- diesel (petro-diesel) and hence suitable for applications in
ricultural sectors, thus positively contributing to the transportation industry (vehicles, trucks, and trains) and
solutions of the challenges facing the energy sector. The oil other diesel engines with very minimum modifications. In
content of the seeds is approximately 30–46% w/w, and this this context, it is important to explore the feasibility of large-
makes their use as an energy source for fuel production very scale production of biodiesel from Jatropha oil and thereby
attractive [4–7]. In addition to this, Jatropha oil has been provide a solution to manifestation of the current world
found to have other useful applications such as in the energy crisis and subsequently improve energy security.
manufacture of candles, soap, cosmetics, and also medicinal The main objective of this study was therefore to evaluate
purposes [8–10]. the performance of the three organic solvents (n-hexane,
Various methods for recovering oil from the seeds have petroleum ether, and ethanol) on the extraction of Jatropha
been investigated; these include mechanical, chemical oil from the seeds. The effects of solvent-to-solid ratio,
(solvent), supercritical, and enzyme-based extractions. particle size, type of solvent, extraction time, and temper-
Mechanical extraction methods have been reported to ature on the oil recovery were specifically targeted for
provide oil recoveries in the range of 55% to 75% with investigation.
operating pressure in the range of 20–70 MPa. [7, 11–13]. In
order to improve the oil recovery, preheating the feed 2. Materials and Methods
material to 60–120°C and the application of twin screw
presses with operating pressure in the range of 5–25 MPa The seeds of Jatropha curcas l. (Figures 1(a) to 1(c)) were
have been studied and oil recoveries in the range of 60–90% collected from Dodoma municipality in Tanzania. Dodoma
have been reported [14–18]. The main drawbacks of me- is located at 6°10′23″S 35°44′31″E at an elevation of 1,120 m
chanical extraction methods are that some amount of oil above the sea level, and it has semiarid climate with average
remains in the cake and sufficient amount of pressure needs low temperature of 16.5°C and average high temperature of
to be raised to allow the oil to flow from the solid matrix. 28.8°C, relative humidity of 53–70%, and average rainfall per
Supercritical, ultrasonication, and enzyme-based extraction year of 606.96 mm. The shells and husks of the seeds were
methods have been studied by many researchers, and oil cracked and carefully removed to get the inner kernels. The
recoveries reported span in the range of 70–91% [19–21]. kernels were grinded with a sieve plate and a shaker grinder
Solvent extraction methods have been reported to by using 0.5 and 0.8 mm sieve plates. The meals were cat-
provide improved oil recoveries in the range of 90 to 99% egorized into three particle size classes: below 0.5 mm
[21–26]. The oil recovery by using this method depends on (powder size), 0.5–0.8 mm (coarse size), and above 0.8 mm.
many parameters such as the type of the solvent used, re- The maximum extractable oil from the seeds was then de-
action time, temperature, particle size of the meal, and termined as per the procedure described by Jonas et al [6].
solvent-to-meal ratio. This is a mass transfer operation, Fifty grams of meal was extracted with 350 mL of the
which involves transport of solvent to the solid matrix, three types of solvents, namely, petroleum ether (b.p. 66°C),
dissolution of the solute (oil) into the solvent phase, and ethanol (b.p. 79°C), and n-hexane (b.p. 68°C). All chemicals
transport of solute and solvent from the solid matrix to the used were of analytical grade. Extraction time was varied
bulk fluid. Thus, the concentration gradient of the solute from 2 to 8 h in a Soxhlet apparatus. The extraction tem-
between the solid and the bulk fluid is the determining perature was varied from 24°C (room temperature) to the
factor. To attain this, the choice of the solvent that can boiling point of the solvent. The solvent-to-solid ratio was
dissolve the solute and transport is very important and that varied from 4 : 1 to 7 : 1, and the meal size was fixed at three
at the end the two must be easily separated. sizes, i.e., 0.5, 0.5–0.8, and above 0.8 mm. These parameters
Jatropha curcas L. oil can be transformed via acid- or were varied one at a time to identify the optimum conditions
base-catalyzed transesterification reactions to biodiesel. The for each type of solvent. At the end of the extraction, the
Journal of Renewable Energy 3

micelle was filtered using vacuum filtration to remove 50

suspended solids. Subsequently, the solvent was separated 48
from the oil using a rotary vacuum evaporator and was 46
collected in the receiving flask. The oil, which remained in
44
the sample flask after the process, was weighed and recorded.
The oil yield and the oil recovery were calculated using the

Oil yield (%)

42
following equations: 40
Mo 38
oil yield (%) � x 100, (1)
MS 36

34
oil yield M 1
oil recovery (%) � � o x , (2) 32
oil content in the seed MS So
30
25 50 60 70 80
where MO is the mass of oil recovered (g), MS is the mass of Temperature (°C)
solid (meal) used (g), and SO is the oil content in the seed
Hexane
(% sw/w).
Pet ether
After obtaining optimal conditions, a large volume of Ethanol
Jatropha oil was extracted, purified, and subjected to
characterization as per standard testing procedures to as- Figure 2: Effect of extraction temperature on oil recovery; ex-
traction time 8 h.
certain its suitability for biodiesel production. In all ex-
periments, three replicates were used.
respectively. This observation generally suggests that the
3. Results and Discussion solubility of the solute (oil) in the solvent increases with the
increase in temperature, hence giving high rate of extraction
3.1. Oil Content of the Seeds. The oil content of the seeds was at high temperature. The upper limit of the temperature in
determined and found out to be 48.2 ± 0.12% w/w, which this study was observed to be the boiling point of the solvent,
was slightly higher than the range of 30–46% w/w reported and beyond this point, the oil recovery significantly dropped
by other researchers [4–7]. This could be attributed to the (Figure 2), and this was certainly due to the boiling off of the
fact that the genus of Jatropha has about 70–175 species, solvent. In addition, hexane shows higher oil yield followed
among them are J. curcas, J. pohliana, and J. gossypiifolia that by petroleum ether and lastly by ethanol (Figure 2).
produce seeds with high oil content [27]. The mass balance
suggests that the total oil content of the seeds should be
determined so that it can be used for the estimation of 3.3. Effect of Extraction Time. The oil yield increases with
appropriate oil recovery according to equation (2). Never- increase in the extraction time for all solvents studied;
theless, most of the studies in the literature are reported however, after 6 h of extraction time, the curves appear to be
without the determination of the oil content of the seeds flat, indicating that there is no significant increase in oil yield
under investigation, hence making it difficult in determining after 7h (Figure 3). This suggests that, for the solvents
the actual oil recovery. studied, almost all of the oil is extracted after 7 h.

3.2. Effect of Extraction Temperature. The oil yield increases 3.4. Effect of Solvent-to-Solid Ratio. Figure 4 shows the effect
with the increase in extraction temperature and appears to of solvent-to-solid ratio on the oil yield, where it can be
have a maximum value at the boiling point of the solvent of noted that the oil yield increases as the amount of solvent
which beyond this point, the oil yield decreases (Figure 2). increases and that hexane appears to provide better yield as
When using hexane as a solvent, the amount of extracted oil compared to the other two solvents studied. At solvent-to-
increased to around 1.5% by increasing the extraction solid ratio of 6 : 1, the oil yield appears to reach maximum of
temperature from 24°C to 45°C and from 45°C to 60°C. 47.5%, 46.2%, and 43% w/w for hexane, petroleum ether, and
Extraction at boiling point (68°C) gives an oil yield of about ethanol, respectively. Sayyar et al [28] while working on
47.5 ± 0.11% w/w, which is about 2.3% higher than at 60°C. similar oil extractions reported oil yields of 47.3% and 46%
Using equation (2) and SO � 0.482 (determined in this work), w/w for n-hexane and petroleum ether, respectively, for
the 47.5 ± 0.11% w/w oil yield translates to 98.6 ± 0.3% w/w solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1 and 8h extraction time. Slightly
oil recovery, which is in good agreement with that reported higher values of optimum oil yields have been reported by
by Qian et al [23] who reported an oil recovery of 98% w/w Keneni et al. [24] (48.29% w/w), Adeyinka [22] (56.69% w/w),
while working with n-hexane and ethanol as a cosolvent. and Yusuff [29] (56.69% w/w) while working with n-hexane
Atabani et al. [25] give an oil recovery in the range of for the similar materials. These variations could be due to
95–99% w/w when using hexane. A similar trend was ob- the various cultivars of Jatropha plant. Increasing the
served with petroleum ether and ethanol, which gave solvent-to-solid ratio to 7 : 1 does not improve significantly
maximum oil yield of 46.2 ± 0.15% w/w and 43.0 ± 0.18% w/ the oil yield (Figure 4). This suggests that the solvent-to-solid
w at around their boiling points of 66°C and 79°C, ratio of 6 : 1 is optimal for the solvents studied in this work.
4 Journal of Renewable Energy

50 50
48
48
46
46 44

Oil yield (%)

44 42
40
Oil yield (%)

42
38
40 36
38 34
32
36 30
<0.5 0.5–0.8 >0.8
34
Particle size (mm)
32
Hexane
30 Pet ether
2 4 6 8
Ethanol
Extraction time (h)
Figure 5: Effect of particle size on oil recovery.
Hexane
Pet ether
Ethanol
0.5 mm) would provide highest oil yield as they have a large
Figure 3: Effect of extraction time on oil recovery; extraction surface area and hence a large contact area and very minimal
temperature 70°C. resistance of solvent diffusion into the inner part of the
particle. However, the oil yield for these particles was 40% w/
50 w for hexane and petroleum ether and 36% w/w for ethanol.
48 This observation was probably due to the agglomeration of
46 fine particles, which reduces the effective surface area
44 available for the free flow of solvent to the solid. It is,
therefore, apparent that small particles of Jatropha seeds
Oil yield (%)

42
40 tend to stick together and form agglomerates that prevent
38
free interaction between the solid and the solvent. From this
36
study, particle sizes in the range of 0.5–0.8 mm were ob-
34
served to be suitable for solvent extraction of Jatropha seeds.
32
30
4:1 5:1 6:1 7:1 3.6. Effect of Type of Solvent. Out of the three solvents in-
Solvent-to-solid ratio (L/g) vestigated, hexane was observed to be favorable for the
Hexane
extraction of oil from Jatropha seed with an oil yield of 47.5%
Pet ether w/w (Figure 6). This is also in line with Zimilar et al. [30]
Ethanol who reported oil yields in the range of 41.2–56.7% w/w when
using vortex-assisted n-hexane extractions of Jatropha oil.
Figure 4: Effect of solvent-to-solid ratio.
There are many factors that contribute to the suitability of
the solvent for extracting a particular component. Among
Based on these results, it can be said that increasing the them include selectivity (separation factor), distribution
solvent-to-solid ratio to a specific limit (in this case is 6 : 1) coefficient, insolubility, recoverability, chemical reactivity,
increases the oil yield and this is due to the increase in the interfacial tension, density, viscosity, vapour pressure,
concentration gradient between the solid and the liquid flammability, and cost. Density and viscosity are required to
phases, which favors improved mass transfer. be sufficiently low for the solvent to travel freely in the solid
matrix and leach out the oil. Thus, n-hexane having low
dynamic viscosity (0.3 mPa s) and low dielectric constant
3.5. Effect of Particle Size on Oil Recovery. Particle sizes (1.88) appear to penetrate the meal matrix well and leach out
within the range of 0.5–0.8 mm were observed to provide the oil as compared to the other solvents (Table 1). Ethanol
high oil yield for all solvents studied (Figure 5). The oil yield having slightly high dynamic viscosity (1.074 mPa s) and
from large particles (greater than 0.8 mm) was low; this is dielectric constant (24.60) appear to have less efficiency as
certainly because large particles have smaller surface area compared to the nonpolar solvents. This augments the
and hence less contact area. This makes it difficult for the discussion above that physical parameters such as density,
solvent to diffuse into the inner part of particle, and hence, viscosity, and polarity of the solvent may have significant
less amount of oil can be leached out from the inner part of effect on oil yield, and hence, they should be critically
the particle to the surrounding solution. Using this obser- considered in selecting solvents required in oil extraction so
vation, it was expected that the smaller particles (less than as to maximize yield and maintain oil quality.
Journal of Renewable Energy 5

49
48
47
46

Oil yield (%)

45
44
43
42
41
40
Hexane Pet ether Ethanol
Solvent

Figure 6: Effect of the type of solvent on oil recovery.

Table 1: Some of the important parameters of the solvents studied at 25°C.

Density Dynamic viscosity Dielectric
Solvent Polarity
(g/cm3) (mPa.s) constant
n-Hexane 0.6606 0.30 1.88 Nonpolar
Petroleum
0.653 0.46 1.90 Nonpolar
ether
Ethanol 0.785 1.074 24.60 Polar

The higher oil yield (47.5%w/w) corresponding to an oil 3.8. Viability of the Solvent. Jatropha oil extraction using
recovery of 98.6%w/w suggest that n-hexane is a favorable hexane has been found to be favorable in this work; however,
solvent for the extraction of Jatropha oil followed by pe- its characteristics such as flammability, volatility, toxicity,
troleum ether with an oil yield of 46.2%w/w (oil recovery of negative impact on environment, operational safety, and
95.8%w/w) and ethanol with an oil yield of 43.0 w/w (oil possible residues after refining are drawbacks to its appli-
recovery of 89.2% w/w) (Figure 6). cation [37–41]. In addition, hexane and petroleum ether are
solvents that are derived from petroleum resources that are
not renewable. These observations pose a great challenge to
3.7. Oil Characterization. In this study, the optimal con- the viability of these solvents. Other solvents such as iso-
ditions were observed to be solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1, propanol and ethyl acetate have been examined in the lit-
range of particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm, extraction time of 7 h, erature for the extraction of oil from oil bearing resources,
hexane as solvent, and extraction temperature of 68°C and they are plausible for further investigations as they have
(boiling point of hexane). These parameters were used for shown promising results [40, 41]. Ethanol, on the other
the preparation of 10 L of Jatropha oil that was subjected to hand, is considered as a green solvent with low toxicity and
characterization, and the results are presented in Table 2 good operational safety and biodegradable, and most im-
along with a comparison with literature values. portantly, it can be obtained from renewable resources
It can be seen in Table 2 that, with the exception of the through the fermentation of biomass [40]. The extraction of
pour point, the rest of the quality parameters investigated are oil with ethanol is said to be an appropriate route when the
within the ranges of the similar oil reported in the literature, oil obtained is to be used for the production of biodiesel
suggesting that the oil produced was of acceptable quality. since the reaction (transesterification) at appropriate tem-
The pour point measured in this study appear to be not in perature and time can be performed in a single stage [40].
agreement with the range reported in the literature, and this The comparison of oil yields of ethanol extraction obtained
might have been due to geographical location (climate and in this study with literature values for various materials are
altitude), soil fertility where the plant under study comes presented in Table 3. From this table, it can be seen that the
from, the species, and the oil extraction method used oil yield obtained in this study using ethanol (43%) com-
[26, 27, 32]. This can also be due to a variety (70–175) of pares well with those reported in the literature (25–49.2%)
species of Jatropha including the J. curcas, J. pohliana, and for similar materials. In addition, the improvement of the
J. gossypiifolia that produce seeds with high oil content [27]. extraction method such as using ultrasound-assisted ex-
It is therefore evident that the quality parameters of the oil traction (UAE) and pressurized liquid ethanol appear to be
extracted from these variety of species may differ. However, potential methods for further investigations as they provide
it is exemplified in this study that the oil extracted has improved yields. In addition, these methods seem to reduce
qualities (Table 2) that are potential for using it in biodiesel the extraction time (19–120 min) as compared to 7h for
production, thus providing a positive contribution to the conventional Soxhlet extraction (Table 3), suggesting noble
energy sector. technological viability.
6 Journal of Renewable Energy

Table 2: Comparison of Jatropha oil quality parameters obtained in this study with those in the literature.
S. no. Parameter This study From literature
1 Moisture content (% w/w) 0.05 0.04–0.159 [17, 31]
2 Density (kg/m3) (15°C) 907 890–926 [31, 32]
3 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.53 0.92–6.16 [10, 32]
4 Free fatty acid (FFA) (%) 0.27 0.18–3.4 [26]
5 Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 195 190–213 [26, 31, 32]
6 Pour point (°C) −6 1–5 [26, 32]
7 Cloud point (°C) −4 −9–6 [32] and 8–10 [26]
8 Flash point (°C) 149 130–240 [31, 32]
9 Iodine no. (g/100 g) 101 84–115 [26, 31–33]
10 Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) (40°C) 31.5 17–46 [31, 32, 34]
11 Calorific value (MkJ/kg) 39.6 37.83–42.05 [26, 32, 35]
12 Cetane number 23 23–56 [32, 33, 36]
13 Oxidation stability (min) 175 179 [31]

Table 3: Comparison of oil yield obtained using ethanol extraction from various materials.
S. no. Materials/seeds used Extraction method Optimal conditions % yield Reference
Pressurized liquid Ethanol consumed: 58 g,
1 Favela seeds 45.8 [37]
ethanol at 10 MPa 19 min of dynamic extraction
Ultrasound-assisted
2 Macauba fruit 70°C, 45 min 37.95 [38]
extraction (UAE)
70% of classical
3 Flax seeds Orbital shaker 60°C, 120 min, 12 mLg−1 [39]
extraction
−1
4 Raddish seeds UAE 60°C, 60 min, 12 mLg 25 [40]
5 Macauba pulp UAE 60°C, 90 min, 10 mLg−1 49.2 [41]
6 Chia seeds UAE 50°C, 40 min, 12 mLg−1 27.24 [42]
7 Jatropha seeds Soxhlet 70°C, 7h, 6 : 1 43.0 This work

4. Conclusion Disclosure
From this study, it has been found that the oil content of the This research was performed as part of the employment
Jatropha curcas L. seeds used was 48.2 ± 0.12% w/w. The activities of the author by the University of Dodoma.
results also confirm that n-hexane is a suitable solvent for the
extraction of Jatropha oil and the optimal conditions are
as follows: solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1, particle size of
Conflicts of Interest
0.5–0.8 mm, extraction time of 7 h, and extraction tem- The author hereby declares no conflicts of interest with the
perature of 68°C, and the oil yield was 47.5 ± 0.11% w/w work under consideration.
corresponding to an oil recovery of 98.6 ± 0.3% w/w. This
was followed by petroleum ether and lastly by ethanol. The
quality parameters of the oil extracted compared favor- Acknowledgments
ably well with most of the values reported in the literature,
The author sincerely acknowledges the logistical support
suggesting that the oil was of good quality for biodiesel
offered by Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science
production. Environmental and safety concerns pose
and Technology (NM-AIST), Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania,
great challenge on viability of hexane in industrial scale
during his sabbatical leave and preparation of this work.
solvent extraction of the oil. In this regard, ethanol which
is an environmentally friendly solvent that can be pro-
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