NAFTA-GAZ

Nafta-Gaz 2021, no. 2, pp. 63–74, DOI: 10.18668/NG.2021.02.01

Development of Biochemically Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology for

Oil Fields – A Review
Przegląd kierunków rozwoju biochemicznych metod wspomagania wydobycia ropy
naftowej ze złóż ropnych

Kamalakshi Devi, Ranjan Kumar Bhagobaty

Petroleum Biotechnology Centre (Jaivalaya)
Research & Development Department, Oil India Limited

ABSTRACT: Crude oil, a major source of energy, is being exploited as a driver of the economy throughout the world. Being a limited
resource, the price of crude oil increases constantly and the exploitation of mature reservoirs becomes essential in order to meet the
ever-increasing energy demands. As conventional recovery methods are not sufficient to fulfil the growing needs, there is an incessant
demand for developing new technologies which can help in efficient tertiary recovery in old reservoirs. Petroleum biotechnology has
been emerging as a branch that can provide solutions to major problems in the oil industry, including increasing oil production from
marginal oil wells. The enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method comprises four methods – chemical, thermal, miscible, and immiscible gas
flooding – as well as microbial interference to increase recovery of the remaining hydrocarbons trapped in reservoir rocks. Biochemically
enhanced oil recovery comprises an array of blooming technologies for tertiary oil recovery methods which is eco-friendly, cost-effective,
and efficient in extracting the residual oil trapped in reservoir rocks. Biochemical enhanced oil recovery (BcEOR) is based on the prin-
ciple of using biochemical by-products produced by microbial species to enhance oil recovery, etc. All these technologies work on the
principles of reducing viscosity, increasing permeability, modifying solid surfaces, emulsifying through adherence to hydrocarbons,
and lowering interfacial tension. BcEOR technologies either employ the beneficial microorganism itself or the biochemical by-products
produced by the microbial species to enhance tertiary oil recovery. This review paper discusses the chronological development of bio-
logically enhanced oil recovery and its various mechanisms.
Key words: enhanced oil recovery, polymer flooding, biopolymers, bioplugging, oil fields, BcEOR.

STRESZCZENIE: Ropa naftowa jest wykorzystywana na całym świecie jako główne źródło energii. Ze względu na ograniczone za-
soby ropy naftowej jej cena stale rośnie, a eksploatacja ze złóż dojrzałych staje się niezbędna do zaspokojenia ciągle zwiększające-
go się zapotrzebowania na energię. Ponieważ konwencjonalne metody wydobycia nie wystarczają do zaspokojenia coraz większych
potrzeb, istnieje nieustanne zapotrzebowanie na rozwój nowych technologii, które mogą pomóc w efektywnym wspomaganiu wydo-
bycia ze starych złóż metodami trzecimi. Ostatnio biotechnologia naftowa staje się gałęzią, która dostarcza rozwiązań dotyczących
głównych problemów przemysłu naftowego, w tym zwiększenia wydobycia ropy z brzeżnych odwiertów ropnych. Wspomaganie
wydobycia ropy naftowej (EOR) obejmuje cztery rodzaje metod: chemiczne, termiczne, tzw. mieszające i niemieszające wypieranie
ropy gazem, a także oddziaływanie mikrobiologiczne w celu zwiększenia wydobycia węglowodorów uwięzionych w skałach zło-
żowych. Biochemiczne metody wspomagania wydobycia ropy naftowej to szereg rozwijających się technologii dla trzecich metod
wspomagania wydobycia, które są przyjazne dla środowiska, racjonalne pod względem kosztów i efektywne, jeżeli chodzi o wy-
dobycie ropy rezydualnej uwięzionej w skałach złożowych. Biochemiczne wspomaganie wydobycia ropy naftowej (BcEOR) opar-
te jest na zasadzie, zgodnie z którą biochemiczne produkty uboczne wytwarzane przez gatunki drobnoustrojów są wykorzystywa-
ne do wspomagania wydobycia ropy naftowej itp. Wszystkie te technologie działają na takich zasadach jak: zmniejszenie lepko-
ści, zwiększenie przepuszczalności, modyfikacja powierzchni ciał stałych, emulgowanie poprzez adhezję do węglowodorów, ob-
niżenie napięcia międzyfazowego. Technologie BcEOR albo wykorzystują pożyteczny mikroorganizm jako taki, albo wykorzystu-
ją biochemiczne produkty uboczne wytwarzane przez gatunki drobnoustrojów w trzecich metodach wspomagania wydobycia ropy
naftowej. W niniejszym artykule przeglądowym omówiono chronologiczny rozwój biologicznych metod wspomagania wydobycia
ropy naftowej i ich różne mechanizmy.
Słowa kluczowe: wspomagane wydobycie ropy naftowej, nawadnianie z zastosowaniem polimeru, biopolimery, blokowanie z użyciem
mikroorganizmów, złoża ropne, biochemiczne wspomaganie wydobycia ropy naftowej (BcEOR).

Corresponding author: R.K. Bhagobaty, e-mail: [email protected]

Article contributed to the Editor: 10.07.2020. Approved for publication: 07.01.2020

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Introduction solve the issues that limit efficient recovery process. In order
to successfully implement enhanced oil recovery, many groups
The major source of global energy supply continues to of researchers have experimentally investigated the feasibility
be fossil fuels, which contribute approximately 85% of our and potential of using novel biopolymers developed through
total energy needs (34% oil, 24% natural gas, and 27% coal) synergistic chemical and microbial technology (BcEOR) (Yen,
(Statistical Review of World Energy, 2019). As oil is the key 1990; Lazar et al., 2007; Zhang and Xiang, 2010; Shibulal et al.,
player in meeting world energy demands with fossil fuels, 2014, 2018; Cui et al., 2019).
enhanced recovery of oil is becoming a major challenge for In this review, we provide an update on the chronological
the oil industry around the globe. Therefore, it is necessary development of biologically enhanced oil recovery, the various
to make oil production more efficient, sustainable, and green. mechanisms involved, and its advantages and disadvantages.
Recently, petroleum biotechnology has emerged as a branch This comprehensive review provides better insight to increase
that can provide solutions to major problems in the oil industry, the efficiency of the oil recovery process in order to further
including increasing oil production from marginal oil wells improve the available processes in future.
(non-producing wells) (Montiel et al., 2009).
In general during the first stage of oil production, the dif-
ferential pressure between a reservoir and a wellbore is respon- History of biologically enhanced oil recovery
sible for driving oil out of the production well. This process
recovers only about 10% of the original oil in place (OOIP) Microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) is a collection
and is referred to as primary production. Later, with a decline of techniques that utilise microorganisms and their metabolic
in reservoir pressure, oil recovery also decreases, leading to the products to improve the recovery of crude oil from reservoir
need for secondary recovery. Secondary recovery involves the rock (Yen, 1990; Lazar et al., 2007; Zhang and Xiang, 2010;
injection of an external fluid (such as water and gas) through the Shibulal et al., 2014, 2018; Cui et al., 2019). The recovery
injection wells to maintain reservoir pressure and displace the can either be in the form of cyclic (single-well simulation),
oil towards the wellbore (Zendehboudi and Bahadori, 2017). microbial flooding, or selective plugging recovery (Lazar et al.,
During this process, the water physically sweeps the oil, which 2007; Shibulal et al., 2014). The idea of microbial enhanced
produces 15–60% of the OOIP. Petroleum industries are aware oil recovery was first proposed by Beckmann (1926), when he
of the inefficient oil recovery inherent in the conventional published results on the possibility of using microbial metabolic
means of primary and secondary recovery. Therefore, the oil processes to improve the oil production rate. In the later parts
industries further adopted the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) of the 1940s, the experiments of Zobell (1947) further indicated
process to increase oil production by improving oil flow and the potential for microbial oil recovery from sand grains. The
sweep efficiency in the reservoir. Since then, several methods study highlighted the similarity between the compounds used
have been developed to improve the sweep efficiency of oil by to improve water flood efficiency in chemical and miscible
increasing the mobility ratio, displacing the oil for enhanced EOR processes and the products of microbial fermentation of
recovery (Thomas, 2007). The EOR method comprises four carbohydrates – despite the setback due to hydrogen sulphide
methods – chemical, thermal, miscible, and immiscible gas production.
flooding – as well as microbial means of increasing recovery From the classic works of Beckmann (1926) and Zobell
of the remaining oil (Planckaert, 2005). (1947), there was a giant leap from the 1950s through the
Over the past 40 years, polymer flooding has been carried 1980s, with other scientists reporting advances made in MEOR
out in marginal oil fields and has proved to be successful in (Updegraff and Wren, 1954; Kuznetsov, 1961; Kuznetov et al.,
many cases. Polymer flooding operates on the principle of 1962; Senyukov et al., 1970; Lazar, 1978; Ivanov et al., 1982;
chemical recovery (da Silva et al., 2007). It involves the addi- Belyaev, 1983; Bubela, 1983; Grula et al., 1983; Yarbrough and
tion of a polymer (a viscosifying agent) to the injected water, Coty, 1983; Zajic et al., 1983; Donaldson and Grula, 1985).
which tends to increase water viscosity, thereby increasing the Further studies were conducted in the 1990s and 2000s with
mobility of the water-to-oil ratio. However, earlier laboratory renewed significant interests (Lazar, 1991; Ivanov et al., 1993;
and field trials revealed that salinity and temperature are the Hitzman and Sperl, 1994; McInerney and Sublette, 1997;
major issues that lead to polymer degradation and adsorption Bryant and Lockhart, 2002; Li et al., 2002; Maudgalya et al.,
on the rock surface. Microbial degradation and concentration 2005). A parallel development was the rise in crude oil prices
are also major issues leading to a loss of viscosity and pore due to the petroleum crisis in the 1970s that boosted develop-
throat plugging. Enhanced oil recovery using polymer flooding ment of MEOR research and validated it to scientific enhanced
and microbial enhanced oil recovery can act synergistically to oil recovery method (Lazar et al., 2007).

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Table 1. Some of the major field trials around the globe

Tabela 1. Niektóre z ważniejszych prób na złożach na świecie
Result of oil
Country Microbial systems used References
production
–– Indigenous oil-oxidising bacteria from water injection and
Bulgaria Positive Groudeva et al., 1993
water formation
Canada –– Pure culture of Leuconostoc mesenteroides Negative Jack and Stehmeier, 1988
Former East Germany –– Mixed cultures of thermophilic Bacillus and Clostridium Positive Wagner et al. 1993
Hitzman, 1983,
–– Pure or mixed cultures of Bacillus, Clostridium, and Pseudo-
Grula et al., 1983,
monas
USA Positive Bryant et al., 1993,
–– Mixed cultures of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria
Jenneman et al., 1995,
–– Slime-forming bacteria
Dietrich et al., 1996
–– Pure culture of Clostridium pyrobutyricum Senyukov et al., 1970,
Russia –– Bacteria mixed cultures Positive Ivanov et al., 1993,
–– Indigenous microflora of water injection and water formation Wagner and Lungerhausen, 1995
–– Mixed enriched bacterial cultures of Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Bacteroides, etc.
Wang et al., 1993,
China –– Slime-forming bacteria Positive
Cui et al., 2019
–– Biopolymers and biosurfactants
–– Stimulation of indigenous microbes
–– Adapted mixed enriched cultures; Clostridium, Bacillus, and Lazar and Constantinescu, 1985,
Romania Positive
Pseudomonas Lazar, 1991, 1998
Poland –– Mixed bacteria cultures Positive Karaskiewicz, 1975

There are numerous examples of MEOR being applied in The continual search for a cheaper and more effective EOR
different oilfields around the globe. To list all these examples method was a major driving force behind the development
would be an enormous task, but some of the best known cases of the microbial technique. The advances that were made in
are presented in Table 1. Currently there are other ongoing the 1950s through the 2000s came in large part from a great
MEOR projects in different parts of the world. In the North Sea, deal of work studying how microorganisms can benefit the
out of the 19 enhanced oil recovery projects underway in 2006, recovery of oil from petroleum reservoirs. Many of the results
only one used microbial enhanced oil recovery (Awan et al., from laboratory studies were promising. The laboratory study
2008); the other 18 projects have been or are gas enhanced of a specific microorganism was done either for the surface
oil recovery projects. production of various compounds or for the injection of cells
In general, with an average of 35–45% recovery from the into a reservoir for in situ production of metabolic compounds.
best currently available technology of the OOIP in an oil field These laboratory studies on MEOR normally used core samples
coupled with an annual production declines of between 4–15% and columns containing the desired substrates. These substrates
in mature fields, many more oil companies and agencies are were employed to demonstrate the usefulness of biosurfactants
opening up to the possibility of using MEOR permanently. in oil recovery from sandstone and carbonate. Similarly, core
It is believed that the use of MEOR will continue to grow samples were used as a model for the movement of microor-
over time, as the basic processes involved in MEOR become ganisms and nutrients through substrates in order to ascertain
better understood. their usefulness after injection into oil reservoirs (Banat, 1995).
Gasses, solvents, surface active compounds, polymers, However, the results from field applications were mixed
organic acids, and biomass are all regular and predictable because the biological, chemical, and physical processes that
products of microbial metabolism similar to compounds used occur in petroleum reservoirs where in situ metabolism occurs
in chemical enhanced oil recovery (Sheehy, 1991). Microbial were not fully understood (Donaldson, 1991). As observed
enhanced oil recovery in general has many advantages, such as by Hitzman (1991), several reasons can be considered for the
cost-effectiveness, low toxicity, biodegradability, biocompat- reported differences between laboratory results and field ob-
ibility, and selectivity and specificity (Desai and Banat, 1997). servations in MEOR studies. One of the important factors is
MEOR, therefore, offers a good alternative in improving the the dynamic environment normally encountered in a reservoir,
recovery of crude oil from reservoirs by utilising microorgan- which is difficult to duplicate or simulate in a laboratory with
isms and their metabolic products. small cores and reactors. Physical and chemical changes also

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occur within the reservoir as a result of interactions between as many of the earlier studies identified the need to improve
the multiplying microorganisms and the reservoir matrix that critical information on the mechanisms, metabolic rates, and
cannot be duplicated in the laboratory. Another major reason required concentrations of microbial products. Some of the most
identified for the failure of field trials is insufficient consider- recent works include those of Brown et al. (2002), Bryant and
ation of the conditions which characterise petroleum reservoirs Lockhart (2002), Maudgalya et al. (2005), Kowalewski et al.
(Sheehy, 1991). Sheehy observed that the activity of bacteria in (2006), Kaster et al. (2009), Jimoh et al. (2011), Rudyk and
reservoirs depends on the physical and chemical conditions they Sřgaard (2011), and several other studies. All these works were
encounter. These include pH, temperature, salinity, pressure, attempts to bridge the gap in laboratory success and the field
ionic strength, source of energy, and nutrients. Moreover, the applications of MEOR.
lack of adequate knowledge about the growth of microorgan- The research showed that there has been improvement in the
isms in oil under anaerobic conditions during the early days of availability of methods and analytical equipment, among other
MEOR was a major factor. It was not until recently that bacteria things. Also, new strains of bacteria have been identified and
have been shown conclusively to metabolise hydrocarbons in isolated from deep-seated reservoirs that have the ability to grow
oil in an anaerobic environment (Kropp et al., 2000). However, in extreme salinity and temperatures. Examples of such newly
it was suggested that some of the perceived technical problems identified strains of bacteria include thermoanerobic bacteria,
associated with MEOR applications can be overcome with such as Thermoanerobacter brockii subsp. lactiethylicus strain
careful planning (Moses, 1991; Maudgalya et al., 2007). 9801T – which was isolated from a deep subsurface French oil
In spite of some of the earlier setbacks, MEOR has de- well at a depth of 2,100 m, where the temperature was 92°C and
veloped rapidly over the past two or three decades around optimum growth at temperatures between 55 and 60°C (Cayol
the world. From the USA to Russia, Europe to China, and et al., 1995) – and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis strain
Canada to Australia, several studies have been carried out in MB4T, isolated from a Chinese hot spring capable of growing
different applications of MEOR: for example, Senyukov et al., at temperatures between 50 and 80°C (Xue et al., 2001).
1970; Dienes and Jaranyi, 1973; Karaskiewicz, 1975; Lazar, Moreover, the area of MEOR modelling is also improving.
1978; Yarbrough and Coty, 1983; Hitzman, 1988; Sheehy, It was recognised that a mathematical model could be used to
1991; Wagner, 1991; Ivanov et al., 1993; Wang et al., 1993; recognise the most important parameters and their practical
He et al., 2000; Bryant and Lockhart, 2002; Li et al., 2002). relationships for the application of MEOR (Marshall, 2008).
The first field trial was carried out in 1954, in the Lisbon field However, developing detailed mathematical models for MEOR is
of Union County, AR (Yarbrough and Coty, 1983). The field an extremely challenging task, not only as a consequence of the
tests from many of these studies specified the injection of mixed natural difficulty of working with the microbes, but also because
anaerobic or facultative anaerobic bacteria, typically consist- of the diversity of physical and chemical variables that control
ing of Clostridium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, bacterial activity in subsurface porous media. Microbial model-
Mycobacterium, Arthrobacterium, Peptococcus, etc., along ling developed from the earlier work of Monod (1949), which
with nutrients. One example of such a nutrient is molasses, modelled the bacteria growth in several mathematical models
a by-product of sugar, which is relatively inexpensive in that that simulated MEOR processes. Examples include models for
part of the world. The selection of these microorganisms is the multidimensional flow of a multiphase fluid consisting of
based on their ability to generate high quantities of gasses water and oil in a porous medium, along with specific equa-
(e.g. CH4, H2, CO2, and N2), organic acids (e.g. butyric and tions for absorption, adsorption, and diffusion of metabolites,
acetic acids), solvents (e.g. acetone, butanol, and ethanol), microorganisms, and nutrients (Chang et al., 1991; Islam, 1990),
polymers (e.g. polysaccharides), biosurfactants, and cell bio- models for relative permeability changes (Al-Wahaibi et al., 2006;
mass. Each mechanism or combination of these mechanisms Nielson et al., 2010), and models that incorporate salinity, the
could lead to increased oil recovery (McInerney et al., 2002). effects of adsorption of microorganisms, reduction of interfacial
Research carried out from 1970 to 2000, as illustrated in the tension, and wettability changes (Behesht et al., 2008).
studies by Lazar et al. (2007) and Brown (2010), has established In conclusion, microorganisms have the ability to enhance
the basic nature and existence of indigenous microbiota in oil oil recovery by virtue of some of the products they can produce
reservoirs, as well as reservoir characteristics being essential to (Brown, 2010), or specifically employing this ability in an
a successful MEOR application. At the moment, research into economical, practical, and scientifically valid manner, transfer-
MEOR is still continuing, which can be said to be the fourth ring it from a laboratory scale to large-scale field applications.
generation of studies. This is buoyed by the combined effects More research is required in this area and it is believed that by
of increasing mature oilfields and rising oil prices, as well as doing so, MEOR – as part of tertiary enhanced oil recovery
the need to increase our understanding of MEOR processes – methods – could substantially increase the world’s supply of oil.

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The mechanisms involved pressure inside the well, which acts as a driving force to drift
the oil towards the surface. Some of the microbial metabolites
Over the years attempts have been made to classify the main may reduce permeability by activating secondary flow paths.
mechanisms involve in the MEOR process. These processes The enhanced growth of nitrate-reducing bacteria competes for
are identified based on the end products generated from bac- food with the sulphate-reducing bacteria, causing a reduction in
terial metabolism. According to Janshekar (1985), the main H2S concentration which in turn mitigates downhole corrosion
mechanisms of MEOR include viscosity reduction, rock dis- caused by sulphate-reducing bacteria, acid-producing bacteria,
solution, permeability reduction, etc. (Fig. 1). All these mecha-etc. The attachment of bacteria and the development of slime,
nisms are similar to those being practiced in chemical EOR. i.e. extracellular polymeric substances, favour the plugging of
The main difference is that the required products come from highly permeable zones (thieves zones ), leading to increased
bacterial metabolism. It is therefore expected that the MEOR sweep efficiency of otherwise unswept oil.
mechanisms fulfil the basic
law of thermodynamics. The
MEOR mechanisms, how-
ever, can be different from
bacterium to bacterium, and
are normally selected based
on the requirements of the
wells or reservoir.
It has been shown that
MEOR techniques are gen-
erally applied to reservoirs
where production rates have
declined over time. The rea-
sons behind the consider-
ation of MEOR technologies
(Hitzman, 1991) when eval-
uating reservoirs for residual
oil recovery usually include
multiple application possi-
bilities, multiple oil recov-
ery mechanisms, increased
treatment effectiveness with Fig. 1. Microbial products and their contribution to enhanced oil recovery
penetration and duplication, Rys. 1. Produkty mikrobiologiczne i ich udział we wspomaganiu wydobycia ropy naftowej
and low start-up costs along
with low operating costs. Classification of BcEOR
The MEOR methods are believed to be more constructive
than other EOR methods based on the perceived advantages The objective of most MEOR is to reduce the remaining
described above; moreover, the microbes produce the necessary oil in the reservoir; however, the implementation of a BcEOR
metabolites in situ, the method is considered to be environmen- strategy may be different. Nevertheless, two major strategies
tally friendly, and it does not require large amounts of energy. are normally employed in BcEOR. The first one is the injec-
The various mechanisms mentioned in Figure 1 work syn- tion of bacteria and nutrients, normally referred to as the ‘tra-
ergistically to change the reservoir chemistry at the micro- ditional’ MEOR method, whilst the second method involves
environmental level, which in return enhances the free flow of the stimulation of indigenous bacteria through the injection
entrapped oil and finally increases the recovery of hydrocarbons of nutrients. The application of MEOR technology can either
from depleting wells. The different mechanisms have differ- be in the form of a cyclic (single-well simulation), microbial
ent impacts on reservoir chemistry viz. the biodegradation of flooding, or selective plugging recovery (Lazar et al, 2007).
large molecules reduces the viscosity of hydrocarbons and In cyclic microbial recovery, microorganisms and nutrients
the production of bio-surfactants reduces interfacial tension. are injected into production wells. The wells are shut in for
Similarly, the production of various gasses builds additional a long enough period to allow microbial growth and metabolite

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formation. This can take a number of days or weeks. Finally, effluents from sugars (Lazar, 1991). A generalised workflow
the oil production phase begins and extends over a period of for the selection and isolation of BcEOR microbial strains is
weeks or months. In cyclic microbial recovery, when produc- depicted blow (Fig. 2).
tion declines, another phase of injection is normally started. In
this case, the depth of the area covered by bacteria would be
limited by the injection rate and the kinetics of the microbial
process (Bryant and Lockhart, 2002).
The second type of application is microbial flooding, in
which the microbial growth is usually stimulated by adding
nutrients to the injection water to encourage the proliferation of
microorganisms which are indigenous to the formation. If the
requisite microbial activity is not present, then microorganisms
can be injected into the formation along with the nutrients. In
some approaches, injection into the formation is stopped to allow
time for the in situ growth and metabolism to occur (Youssef et
al., 2009). In other approaches, brine injection continues after
nutrient and/or cell injection. This option would most likely be
less expensive, as the growth would be stimulated in larger parts
of the reservoir, particularly where the carbon source (residual
oil) is located, which is usually the target of the enhanced oil
recovery treatment (Kaster et al., 2012).
Microbial selective plugging encompasses a microbial
process to divert water into low-permeability regions to block
water channels deep in the reservoirs. With this type of treat-
ment, nutrient preferentially flows into the high-permeability
regions, which then stimulates biomass and polymer production
in these regions, both of which reduce the permeability of the
rock (Raiders et al., 1985). In contrast, heavy oil modification
is usually accomplished by microbial decomposition of long
chain compounds within the formation.

Microbe selection for BcEOR

Many microbes have the ability to produce secondary

metabolites which can enhance oil recovery, such as acids Fig. 2. Generalised workflow for the selection and isolation of BcEOR
microbial strains
(Clostridium sp. or Enterobacter), gasses (Enterobacter or
Rys. 2. Zgeneralizowany schemat postępowania w przypadku selekcji
Clostridium sp.), solvents (Clostridium acetobutylicum or i izolacji szczepów mikroorganizmów stosowanych w metodzie
Zymomomas mobile), biomass (Bacillus lichenifonnis or biochemicznego zwiększenia wydobycia ropy naftowej (BcMEOR)
Xanthomonas campestris), biosurfactants (Acinetobacter cal-
coacticus, Arthrobacter paraffineus or Pseudomonas sp.), and Earlier studies on MEOR showed that both mixed cultures
biopolymers (Bacillus polymyxa or Brevibacterium viscogenes). and pure strains of bacteria have been used. For example,
The microbial bioproducts will determine the choice of bacteria Hitzman (1983) used pure and mixed cultures of Bacillus,
to increase oil recovery and withstand the extreme reservoir Clostridium, and Pseudomonas in 2–4% molasses in the USA.
conditions. In the case of MEOR, the successful field experi- Wang et al. (1993, 1995) used mixed enriched bacterial cultures
ments have mostly used anaerobic bacteria (Maudgalya et al., of Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Eurobacterium, Fusobacterium,
2007) and four main sources from which bacterial species and Bacteriodes in a 4% residue sugar. Dostalek et al. (1957)
that are potential candidates for MEOR can be isolated have and Dostalek and Spurny (1958) injected sulphate-reducing
been suggested: formation waters, sediment from formation Desulfovibrio and hydrocarbon-utilising Pseudomonas bacteria
water purification plants, sludge from biogas operations, and with nutrients (generally molasses). Yaranyi (1968) documented

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the use of mixed sewage sludge bacterial cultures, predominant- accepted, but it has also been observed that the temperatures at
ly Clostridium, Pseudomonas, and Desulfovibro. Karaskiewicz which these phenomena occur vary widely between organisms
(1975), in 18 field trials in Poland between 1960 and 1961, also (Marshall, 2008). Microbes can be categorised, according to the
documented the use of mixed microbial cultures containing optimal temperature ranges for their survival, into psychrophiles
Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Arthrobacter, Mycobacterium, (< 25°C), mesophiles (25–45°C), and thermopiles (45–60°C).
Micrococcus, Peptococcus, Bacillus, and Clostridium which The depths at which most oil reservoirs are situated have
were grown in formation water and were injected along with temperatures higher than 37°C, which is considered the opti-
4% molasses. Further studies that used mixed cultures of mum temperature for most bacteria. For example, in the North
bacteria include those of Wagner et al. (1993) that employed Sea the temperature gradient is about 2.5°C/100 m (Vermooten
mixed cultures of thermophilic Bacillus and Clostridium, mixed et al., 2004); therefore, at a depth of 3000 m, the temperature
cultures of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria in free corn syrup can reach as high as 90°C.
and mineral salts were used by Coates et al. (1993), Nelson
and Schneider (1993), Jenneman et al. (1995), and others. Pressure
Some studies employed pure strains of bacteria, such as Pressure affects biological processes in relation to the ac-
the one by Wagner and Lungerhausen (1995), who used salt- companying volume changes; however, in many regions of
tolerant Clostridium to increase oil production in a carbonate the earth, the limiting boundary is probably set more by high
reservoir by in situ gas and solvent production. Also, Grula temperatures than by high pressures (Marquis, 1976, 1983).
et al. (1983) used isolated Clostridia species that were able to The maximum depth for life in the deep earth has not been
produce solvents and gasses. Furthermore, Ivanov et al. (1993), determined, but for maximum recovery of oil – in the range
Nazina et al. (1994), Belyaev et al. (2004), and Jimoh et al. of 2000 to 3000 meters – the most applicable pressures for
(2011), all used pure cultures of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in EOR in productive wells are 20 to 30 MPa. High hydrostatic
2–6% molasses for different evaluations of MEOR processes. pressures of dozens of MPa are generally assumed to be non-
lethal, but can exert adverse effects on the growth of organisms
that are adapted to atmospheric pressure (Abe et al., 1999;
BcEOR constraints Bartlett, 2002).
The effect of pressure on microorganisms depends not only
A major reason for the failure of BcEOR technology is on the magnitude of pressure, but also on the duration for which
insufficient consideration of the conditions which characterise it is applied in combination with the temperature, pH, oxygen
petroleum reservoirs and the physiology of the microorganisms supply, and composition of the culture media (Abe, 2007).
which thrive in these conditions (Sheehy, 1991). The activities The effects of pressure can be very complex and often dif-
of microbes employed in the BcEOR process depends on the ficult to interpret. For example, recent results indicated that
physical and chemical conditions they encounter in the res- lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis) growth at
ervoirs – temperature, pressure, pH, salinity, redox potential, 50 MPa was 30% lower than at atmospheric pressure and that
etc. – although these reservoir conditions vary a great deal from an increase in temperature did not improve its piezotolerance
one reservoir to another. All these factors, which are mostly (Molina-Höppner et al., 2003). In another study, it was shown
physical and environmental, can affect the growth, proliferation, that treatment of E. coli cells at a higher pressure (75 MPa)
metabolism, and survival of bacteria and can limit their ability for 30 min did not readily cause any morphological changes
to produce the quantities of metabolites necessary for EOR. (Kawarai et al., 2004). The challenges are therefore to establish
However, the general opinion is that with proper planning most whether the physiological responses of bacterial cells to high
of these factors can be overcome. Some of the factors which pressure are relevant to their growth and to identify the criti-
are considered limiting factors for successful application of cal factors in cell viability and lethality under high pressure
BcEOR are enumerated below. during MEOR.

Temperature pH
Temperature plays a significant role in bacterial metabolism. pH is one of the major environmental factors that affect
Temperatures rise with increasing depth. Therefore, it is certain microbial growth and is one of the most studied because of its
that bacterial growth and metabolism will be affected, as higher importance in fundamental research. In general, the optimal
temperatures can exert negative effects on enzyme function pH for microorganism growth is between 4.0 and 9.0, but at
by disrupting important cell activities. This molecular picture very low pH the metabolic activities of microorganisms can be
of the effects of temperature on enzyme function is generally affected. The detrimental effect of low pH on microbial growth

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is well-documented (Brock, 1969) although the mechanisms Pore throat diameters of shale are on average much smaller
involved are not well understood. Generally, a near-neutral than those of sandstone (~0.2 mm for shale and up to 13 mm
intracellular pH is maintained in bacteria (Riebeling et al., for sandstone) (Krumholz, 2000), and the results of the study
1975), but the intracellular pH can decrease considerably if suggest that the growth and metabolism of shale-bound organ-
the cell is subjected to an acidic environment. isms may be limited by the slow diffusion of nutrients and/
As many enzymes are sensitive to pH, the growth inhibi- or the inability of microbes to migrate easily through the nar-
tions seen at low pH could be caused by a direct effect of the row pores. Also, Zvyagintsev (1970) in an experiment with
H ion on cellular components, even though such direct effects microbes, stated that placing microbes in large capillaries
would not necessarily cause a decrease in the efficiency of (400 × 150 nm) increased the number of cells 7–10 times, but
growth (Russell and Dombrowski, 1980). pH values normally in small capillaries not only was an increase of cells observed,
encountered in oil reservoirs may not pose a problem for the but the size of the cells was reduced. In general, a permeability
growth of organisms, but pH gradients can affect the control of 75–100 mD is thought to be the lower limit for effective
of specific metabolic processes required for some MEOR microbial transport (Jenneman and Clark, 1992), but reports
processes (Jenneman and Clark, 1992). have indicated transportation of bacterial cells through cores
of less than 75 mD (Hart et al., 1960; Kalish et al., 1964).
Salinity
Sodium chloride makes up about 90% or more of the total Nutrients
dissolved solids found in reservoir brines; therefore, micro- A successful MEOR process will require the availability of
organisms’ tolerance to salt concentration is one of the most essential nutrients in order for growth and metabolism to take
important characteristics for microorganisms used in MEOR. place, as it was recognised that there is a smooth relationship
The extent to which salinity causes changes in bacterial growth between growth rate and nutrient concentration (Monod, 1949).
and metabolism depends on the osmotic balance required for Bacterial requirements for growth include sources of energy,
such growth, since the solute concentration of the surrounding mostly organic carbon (i.e. sugars and fatty acids) and mineral
environment can affect cell growth. Grula et al. (1983) isolated ions (e.g. iron and phosphorus). These nutrients are mostly
Clostridia species capable of growing at 45°C, but found that transported in the aqueous phase. Fermentative bacteria use
their ability to produce solvents and gasses was reduced sig- nutrients containing glucose, sucrose, or lactose.
nificantly at high sodium chloride concentrations (5% w/v). The choice of nutrients is very important since the types of
General concentrations of oilfield brines can vary from bioproducts that are also produced by different types of bacteria
100 mg/l to over 300 g/l (Gran et al., 1992) and the salinity are dependent on the types, concentrations, and components of
gradient can be different in the range of the same formation the nutrients provided. Molasses in general has been employed
. Most bacteria overcome osmotic stress by accumulating as the carbon source in many of the field applications because
organic compatible solutes within the cytoplasm without the of its price and essential mineral and vitamin content. The use
need for changing intracellular proteins. This method is called of molasses as a substrate was first proposed by Updegraff and
the ‘organic osmolyte strategy’ (Roberts, 2005). The second Wren (1954). In addition, some microbes utilise oil as a carbon
adaptation strategy is intracellular accumulation of high con- source, which is excellent for heavy oil production because
centrations of K+ (Oren, 2001). it can reduce the carbon chain of heavy oil and increase the
quality (Cooper et al., 1980; Moses, 1991). Under anaerobic
Pore size conditions, however, the use of petroleum components as food
Even though the pores in rock can be connected in different is thought to be ineffective, at least within the timeframe re-
ways, pore spaces less than 0.5 nm can place severe restrictions quired for economic recovery. Even though growth can occur,
on the ability of most bacteria (most bacteria have lengths the growth can be very slow and hardly detectable for several
of approximately 0.5–10.0 um and widths of 0.5–2.0 um) to months (Moses et al., 1993).
be transported through the rock matrix, especially for bac-
teria whose sizes are comparable to those of the rock pores
(Jenneman and Clark, 1992). Updegraff (1983) stated that pores Advantages of BcEOR
must be at least twice the diameter of cocci or short bacilli
for effective transport to occur. Fredrickson et al. (1997) also In many ways BcEOR is a more advantageous technology
showed that the sizes of pores within the rock, or the pore than the other prevailing technologies. The first and foremost
throat diameter, may be an important factor in regulating the advantage of BcEOR technology is its environmentally friendly
observed microbial activity. and sustainable nature. The bacterial strains used for an instal-

70 Nafta-Gaz, nr 2/2021
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lation are native to it, so the threat of ecological imbalance is Brown L.R., Vadie A.A., Stephens J.O., 2002. Slowing production
nullified. Moreover, the nutrients used are inexpensive and decline and extending the economic life of an oil field: A- New
MEOR Technology. Paper presented at the SPE/DOE Improved
easy to obtain. This technology is economically attractive for Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, April 2000. DOI:
marginally producing oil fields and a suitable alternative to 10.2118/59306-MS.
abandoning marginal wells. According to a statistical evalu- Bryant S.L., Lockhart T.P., 2002. Reservoir engineering analysis of
ation (1995 in the USA), 81% of all BcEOR/MEOR projects microbial enhanced oil recovery. Soc. Pet. Eng. Reservoir Eval.
Eng., 5: 365–374.
demonstrated a positive incremental increase in oil production Bryant R.S., Stepp A.K., Bertus K.M., Burchfield T.E., Dennis M.,
and no decrease in oil production (Lazar et al., 2007). Only 1993. Microbial enhanced water flooding field pilots. Dev. Pet.
minor modifications to the existing field facilities are necessary Sci., 39: 289–306.
to implement the BcEOR process. The effects of bacterial activ- Bubela B., 1983. Combined effect of temperature and other envi-
ronmental stresses on microbiologically enhanced oil recove-
ity within the reservoir are magnified by their growth, whilst ry. [In:] Donaldson E.C., Clarks J.B. (Eds.), Proceedings, 1982
other EOR technologies have additive effects that decrease International Conference on Microbial Enhancement of Oil
over time and distance. Moreover, BcEOR processes are par- Recovery. NTIS, Springfield, Va: 219.
ticularly suited for carbonate oil reservoirs where some EOR Cayol L., Ollivier B., Patel B.K.C., Ravot G., Magot M.,
Ageron E., Grimont P.A., Garcia J.L., 1995. Description of
technologies cannot be applied efficiently. Most importantly, Thermoanaerobacter brockii subsp. lactiethylicus subsp. nov.,
BcEOR products are all biodegradable and will not accumulate Isolated from a Deep Subsurface French Oil Well, a Proposal To
in the environment, so this technology is highly sustainable Reclassify Thermoanaerobacter finnii as Thermoanaerobacter
and environmentally friendly. brockii subsp. finnii comb. nov., and an Emended Description
of Thermoanaerobacter brockii. Int. Journal of Systematic and
Evolutionary Microbiology, 45: 783–789.
Chang M.M., Chung F., Bryant R., Gao H., Burchfield T., 1991.
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OFERTA BADAWCZA ZAKŁADU

SYMULACJI ZŁÓŻ WĘGLOWODORÓW I PMG

• sporządzanie ilościowych charakterystyk złóż naftowych (konstruowanie statycznych

modeli złożowych);
• analizy geostatystyczne dla potrzeb projektowania modeli złóż naftowych, w tym PMG
i wielofazowych obliczeń wolumetrycznych;
• konstruowanie dynamicznych symulacyjnych modeli złóż i ich kalibracja;
• wszechstronne badania symulacyjne dla potrzeb:
» weryfikacji zasobów płynów złożowych,
» metod wspomagania wydobycia (zatłaczanie gazu lub wody, procesy WAG, procesy wy-
pierania mieszającego, oddziaływanie chemiczne),
» optymalizacji rozwiercania i udostępniania złóż,
» prognozowania złożowych i hydraulicznych (w tym termalnych) charakterystyk od-
wiertów (w szczególności poziomych) dla celów optymalnego ich projektowania,
» sekwestracji CO2;
• projektowanie, realizacja i wdrażanie systemów baz danych dla potrzeb górnictwa naftowego.

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74 Nafta-Gaz, nr 2/2021