Unit 3

PART-1

Ch: Sensor Networks for Energy Sustainability in Buildings

The topic of energy saving in buildings is increasingly raising the interest of researchers for its practical
outcomes in terms of economic advantages and long-term environmental sustainability. Many sensory
devices are currently available that allow precise monitoring of every physical quantity; in particular, it is
possible to obtain estimates of energy consumption, which can be used to enact proper energy-saving
strategies. Such devices may be considered part of a complex sensor infrastructure permeating the
whole site of interest, which may be characterized by the adopted protocols and architectural models.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) [2], for instance, are one of the most interesting and investigated
approaches for reliable remote sensing, and wireless sensor and actuator networks (WSANs) extend
their functionalities by adding control devices, that is, actuators. Such networks do not only passively
monitor the environment, but represent the tool by means of which the system interacts with the
surrounding world and modifies the environment according to the observed data in order to meet high-
level goals (e.g., energy efficiency). This work will chiefly focus on the sensory infrastructure for the
specific purpose of energy consumption monitoring in buildings, without neglecting its potential use in
the context of an overall, complex system. This entails taking into account not only specialized
technologies used for the construction of efficient buildings but also the overall information and
communication technology (ICT) control architecture.

Exemplary infrastructure for a building energy management system.

 TOWARDS ECO-SUSTAINABILITY IN BUILDINGS:

Four main general approaches have been identified in the literature for optimizing, or at least reducing,
the electrical energy consumptions in buildings [3], namely, user’s awareness about energy
consumptions, reduction of standby consumptions, scheduling of flexible tasks, and adaptive control of
electrical equipments. The simplest approach to energy efficiency consists in providing appropriate
feedbacks about energy consumptions to users so as to increase their awareness and encourage eco-
friendly behaviors. User awareness has been leveraged in many commercial and prototype systems such
as Google PowerMeter, Microsoft Hohm, Berkeley Energy Dashboard, AlertMe, and Cambridge Sensor
Kit (CSK) for energy. Providing simple feedbacks can valuably influence the user’s behavior [4]. However,
to reduce costs, these systems typically provide only aggregate measures of energy consumption.
Hence, they do not allow to identify the specific device or behavior causing the highest energy waste.

More detailed information is provided by monitoring systems that can measure the energy consumption
of individual appliances, such as the device-level energy monitoring system proposed in [5], which
allows users to monitor and compare the energy consumption of each appliance in a building, through a
web-based interface. A hybrid solution, consisting in a monitoring system providing real-time
information about the energy consumption of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and
artificial lighting, is proposed in [6]. Instead of relying on a fine-grained energy monitoring, it exploits a
simple rule-based approach for correlating energy consumptions with contextual information.

Another viable approach consists in eliminating, or drastically reducing, energy wastes due to electrical
appliances left in standby mode. Despite its apparent simplicity, such an approach can produce
significant energy savings. It has been estimated that most consumer electronics (such as TVs, set-top
boxes, hi-fi equipments) and office devices (e.g., printers, IP phones) consume more energy in standby
mode than in active mode, as they remain in standby for very long times [9]. The standby mode can be
detected by monitoring the energy consumption of the specific device. This requires a metering
infrastructure, which, of course, should have a very low energy consumption by itself [10]. Once the
standby mode has been detected, the device can be switched off. To this end, different strategies can be
used to trade off energy saving for user satisfaction. The easiest way is to let the user decide about the
time to switch off a device that entered the standby mode [3]. A more sophisticated approach consists
in taking into account information related to the user’s presence, or in learning their behavior.

The energy management device (EMD) [12,13] is able to autonomously detect devices in standby mode
and to switch them off. The automatic detection can be performed by exploiting basic knowledge about
the time zone and the user’s presence and the appliance energy profile and, whenever possible, by
catching signals generated by innovative appliances just before entering the standby mode.

The widespread adoption of smart technology in many electrical appliances enables the scheduling of
their activity plans for energy optimization. In case of constraints on the energy peak demand, or in the
presence of time-dependent fares, ad hoc strategies can be implemented for determining the optimal
scheduling of energy-hungry tasks that do not require user interaction (e.g., washing machine,
dishwasher). The system proposed in [3] allows the user to specify the exact time (or time period) when
a certain task is to be executed by a specific appliance (e.g., dishwasher). HVAC and artificial lighting
systems account for the major fraction of energy consumption, both in residential and commercial
buildings. Thus, adaptive control on such systems is essential for effective energy management in
buildings. The use of intelligent techniques for user-presence detection and/or prediction is advised to
adaptively tune the activation time of electrical equipments.

 SENSOR NETWORKS FOR ENERGY MONITORING

When a coarse-grained monitoring is sufficient, sensory devices may be installed at the root of the
power distribution network. This represents an extremely simple and inexpensive solution, but even
though many devices have been designed to implement such single-point-of-sensing approach, it is still
advisable to carefully assess the impact of the technology on preexisting premises, as well as its ease of
deployment. The recognition of electrical appliances and profiling in real time (RECAP), a system for the
identification of energy fingerprints of appliances, which relies on a single wireless energy monitoring
sensor clipped to the main electrical unit. Using wireless communication links avoids the need for the
deployment of a communication infrastructure from scratch. In the described supervised approach, the
user is guided through the phase of profile creation for various devices, thus allowing the construction
of a fingerprint database. Such data is then used in real time by a neural network aiming at recognizing
all appliances operating at a given moment.

At a finer grain, devices for monitoring energy consumption differ mainly with respect to the density of
deployment. The monitoring system proposed exploits a sensory system consisting in a network of
heterogeneous wireless sensors, made of AC meters and light sensors. The energy sensing nodes allow
to collect active, reactive, and apparent power measurements each node implements the
IPv6/6LoWPAN stack, and the entire WSNs is connected to other TCP/IP networks via a router. Other
solutions for AC power metering through a sensor network have been proposed. the plug network is
described, which is composed of nodes fulfilling all the functional requirements of a normal power strip
and equipped with an antenna and a CPU. Additionally, each node, is able to provide measurements of
temperature, light exposure, and noise. Such a device allows to realize a comprehensive sensor network
for the observation of environmental conditions and energy consumptions. However, the conspicuous
size and weight of sensor nodes prevented their use for an unobtrusive sensory infrastructure, which is
instead a basic requirement for any pervasive system.

The design of a pervasive sensor network for energy monitoring might benefit from a special focus on
the more energy-hungry actuators, such as those for offices HVAC, or for domestic appliances. A
possible solution consists in using integrated sensor/actuator platforms for energy consumption
monitoring, through commercially available devices such as Plogg and WiSensys, are suggested.
Currently, such devices are still expensive.

So it might be convenient to allow for coarser granularity of monitoring, by coupling a single energy
sensor to a group of devices. Monitoring and efficiently managing the energy consumption of the
sensing infrastructure itself would deserve a separate discussion. This issue is extremely important in
case of sensor nodes powered by batteries with a limited energy supply, as in typical WSNs for
environmental and context monitoring, the main issues that need to be addressed with regard to the
architectural choices are the integration of various different technologies and the scalability with
respect to the diversity of devices and to the number of monitored areas. In particular are typically
based on wired communications, or alternatively to use wireless technologies, allowing to create a
wireless home automation network (WHAN). The former class of home automation protocols includes,
for instance, the Modbus protocol, used for serial connection of electronic devices; it also comprises the
standard for communications over different physical media, such as the KNX standard, the LonWorks
platform, and the BACnet protocol; other protocols exploit the preexisting power lines in order to
connect different devices: those include the HomePlug protocol , LonWorks again, or the X10 standard.

 Sensor Networks for Energy Sustainability in Buildings

The latter class of protocols, based on wireless, includes instead the protocols of the ZigBee family, Z-
Wave , Insteon (which also allows communication over power line and X10 compatibility), and Wavenis
technology. The most significant difference with respect to wired system is that wireless technology is
more suitable for pervasive and nonintrusive deployment, thanks to the possibility of installing devices
virtually everywhere and with negligible impact on the environment even in the presence of high-
density deployment. However, such kind of technology makes it harder to design and implement the
systems, due to the typical issues of wireless communication, such as the possibility of interference, the
presence of reflective surfaces, or the need for multi-hop communication.

Regardless of the wired or wireless nature of the communication link, one technology is generally not
sufficient on its own to cover all the necessary functionalities of a complex system for managing entire
buildings; for instance, it may be required to integrate specialized technology, such as radio frequency
identification (RFId) for user tracking, or sensors for energy monitoring, or even all kinds of actuators. It
is thus evident that those approaches aimed at the cooperative connection of heterogeneous devices
are to be preferred.

 SYSTEMS FOR ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY

ApproAches to energy Monitoring Systems for energy monitoring can be classified according to different
criteria, for example, the type of sensors they use or the spatial granularity used for collecting data.
With respect to sensors, it is possible to distinguish between direct, indirect, and hybrid monitoring
systems. Direct monitoring systems use electricity sensors for directly measuring energy consumptions,
while indirect systems infer energy consumptions by measuring other quantities such as temperature
and/or noise. Finally, hybrid systems rely on both approaches. Direct monitoring systems can be further
classified into fine-grained, medium-grained, and coarse-grained systems, depending on the level of
spatial granularity they use in collecting data about electrical energy consumptions. The whole
taxonomy is graphically summarized in Figure below
 Taxonomy of energy monitoring systems

 Indirect monitoring systems are so called because they do not use electricity sensors for
measuring the energy consumption of appliances. Instead, they indirectly infer information
about energy consumptions by measuring other physical quantities that are somewhat related
with energy consumptions. This approach leverages the fact that appliances typically affect
other observable environmental variables, such as temperature, ambient noise, vibrations, or
electromagnetic field. Specifically, data provided by sensors are combined with a consumption
model of the appliance in order to obtain an estimate of its energy consumption. An indirect
monitoring system is proposed where a WSN is used to measure physical quantities such as
noise, temperature, and vibrations. Each appliance is identified by a specific pattern of its
sensory measurements. For instance, switching on a kettle is associated to temperature rising
and to a variation in vibration and ambient noise
Some system exploits information coming from the energy distribution network, other than
explicit energy consumption. The proposed approach performs the analysis of the high-
frequency electromagnetic interferences (EMIs) generated by the electronic devices powered

 Unlike indirect systems, direct monitoring system measures energy consumptions through ad
hoc electricity sensors, typically referred to as power meters. The granularity used for direct
energy monitoring spans from a single point of metering to the monitoring of individual
appliances. The rationale for using only a single power meter is keeping intrusiveness at a very
low level. Accordingly, these coarsegrained systems are referred to as nonintrusive load
monitoring (NILM) systems or nonintrusive appliance load monitoring (NALM) systems if the
focus is on individual appliances. On the opposite side, fine-grained systems allow to monitor
individual appliances with a high precision but require the deployment of a large number of
power meters. Obviously, the granularity of monitoring affects the approach to the artificial
reasoning carried on the collected sensory data and, indirectly, also the possible energy-saving
policies that can be used.
The NALM approach has a system for measuring current and voltage at the root of the energy
distribution network, which is typically organized as a distribution tree. Variations in collected
measurements, after preprocessing, are compared to consumption profiles for the various
 appliances in order to infer their activation or deactivation.Techniques for modeling and
estimating the energy consumption along three directions, namely, functional, by identifying
which functionality requires a specific slot of energy; spatial, by identifying the area where the
energy slot is consumed; and personal, by identifying the end user of that energy slot. With
respect to a fine-grained approach, this proposal requires the installation of fewer monitoring
devices, while in comparison to a NILM system, it allows to monitor the behavior of low-
consumption devices, whose fingerprints would otherwise be overshadowed by high-powered
devices. In particular, this can be obtained by powering the latter class of devices on a separated
circuit. Within one specific branch, it is however necessary to use data analysis algorithms
allowing for a disaggregation of partial data. One of the approaches uses a probabilistic level-
based disaggregation algorithm. Samples about active and reactive power are collected at
various devices; after normalization, samples are clustered in order to extract representatives
for each operating status. Extracted clusters represent the consumption models for each device,
starting from which a classifier is built that takes into account all the possible combinations of
activated devices.

A similar approach is adopted for the monitoring of the energy consumption of buildings in a
university campus. In particular, the proposed monitoring system consists of a power meter at
the root of the distribution network of each building, whereas a finer-grain monitoring system is
deployed in one of the buildings, by partitioning the network supplying that building into 15
separately monitored circuits. Such partition allows to isolate plug loads, lighting, and the
machine/server room for each floor. The authors just report a visual representation of the
consumption of the different devices, without proposing any algorithm for further data
disaggregation.

 Finally, a hybrid approach to monitoring—including both a direct and an indirect part—involves

using both specific sensors for energy measurement (typically consisting in a single power meter
at the root of the distribution tree) and indirect sensors for recognizing the operating status of
appliances. An example of such a complex approach may be found where the authors propose a
monitoring system based on WSNs with magnetic light and noise sensors and including a power
meter for monitoring the overall energy consumption. an automated calibration method for
learning the combination of appliances that best fits the collected sensory data and the global
consumption. The calibration method integrates two types of models. Specifically, a model of
the influence of magnetic field, depending on two a priori unknown calibration parameters, is
used for more complex appliances with many operating modes, whereas appliances with fewer
operating modes only require models associating the relative interaction with the user
consumption to each specific mode, which is estimated via the noise and light sensors. The main
disadvantage of this work is that the calibration is to be performed in situ and cannot be carried
out before the deployment since many unpredictable external factors may influence the
measured environmental variables. It is worth pointing out that hybrid systems are typically
characterized by a coarse-grained direct monitoring of energy, with a single sensor at the root
of the energy distribution tree. This is usually coupled with a fine-grained indirect monitoring.
 Architectures And protocols
To be effective, the previously described approaches need to be implemented as part of an
overall automated system capable of enforcing effective use of electrical appliances so as to
reduce electrical energy consumptions in the building without negatively affecting the user’s
comfort. The logical layers, which are likely present in such architectures, are depicted in Figure

Logical layers of an architecture for building energy management

A number of architectural solutions have been proposed in literature, which can be analyzed
and compared from different viewpoints, such as architectural model (i.e., centralized or
distributed), internal organization (i.e., single-layer or multilayer organization), networking
protocols, and ability to support heterogeneity in sensing technologies. One of the proposed
solutions is a monitoring system based on web-enabled power outlets. Each appliance is
connected through a (Plogg) power outlet, that is, a power meter that measures the energy
consumption of the appliance and sends the acquired information to a gateway using a standard
communication protocol (e.g., Bluetooth or ZigBee). A further evolution consists in a direct
integration of power meters, and possibly any other smart device, by exploiting the web of
things (WoT) paradigm. The latter is the extension of the well-known internet of things (IoT).
Following the WoT approach, any smart object (e.g., power meter, sensor/ actuator device)
hosts a tiny web server. Hence, it can be fully integrated in the web by reusing and adapting
technologies and patterns commonly used for traditional web content.

A centralized architecture is also leveraged by the iPower system here, a central server interacts
with heterogeneous sensory and actuator devices. Specifically, a WSN is used to monitor
environmental conditions and to measure energy consumptions, while actuation is performed
by X10 devices connected to the server via power line communication (PLC). Since wireless
sensors have a limited transmission range, they may not be able to communicate directly with
the server. Hence, to extend the system coverage, sensing devices send their data to a local
base station. Base stations are then connected to the server through an Ethernet high-speed
local area network. To manage heterogeneity with a sufficient degree of abstraction, iPower
relies on a multilayer architecture. A more complex architecture, capable of providing advanced
support to heterogeneous sensory and actuator infrastructures, is used in the Sensor9k system .

The physical layer includes all the sensory and actuation devices, the middleware layer is
composed of a set of building blocks for implementing basic services, and, finally, the
application layer hosts the control logic and consists of various ambient intelligence (AmI)
applications. The inclusion of a physical abstraction interface ensures support against the
heterogeneity of physical devices, as it takes care of exporting higherlevel abstractions
identifying the basic monitored units. Furthermore, it deals with basic connectivity issues among
devices and groups together all the functionalities related to message relaying, monitoring and
control of the infrastructure health, and reconfiguration due to changes in the underlying
physical infrastructure. Sensor9k aims to address scalability with the number of monitored
areas, which is typically the major limitation of centralized solutions. The main goal is the
construction of a bridge between a smart home and the smart power grid in order to control the
energy consumption of appliances.
Unlike the previously mentioned architecture, the sensor–actuator network proposed is a fully
distributed architecture that does not fall into the same general scheme, since the control logic
is widely embedded into the sensor and actuator infrastructure. The resulting wireless network
consists of three components, namely, a WSN for environmental monitoring, a set of actuator
devices, and a number of control nodes that interconnect sensors and actuators. The system is
specifically targeted to lighting system control, and because of the tight binding between the
sensor and actuator systems, the introduction of additional functionalities does not appear
straightforward. Moreover, the scarcity of computing and storage resources available in wireless
nodes makes it impractical to accomplish complex functionalities, such as database
maintenance. The main features of the described architectures are summarized in Table
 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

sensory devices for energy consumption measuring and of the different energy monitoring
systems, analyzing the trade-off between costs and precision. Even though devising a sensory
infrastructure for energy monitoring is a fundamental step in the creation of an energy-aware
system for environment management, this is not sufficient to obtain a relevant impact with
respect to energy saving. In order to improve the overall outcome, it would be necessary to
devise complex systems made up of multiple specialized modules, that is, a sensing component,
a data processing engine, a user interface, and an actuation component. Maintaining the
emphasis on the sensory module, which has been the focus of this work, different solutions
have been examined; however, efficient energy monitoring requires a broader view, which
necessarily includes reasoning about other quantities of interest, ranging from physical
quantities, such as temperature or lighting, to higher-level ones, such as user activities.

UNIT – 3
Part 2
ch: Wireless Sensor and Actor Networks for Monitoring and Controlling Energy Use in the
Smart Grid

Wireless sensor and actor networks (WSANs) have promising applications in a large number of
fields, recently including the smart grid . Smart grid is the future electricity grid that adopts two-
way communications and energy flow between the operators and the consumers for the
betterment of electrical services. Efficient energy use is among the fundamental goals of the
smart grid.
In the smart grid, WSANs can be used to monitor and control power consumption of the
consumers. WSAN-based residential energy management schemes can schedule appliances such
that the use of electricity from the grid during peak hours is reduced, which consequently
reduces the need for the power from the peaker plants and reduces the carbon footprint of the
household. Moreover, it is possible to use locally generated power according to time of day and
sell the excess energy to the grid.
An overview of the application areas of WSANs in the power grid including generation,
transmission and distribution, and consumer segments. Study carried on incentives for smart
energy use, followed by available communication technologies for WSANs such as Zigbee, low-
power Wi-Fi, Z-wave, and Wavenis, and compare their applicability in smart energy use
applications.

 SMART ENERGY USE AND SMART GRID

The generation of electrical power may threaten the sustainability of earth resources since the
energy sector is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, hence global
warming. GHG refers to several different gases including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). It has
been reported that electricity generation is the largest source of GHG emissions in the United States.

Sustainability has become a major concern ,they have been pursuing low carbon economy goals in
concert with the so-called Kyoto protocol. Smart grid, electric transportation, and Future Internet are
few examples of the technologies that are aligned with the low carbon economy goals. Smart grid
integrates information and communication technologies (ICTs) to power system operations and benefits
from two-way communications to increase reliability, security, and efficiency of the electrical services
while reducing the GHG emissions of the electricity production process . There is a wide range of
communication technologies that can be employed to support two-way communications, such as
WiMAX, LTE, Wi-Fi, and cognitive radio . Monitoring the power grid for potential losses and monitoring
the energy use of consumers are among the several features provided by the smart grid.

Focus on the smart energy use aspect since it is important to reach the goal of low carbon economies. In
the traditional power grid, coarse-grained energy use monitoring and demand control is available. In
fact, analog metering serves as an energy monitoring tool while demand response programs implement
demand control to some extent. For instance, in commercial buildings, when the building operator
receives a request from the utility, they cycle off the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to
avoid penalties or to receive credits.

In the smart grid, two-way communications, smart meters, and the advanced metering infrastructure
(AMI) provide the means for demand management for residential consumers. Two-way communications
refer to communication between the customer and the utility. Customer consumption data are
forwarded to the utility every 10–15 min intervals via smart meters, and the utility control signals, if
available, are transferred to the customers again via smart meters.

Smart meters are digital meters that house communication modules. They can provide hourly
consumption data and display hourly electricity price and some smart meters may control appliances. A
network of smart meters is called the AMI. With the help of AMI, remote meter readings have become
possible. Currently, most premises in North America are equipped with smart meters. In Figure an AMI
network is presented.

Another complementary technology for smart energy use is the wireless sensor and actor networks
(WSANs) . WSANs consist of actors and sensors that are small, low-cost microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) that collect measurements from their surroundings, process and store these measurements,
and transmit them to a sink node or a control center . WSANs are deployed in a wide range of
environments, and they are employed in various applications including target tracking, surveillance,
health monitoring, disaster relief, seismic monitoring, wild life monitoring, structural integrity
verification, and hazardous environment exploration
 AMI NETWORK

. Despite a wide range of WSAN applications, the use of WSANs in the power grid has been recently
explored, particularly after the invention of the smart grid. WSANs can be used in generation,
transmission and distribution (T&D), and customer segments of the smart grid. Bulk power is either
generated at fossil fuel–based plants or nuclear power plants or hydro plants. In addition, wind, ocean,
or solar power can be used to generate electricity, which are called renewable energy. Smart grid aims
to increase the penetration of renewable energy generation by adopting intelligent techniques that
allow utilization of wind and solar power more effectively. WSANs play a significant role in condition
monitoring of power plants and remote renewable

WSANs are also useful in monitoring T&D equipment such as substations, overhead power lines,
underground power lines and controlling switches, and relays. In the traditional power grid, substations
and the transformers inside the substations are monitored with remote terminal units (RTUs) of the
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system while power lines are monitored by multiple
sensors collecting data on sag, conductor strength, temperature, heating, icing, wind speed, and contact
with vegetation and animals. Those sensors are not interconnected, while some advanced sensors are
capable of communicating through the cellular networks.

Primarily focus is on smart energy use of residential consumers and small offices. Smart grid will enable
to communicate, monitor, and possibly control the power consumption , neighborhood area networks
(NAN) and home area networks (HAN) as well as the AMI are the enablers of smart energy use.

A HAN includes appliances, pool pump, electrical vehicle, and lights. Some of these energy-consuming
devices need to be always on, or they have certain schedules that cannot be modified. These kinds of
appliances are called nonshiftable loads. For instance, a light that needs to be on is nonshiftable. For
instance, a washing machine can start its cycle later than the time it is turned on, or the electric vehicle
load can be stretched over the overnight instead of charging within a couple of hours during the peak
hours. WSANs are ideal tools to provide pervasive smart energy use techniques to consumers.
Meanwhile, consumers need to be provided with some incentives. In the smart grid, this is possible by
dynamic pricing schemes.

 DYNAMIC PRICING AND SMART ENERGY USE

Time of Use

Electricity demand

During peak hours, the market price of the electricity increases. This is depicted in Figure . Increasing
demand, as well as using expensive fuels in supplying these demands, increases the price of the
electricity. Hydro plants or nuclear power plants generate electricity to meet the base load. During peak
hours, load exceeds the base load; therefore, additional resources are needed. Power plants with low
response times usually are brought online to supply the peak load. In general, they use expensive fossil
fuels. As a result, the price of electricity increases during peak hours.

Electricity price

CriTiCal Peak PriCing

CPP has been implemented in the traditional grid to reduce the load of industrial or commercial
consumers on several days in order to prevent grid failure. When the load is expected to exceed the
supply, then large-scale consumers are charged more for their electricity usage

Peak Time rebate

In CPP, customers are charged more for electricity usage during peak hours, whereas in PTR pricing
policy, utilities reward customers with credits for their corporation on critical peak periods.

Real-Time PriCing

Real-time pricing, also sometimes called as dynamic pricing, reflects the actual price of the electricity in
the market to the customer bills. The cost of electricity generation varies with the source of electricity.
Bulk power generators (suppliers) sell electricity, and the final price is determined after importer’s bids
and a settlement is reached. Generally, the final price is determined by the regional independent system
operator (ISO). The ISO arranges a settlement for the electricity price of the next day or next hour.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR WSANs

WSANs can be implemented via several communication technologies, which are Zigbee, low-power Wi-
Fi, Z-wave, or Wavenis. Zigbee and Wi-Fi are based on Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) standards, namely, IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.11, while Z-wave and Wavenis are proprietary
technologies. IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the physical and medium access control (MAC) layer access
of sensor nodes.

Routing and applications are defined in the Zigbee protocol stack . In North America, it operates in the
915 MHz band and uses 13 channels. In Europe, it operates in the 868 MHz band using one channel.
Meanwhile, 16 channels in the 2.4 GHz band can be used worldwide and these are the widely used
channels by Zigbee. Zigbee has data rates of 250, 100, 40, and 20 kbps, which are low when compared
to Wi-Fi. In addition, it has an approximate range of 30 m indoors, which is also lower than Wi-Fi. Zigbee
targets low-data rate and short-range application domains. The range of the WSAN is extended usually
by multihop communications.

Zigbee sensor network can be organized in a star topology, cluster-tree topology, or mesh topology as
seen in Figure
 WSAN NETWORKS

Zigbeebased WSNs are ideal for HAN deployments. One of the unique advantages of Zigbee is energy
efficiency, thanks to its dutycycling mechanism.

Zigbee has two modes for channel access, namely, beaconenabled and beaconless modes. In the
beacon-enabled mode, personal area network (PAN) coordinator synchronizes the nodes in the network
via beacons. A beacon duration is divided into two periods, active and inactive periods. Nodes
communicate only in the active period, and they sleep in the inactive period; thus, they implement duty
cycling. Initially, WSNs have been considered for local data collection .

The use of Wi-Fi in WSNs has recently become possible with the advances in ultra-low-power Wi-Fi
technology. Ultra-low-power Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11b/g standard . The traditional Wi-Fi has
high power consumption; therefore, it has not been convenient for the limited battery sensor
nodes.One of the main challenges regarding Zigbee and Wi-Fi is coexistence. As they may operate in the
same 2.4 GHz ISM band, they experience interference issues.

Z-wave and Wavenis are other alternative communication technologies for WSNs. Z-wave is a
proprietary wireless communication protocol initially developed for home automation by ZenSys
(currently owned by Sigma Design). Wavenis is a wireless protocol stack developed by Coronis Systems
[26]. Different from Zigbee and Wi-Fi, Z-wave operates in the 908 MHz ISM band while Wavenis
operates in the 433, 868, and 915 MHz bands in Asia, Europe, and the United States, respectively. Z-
wave has data rate of 40 kbps, whereas Wavenis has a data rate of 100 kbps

WSAN-BASED SMART ENERGY USE

Smart energy use refers to managing the electricity consumption of home appliances such as air
conditioner, dishwasher, dryer, washing machine, oven, refrigerator, as well as the home charging of
electric in favor of reduced expenses and load . WSAN-based smart energy use schemes employ sensors,
actors, and smart meters.

Sensors provide information on energy consumption, while actors may turn off an appliance or change
its settings when needed, while smart meters may provide information on the price of electricity or
receive certain control signals from the utility.
1.Wsn-based in-Home energy managemenT

In-home energy management (iHEM) applications aim to reduce the cost of electricity usage at home
and reduce peak load, while causing the least comfort degradation for the consumers. A WSN-based
iHEM approach appliance schedules by taking into consideration both smart grid signals and consumer
preferences. iHEM applies to shiftable appliances only. ex: Consumers may turn on their appliances at
any time, regardless of peak time concern, while iHEM computes a more convenient schedule, if
available, and suggests that to the customer. If the customer agrees, the load of the appliance is shifted
to a later off-peak hour. iHEM employs a central controller, which is in charge of communication with
the smart meter, as well as communicating with the appliances when they are turned on.

OREM: A simple optimization model, which is called optimization-based residential energy management
(OREM), has been proposed in order to compare the performance of iHEM. We will first introduce iHEM
followed by OREM. iHEM employs appliances with communication modules, a WSN with several sensor
nodes, a central controller, and a smart meter. Appliances act as a reduced function device (RFD) within
the WSN. They only generate packets and do not forward packets. Sensor nodes act as full function
devices (FFD); hence, they can become relay nodes for the appliance packets. At the same time, they
collect temperature, humidity, and presence data for smart home-related applications. Central
controller collects the packets of the appliances, communicates with the renewable energy resources
such as rooftop solar panels or backyard wind turbines, and also communicates with the smart meter to
receive price signals. Smart meter communicates with the utility side and receives price information and
handles outage notification. The controller avoids scheduling the appliances during peak hours unless
renewable energy is available. After the appliances are scheduled according to TOU prices, the user is
notified of the new schedule. If the user agrees to use the appliance according to this schedule, then he
or she sends a confirmation message to the controller. The user has the freedom to use the appliance
right away in order not to compromise comfort. This process is repeated every time a controllable
appliance is turned on. The performance of iHEM is compared with a benchmark optimization scheme,
that is, OREM. OREM aims to minimize the total energy expenses by scheduling the appliances in the
appropriate timeslots. The objective function of OREM is given
Δt is the length of timeslot t Dmax is the maximum allowable delay di is the delay of appliance Inequality
Equation 2, ensures that the total duration of the cycles of the scheduled appliances does not exceed
the length of the timeslot that is assigned for them. Equation 3 ensures that an appliance cycle is fully
accommodated without experiencing any interruptions. Equations 7.4 and 7.5 ensure that the maximum
delay is limited by an upper bound as the request is accommodated either in the present or in the next
timeslot. Performance of iHEM has been evaluated by a discrete event simulator, and OREM has been
solved in ILOG CPLEX optimization suite. The interarrival times between two requests are set as negative
exponentially distributed with a mean of 12 h. During morning peak periods and evening peak periods,
the interarrival time is negative exponentially distributed with a mean of 2 h. Several shiftable
appliances have been considered in simulations, that is, a washer, dryer, dishwasher, and coffee maker
whose energy consumption is 0.89, 2.46, 1.19, and 0.4 kWh and the duration of cycle is 30, 60, 90, and
10 min, respectively. TOU rates have been selected as follows: the on-peak, mid-peak, and off-peak
prices are taken as 9.3, 8.0, and 4.4 cent/kWh, respectively. For winter, on-peak hours are considered to
be between 6 a.m. and 12 p.m. and 6 p.m. and 12 a.m. Mid-peak hours are from 12 to 6 p.m. Weekdays
between 12 and 6 a.m., and the weekends are off-peak periods. We compare the performance of iHEM
with OREM and when there are appliances with priorities. These appliances are not shifted; they are
turned on regardless of peak hours. This may correspond to a case where users have either

preconfigured.
Total contribution of appliances to the energy bill with priority-based scheduling.

ApplianCe Usage foreCasting

A household appliance usage forecasting mechanism has been developed within the course of the bright
energy equipment (BEE) project implements smart energy use through two-phase analysis. In the first
phase, wireless power meter sensor network (WPSN) collects data from the appliances. The power
consumption of the appliances, their time of usage, and their usage duration are measured over a
certain time, that is, N days. After N days, a prediction algorithm is used to predict the future usage of
the appliances. BEE projects use a WPSN with star topology where appliances are the RFDs of the WSN.
An appliance is assumed to be on if its power consumption exceeds a certain threshold.

iPoWer

Intelligent and personalized energy conservation system by WSNs (iPower) is an energy conservation
tool for residential premises as well as small offices . It focuses on energy conservation regardless of the
features that become available with the smart grid. Based on user presence and ambient conditions,
lights or air conditioning appliances or computers are turned off.

iPower employs a WSN, a control server, power-line control devices, and user identification devices.
WSN monitors the rooms with light, sound, and temperature sensors. When there is a change in the
monitored room, sensor nodes send notification to the gateway, which then communicates with the
intelligent control server of the house or the building. Intelligent control server may turn off an
appliance or adjust its settings according to the profiles of the users who are present in the room. Users
are recognized by their identification tags. The control commands are delivered via power-line
communications.

iPower can also work in the interactive mode where the server sends an alarm signal to notify the
people in the room that the appliances, lights, and HVAC will be turned off. If the room is occupied, then
the occupant may signal their presence by making noise or moving a sensor-attached furniture, and the
server does not turn off the devices.

ENERGY INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR FLATS

An in-home energy information system has Real-time data acquisition, visualization, analysis, and
control of home appliances can be performed with the proposed tool. Energy and cost savings are
displayed to the users to provide information on the output of smart energy use policies. Zigbee-based
sensors and actors have been used to monitor the consumption of appliances as well as control their
status. Smart energy controller can be implemented as an embedded system running either Linux or
embedded WinXP where the software has been implemented using Java. The controller software has
been arranged in four sections:

1. Active system management: This module manages and controls the multithreading system.
2. Energy storage archive: This module provides rapid data access as well as historical data. Historical
data are stored after aggregation for 1 year. These data are stored for future load forecasting
applications.

3. Energy device unit: Data access and acquisition is handled by this module. It acts as a gateway
between different data formats and different interfaces.

4. Energy service unit: This module has multiple functions. First, it allows data access for browser or
desktop use. Control of appliances depending on the utility tariff is also executed by this module.

The communication with the Zigbee sensors and the controller is presented in Figure

Controller receives the status of the device via GET-DevInfo and DevInfo messages. If the tariff is on-
peak, then SET-POW = OFF message is sent to turn the appliance off. Otherwise, SET-POW = ON
message is sent. In addition to those control messages, heartbeat messages are exchanged periodically
between the controller and the sensors. To display the energy use, a thin client browser application has
been designed. The display shows the actual power consumption, which is refreshed every 2 s. It is also
possible to visualize a histogram of energy usage for the past 24 h via this browser application.

 DISTRIBUTED POWER CONSUMPTION MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Distributed power consumption measurement system employs point of load power meters to collect
detailed consumption information . The measurements collected by the point of power meters are fine
grained, for instance; it is possible to infer that the door of the fridge has been opened given that
sampling interval is adequate to capture the instance. Those meters can measure the electricity
consumption on one-phase, real, and reactive power consumption. They also store the measurements in
nonvolatile memory. They can remotely turn on or off a device where the communication between
those meters is established via Zigbee. In Figure
 It consists of multiple Zigbee D-Bus interfaces, analyses components, data
collector components saving collected data and the results of the analyses to databases, and a
management component, which configures the components of the system for autonomous operation

FIBER-WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

In an intrahome and interhome scheduling for smart energy use. In intrahome scheduling, appliances in
individual homes are delayed up to 60 min to correspond to mid-peak or off-peak usage. In the
centralized interhome scheduling algorithm, requests of several homes are collected at the optical line
terminal (OLT), which limits the maximum total power consumption of appliances. This scheme relies on
the communication architecture presented in Figure

Fiber-wireless network architecture

. OLTs function as the control unit of an Ethernet passive optical network (EPON). Optical network units
(ONUs) are installed at customer premises while two or more customers may share one ONU. In
addition to this broadband access network, fiber optic sensors and WSN are employed to monitor the
status of power distribution network components such as breakers, switches, voltage regulators, and
transformers. The fiber optic sensors communicate with the distribution management system (DMS)
using dedicated wavelength channels, while WSN uses Zigbee.

WSN-BASED PERSONAL LIGHTING MANAGEMENT

With the advent of smart grid, more advanced control systems can offer further savings. using wireless
sensors for personal control of the dc gridpowered networked light emitting diode (LED) lighting. The
sensor network is distributed into the workspace within a building, and the sensors collect ambient data
for indoor environment quality monitoring. The sensor network is also responsible for real-time control
of the human–lighting interaction as well as optimizing the energy usage of the building lights. The
proposed personal lighting management system reduces energy waste while improving the comfort of
the users.

WSN-based personal lighting system consists of nine sensors that report to a sink node using wireless
links, a personal computer (PC), and a digital addressable lighting interface (DALI) controller to control
14 sets LED lighting arrays. The sink and the DALI controller are connected via RS232 serial
communication protocol. The light intensity and occupancy measurements collected by the WSN are
used to control the on–off status of LED lights as well as configure their luminance, such that the lighting
condition is maintained 300,500 lux. The closed-loop control scheme is presented in Figure

Here, Xk denotes the set point of sensor k, and NADC is the measured lumen value. They are fed into a
proportional integral derivative controller (PID controller) whose output u is used by the decision
making algorithm. The other parameters of the decision making algorithm are the timer, T, that is used
to check the time of day condition, while the output of the pyroelectric infrared (PIR) sensor is a binary
value, which is 1 if the space is occupied. The output of the decision making algorithm controls the light
intensity. The WSN-based personal lighting system in a 70 m2 office using ultra-low-power
MSP430F2274 microcontrollers and a CC2500 2.4 GHz wireless radio transceivers arranged in a star
topology. They have shown that WSN-based personal lighting system provides enhanced energy
conservation and improved user experience.

UNIT -3

Part -3

CH: Mobile Monitoring Application to Support Sustainable Behavioral Change toward Healthy Lifestyle
The development of body area networks (BANs) incorporating sensors and other devices to provide
intelligent mobile services in healthcare and well-being. The first BAN applications were designed to
simply transmit biosignals and display them remotely. Further developments include analysis and
interpretation of biosignals in the light of context data. By including feedback loops, BAN telemonitoring
was also augmented with teletreatment services.

Recent developments include incorporation of clinical decision support by applying techniques from
artificial intelligence. By making health BAN applications more intelligent by incorporating feedback,
context awareness, personalization, and decision support. The element of decision support was first
introduced into the BAN health and wellbeing applications in the Food Valley Eating Advisor (FOVEA)
project. Obesity and overweight represent a growing threat to health and well-being in modern society.
Physical inactivity has been shown to contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality rates.

A major challenge however is that exercise and dietary programs may work for the individual in the
short term, but adherence in the medium and long term is difficult to sustain, making weight
management a continuing struggle for individuals and a growing problem for society, governments, and
health services.

INTRODUCTION

Design and development of mobile monitoring systems based on body area networks (BANs) and their
application in the healthcare and well-being domains. We focus on a particular mobile application
designed to support sustainable lifestyle change toward healthier living. Obesity and overweight
represent a growing threat to health and well-being in modern society. Physical inactivity has been
shown to contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality rates, and this trend affects not only in the
west but now is apparent worldwide, bringing huge costs in terms of human suffering and loss of life
expectancy as well as uncontrolled growth in demand on healthcare services.

The focus is a mobile application designed to support users in following and maintaining healthy dietary
and exercise programs. The program is framed in consultation with professionals such as dieticians,
nutritionists, and physical therapists and is personalized to the individual’s needs and preferences. The
intention is to aid maintenance of the intervention and promote continuing healthy living habits over
time.

Body AreA Networks for smArt HeAltHcAre

The development of health BANs for telemonitoring/ teletreatment and their evolution toward
provision of more advanced intelligent services and applications. A health BAN as a network of
communicating devices worn on, around, or in the body that provides mobile health services to the
user. In our generic architecture, a BAN consists of a Mobile Base Unit (MBU; handling communication,
storage, and local processing) and a set of devices, which may include a number of sensors, actuators,
and other devices. So the concept is broader than a sensor network since sensors and possibly also
other devices are integrated together with a processing platform/ communications gateway (the MBU).
The MBU has been implemented on a range of mobile platforms (PDAs and smartphones) and a variety
of mobile operating systems. The BANs are supported by a BAN server (back-end system) that provides
persistent storage and other BAN support services.

Figure shows the generic architecture of the BAN developed during the MobiHealth project and
extended subsequently in other projects. Sensor data are collected by the BAN, processed, and
transmitted to a remote (healthcare) location via the MBU and the BAN back end.

MobiHealth which demonstrated that physiological measurements could be collected by sensors

connected to a PDA or mobile phone and transmitted over general packet radio service (GPRS) and
universal mobile telecommunications service (UMTS) to a remote location (e.g., a hospital or health call
center).

Each clinical application requires a specific set of sensors as well as development of application-specific
software and user interfaces. Sensors that have been integrated into the BAN to date include electrodes
for measuring electrocardiography (ECG) and electromyography (EMG), pulse oximeter, motion sensors
(step counters, 3D accelerometers), temperature, and respiration sensors. Apart from sensors, other
devices that have been incorporated into different variants of the BAN include positioning devices,
alarm buttons, and a multimodal biofeedback device.
Fig shows the physical components of the epilepsy monitoring BAN developed during the Awareness
project. The epilepsy BAN incorporates an Xsens MT9-B inertial sensor sensing 3D acceleration, three
electrodes (Ag/AgCl contact electrodes) to measure ECG, and the Mobi8-MT9 sensor system. Three-
dimensional accelerometer data are sampled at 128 Hz and the ECG signal is sampled at 1024 Hz. In this
case, the MBU is implemented on a PDA (HTC P3600).example: It is the basis of analysis of the biosignal
data and data fusion. If measured activity level is low and heart rate increase reaches a predefined
threshold, the event is labeled as a possible seizure. If posture is lying, or changes to lying, the
probability that the patient is having a seizure is revised upwards. Heart rate is derived from the ECG
signal by RR interval analysis. The beat to beat heart rate is converted to heart rate change by
calculating the difference between mean heart rate in two moving time windows of 10 and 120 s.
Activity level and posture (lying or not, detected by reference to the earth’s gravitational field) are
calculated every 10 s.

The internal GPS device of the PDA, together with cell-ID information of the mobile network service
provider, is used for location determination so that appropriate assistance can be dispatched to the
patient if a seizure is detected. The specialist is notified in case of a detected seizure and can view the
patient’s biosignals and location on a health professional portal. This BAN uses a combination of
external sensors and sensors onboard the PDA. Analysis and interpretation of biosignals in the light of
context data, and by including feedback loops, BAN telemonitoring services were augmented with
teletreatment services .

Focus applications of the project are patient guidance services for patients with atrial fibrillation,
gestational diabetes, and gestational hypertension; hence, specific variants of the patient BAN including
(clinical) application-specific sensors and software components are under development. However, the
MobiGuide system is intended to be generic and extensible to serve other chronic conditions. In
MobiGuide, the patients use variants of the patient BAN with the appropriate sensor sets to monitor
biosignals (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels).

Measurements are transmitted to a smartphone running Android and from there to a powerful fixed
back-end system that includes the MobiHealth back-end system together with a set of specialized
servers hosting, for example, declarative and procedural knowledge bases, guideline libraries,
inferencing engines, electronic medical records (EMRs), and personal health records (PHRs). The
MobiGuide decision support components, which have access to the patient’s historical clinical data,
including hospital records, analyze the data; alert the patient about actions that should be taken; ask the
patient questions, figure shows the major health BAN projects an evolution toward smart healthcare,
making health BAN applications more intelligent by incorporating feedback, context awareness,
personalization, and clinical decision support
MOBILE APPLICATION FOR WEIGHT MANAGEMENT

The objective of the FOVEA project is to change consumer behavior in the direction of a healthier
lifestyle by applying behavioral theory with support from ICT, including ambulatory monitoring
technology based on our experience of developing health BANs. The aim is to support sustainable
behavioral change with respect to food and drink consumption and exercise in order to improve health
and well-being and prevent chronic illness.

The RoF infrastructure includes video cameras for behavioral observation, weight scales at the
checkouts, and automatic registration of individuals’ food and drink consumption at the point of sale
terminals.prototype of the entire FOVEA system, integrating components from the RoF infrastructure
with the food database of the restaurant supplier.

The FOVEA mobile system conforms to our BAN architecture; in this case, the BAN consists of a
smartphone and a single sensor: the smartphone’s onboard accelerometer. me. The mobile application
detects the different self-service buffets in the RoF. By means of indoor positioning, a map of the layout
of the RoF, connection with the food database, and knowledge of the individual’s targets, the mobile
application is able to guide the user away from less healthy options (using a cue avoidance strategy) and
toward healthier options and balanced meal compositions. In the RoF, the BAN can be used to display
the food and beverage selections on offer and track total kilocalories of items selected. Registration of
food and beverage consumption on the smartphone enables real-time estimation of energy intake and
helps the user to manage their daily energy budget. Once the user enters the restaurant, the BAN begins
to discover the buffets, which are identified by Bluetooth beacons. The floor plan of the restaurant is
displayed on the smartphone screen together with a description of the buffets where the items
recommended by the nutritionist can be found. When the user selects one of the discovered buffets,
information about those food items is retrieved from the restaurant’s database and presented to the
user. When a food selection (and confirmation) is made, it is added to the smartphone’s database and
its calories are added to the user’s daily energy intake , physical activity (using the smartphone’s
onboard tri-axial accelerometer) is used to estimate energy expenditure (EE) in real time. EE estimation
is based on a step counting application from MobiHealth B.V.

Fig shows four of the screen displays: the restaurant floor plan, the list of buffets, the energy screen, and
the impact of consuming one item (in this case a can of Coca Cola) on energy balance on the right. The
last screen shows that consumption of a certain soft drink is not compliant with the current lunch
composition (selected by the user on the basis of advice from the dietician adapted to user preferences)
and would send their temporary energy balance negative. Thus, the user can do a what-if analysis
before finalizing his selection. In the following section, we describe a survey of 95 potential
stakeholders/users of FOVEA. This survey is designed primarily to elicit professional attitudes to and
feedback on the weight management application and on the wider applicability of the FOVEA system in
general.