AE 430 - Stability and Control of

Aerospace Vehicles

Longitudinal Control

Primary Aerodynamic Controls

(+)
(+)

δp

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Primary Aerodynamic Controls

A simple basic control system as

operated by a pilot

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Longitudinal Control

z through pilot’s change of thrust (propulsion), and/or

z through change of configurations using aerodynamic
control surfaces
z Main aerodynamic surfaces for longitudinal control:
– on Tail:
z elevator
– on Wing:
z slats (leading-edge)
z flaps (trailing-edge)
z spoilers

Control through Pilot

z To rotate any of the aerodynamic control surface, it

is necessary to apply a force to it to overcome the
aerodynamic pressures that resist the motion. This
force may be supplied by a human pilot through
different ways:
– Mechanical Linkage Control
– Power Assisted Control: pilot’s control is connected to the
control surface and the control lever
– Power Operated Control: pilot’s control is connected to the
control lever ONLY
– Fly-by-wire: wire carries electrical signals from the pilot’s
control to replace mechanical linkage
– Fly-by-optical

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Longitudinal Control

Factors affecting the design of a control surface are:

1) Control Effectiveness
2) Hinge moments
3) Aerodynamic and mass balancing

1) Control Effectiveness
z Is a measure of how effective the control
deflection is in producing the desired control
moment
z Function of the size of the elevator and tail
volume ratio

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Longitudinal Control

2) Hinge Moment
z The aerodynamic moment that must be
overcome to rotate the control surface
3) Aerodynamic and Mass balancing
z To have the control stick force within an
acceptable range

Elevator Effectiveness

How to Change
Airplane Trim
Angle of Attack

Deflecting the elevator: dCL Elevator Effect. Deriv.

∆CL = CLδ δ e CLδ =
Change in Lift e e dδ e dCm Elevator
∆Cm = Cmδ δ e Cmδ = power
Change in Pitching Moment e e d δ e control
In the case of linear lift and moment, we further have:
Cm = Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδ δ e CL = CLα α + CLδ δ e
e e

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Cm-α ; δetrim-α

(+)

Cm – α

and

CL - α

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 dCL dCm
CLδ = Cmδ =
How to find e dδ e e dδ e

∆L = ∆Lt Elevator effectiveness

St S dCLt dCLt dCLt dα t

∆CL = η ∆CLt = η t δe = = CLα t τ
S S dδ e dδ e dα t d δ e
St dCLt S
CLδ = η = η t CLα t τ
e S dδ e S

dCLt
∆Cm = −ηVH ∆CLt = −ηVH δe
dδ e
dCLt
Cmδ = −ηVH = −ηVH CLα t τ
e dδ e

Elevator Effectiveness

Tail Lift Coefficient vs Tail Lift Coefficient vs

Tail Angle of Attack Elevator Deflection

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Calculating Elevator Effectiveness
dCLt
z The elevator effectiveness
dδ e
– This is the slope of the graph
z From this we get St dCLt
CLδ = η
e S dδ e

dCLt
z Elevator control powerCmδ = −VH η = −ηVH CLα t τ
e dδ e
∆Cmtrim = Cmδ δ e trim
e
Cmδ e
z Flap effectiveness parameter τ =−
VH η CLα
t

Elevator Angle to Trim

Cm = Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδ δ e = 0

e

Cm0 + Cmα α trim

δ trim = −
Cmδ
e (+) (+) (-) (+)
CLtrim = CLα α trim + CLδ δ trim Cm0 CLα + Cmα CLtrim
e δ trim = −
CLtrim − CLδ δ trim Cmδ CLα − Cmα CLδ
α trim =
e e
e
(-) (+) (-) (+)
CLα
usually
(-)

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Some conclusions

z with elevator angle to trim, the

slope of lift coefficient is
slower, less sensitive to
change of α, because
configuration change due to δe
z with elevator angle to trim, a
zero angle of attack α = 0 still (+) (+)

generates a lift, due to δe

(-)
( −) (+)
Cmα CLδ Cm0 CLδ
CLtrim = CLα α trim + CLδ δ trim = ( CLα − e
)α trim − e
e Cmδ Cmδ
CLα ′ < CLα
e e
( −)

VH set from the static longitudinal stability requirements

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Variation of δeTRIM with CLTRIM

z for a zero lift, there must

have a positive deflection
of δe for a given CG XCG=XNP
(+) (+)
(forward) position,
increasing lift requires less
δe deflection (-)

z for a given trimmed lift, the

more CG forward (larger
static margin), the less XCG<XNP
elevator angle deflection δe
requires
det = Cmδ CLα − Cmα CLδ
(−) e e
( −) ( + ) ( −) ( +)

Variation of δeTRIM with the speed

z for a given CG (forward)

position, increase trim
XCG=XNP
speed requires more
elevator angle deflection
z for a given trim speed, the
more CG forward (larger Trim speed
static margin), the less
elevator angle deflection
requires
No compressibility effects, W
CLtrim = VE = V ρ
no propulsive effects 1 ρ0VE2 S ρ0
2

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 Flight Measurement of XNP

d δ trim Cmα d δ trim

=− xcg = xNP ⇒ Cmα = 0 ⇒ =0
dCLtrim Cmδ CLα − Cmα CLδ dCLtrim
e e

dCLtrim xNP
xcg
c
c

− Cm0 CLα det

CLtrim

Elevator deflection to trim

Landing & take-off Higher speed

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Elevator Hinge Moment

Only the shaded portion of the lift distribution in these figures acts
on the control surface and contributes to the hinge moment.

Elevator Hinge Moment

z The aerodynamic forces on any control surface

produce a moment about the hinge. The coefficient
of elevator hinge moment:

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 Elevator, Tab and Their Hinge

He

ce

∫ x∆Ldx = H e
0

Elevator Hinge Moment

z In practice, it is often satisfactory to assume Che is a

linear function of surface (wing or tail) angle of attack
αt, angle of elevator δe, and angle of tab δt :

Che = Ch0 + Chα t α t + Chδ e δ e + Chδ t δ t

dCh dCh dCh

Chα t = Chδ e = Chδ t =
dα t dδ e dδ t
Ch0 Residual moment

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Elevator Free (Control stick released)

Stick-fixed condition is an ideal

approximation. The opposite extreme
is also of interest: stick-free Coeff. of elevator “free” moment
condition:
Che = Chα t α t + Chδ e δ e = 0
Chα t
δ efree = − αt assuming, Ch0 = δ t = 0
Chδ e
Usually Chα t < 0; Chδ e < 0
The elevator will float upward as the angle of attach is increased
Lift coefficient Ch
for the tail CLt = CLα t α t + CLδ δ efree = CLα t α t − α t CLδ α t
“elevator free”
e Chδ e e

Elevator Free (Control stick released)

⎛ Ch CLδ ⎞
CLt = CLα t α t + CLδ δ efree = CLα t α t ⎜ 1 − α t e
⎟ = CL′α α t
e ⎜ Ch C L ⎟ t
⎝ δe αt ⎠
⎛ Ch CLδ ⎞ Coeff. hinge ratio
CL′α t = CLα t ⎜1 − α t e
⎟ = CLα f
⎜ Ch CL ⎟ t
⎝ δe αt ⎠
Cm′ 0 = Cm0 w + Cm0 f + VH η CL′α t ( ε 0 + iw − it )
⎡ xcg xac ⎤ ⎛ dε ⎞
Cm′ α = CLα ⎢ − ⎥ + Cmα f − VH η CL′α t ⎜ 1 − dα ⎟
w
⎣ c c ⎦ ⎝ ⎠

(depend on f )

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Elevator Free (Control stick released)

⎡ xcg xac ⎤ ⎛ dε ⎞
Cm′ α = CLα ⎢ − ⎥ + Cmα f − VH η CL′α t ⎜ 1 − dα ⎟
w
⎣ c c ⎦ ⎝ ⎠
For the static longitudinal stability Cm′ α = 0
′
xNP x Cmα CL′α t ⎛ dε ⎞
+ VH η
f
= ac − 1−
c c CLα CLα ⎝ dα ⎟⎠
⎜
w w

′
xNP xNP CL ⎛ dε ⎞
− = (1 − f ) VH η α t ⎜ 1 − dα ⎟
c c CLα w ⎝ ⎠

Static Margin: distance between the neutral

point and the actual center of gravity
position
xNP xcg
z Stick fixed static margin −
c c

′
xNP xcg
z Stick free static margin −
c c

Desirable to have the stick fixed static margin within

5% of the mean-chord

Stick fixed or stick free static neutral points represent an aft limit
on the center of gravity travel for the airplane

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 Flsδ s − H eδ e = 0
δe
F = He = H eG
Stick force ls δ s

δe
1 G=
F = fn ( H e ) = GChe ρV 2 Se ce δ s ls
2 Gearing ratio: measure of
(+) the mechanical advantage
provided by the control
F
ls δ s (-)

H e (+)
The work of displacing the control stick is equal to the work in
moving the control surface to the desired deflection angle

Trim Tab

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Stick Force Gradients

z Typical variation in control force as function of vehicle velocity

for stable configuration.
Stick
force Negative
Stick
stick force
force
gradient
push

A B

xcg pull

dF
For airplane speed stability: <0
dV

Stick Force Gradients

z For a given static margin (or c.g. position) the

control force gradient decreases with
increasing flight velocity; and
z At a given trim velocity, the gradient
decreases as the c.g. is moved toward the
control-free neutral point.

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Aerodynamic and mass balance

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