INVESTIGATION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FAILURE ALONG

AGBAJA NWOFE ROAD ABAKALIKI, EBONYI

BY

MBAM MATHIAS N.
MATRIC NO: 2020/EN/15100

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ALEX EKWUEME FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, NDUFU ALIKE, IKWO,

EBONYI STATE NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF A BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

JULY, 2024.

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 CERTIFICATION
This project with the title investigation of flexible pavement failure along
Agbaja Nwofe Road Abakaliki, Ebonyi State of Nigeria submitted by Mbam
Mathias N. with Matric Number 2020/EN/15100 have satisfied the regulations
governing the award of Bachelor’s Degree in Civil Engineering of Alex
Ekwueme Univeristy Ndufu Alike Ikwo, Nigeria.

………………..………… ………………………..
Engr. Ikechukwu Chigbo Date
(Project Supervisor)

…………………………… ……………………..
Engr. Dr. A. O. Odumade Date
(Head of Department)

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 DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty who gave me the strength and the
resources needed for this course. I also dedicate it to my wife, children, brothers
& sisters for being there for me. Lastly, I equally dedicated it to my parents,
who encouraged me to be educated and to be what I am today academically.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My special thanks goes to my supervisor for his inevitable assistance in the

course of writing this thesis especially for his constructive criticism. My
unreserved thanks go to all my lectures Engr. Dr. A. O. Odumade, Engr.
Ikechukwu Chigbo just to mention a few and to all my course mates who
contributed immensely to the success of this thesis. Once again, thank you all.

iv
 ABSTRACT

One of the major problems in the country is pavement failure. It is of great

importance for me to conduct a case study on the road failure along Agbaja
Nwofe Road Abakaliki, Ebonyi.

The investigation shows that the pavement has failed both structurally and
functionally.

The possible causes for remedy:

a. Poor subgrade & sub-base
b. Lack of maintenance culture
c. Poor drainage system
d. Poor workmanship
e. Inadequate sanction for highway failure

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

Table of content vi

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT 1
1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY 1
1.3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY 1
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF NIGERIAN ROADS 2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1. DEFINITION OF PAVEMENT 4
2.2. FUNCTION OF A PAVEMENT 4
2.3. TYPES OF ROAD PAVEMENT 4
2.4. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 4
2.5. ADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 4
2.6. DISADVANTAGE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 4
2.7. RIGID PAVEMENT 5
2.8. ADVANTAGES OF RIGID PAVEMENT 5
2.9. DISADVANTAGES OF RIGID PAVEMENT 5
2.10. FUNCTION OF PARTS OF THE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE 5
2.11. THE SUB-BASE 5
2.12. ROAD BASE 5
2.13. SURFACING (WEARING COURSE) 6
2.14. PAVEMENT FAILURE 6

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2.15. POTHOLES 6
2.16. CORRUGATION 6
2.17. REVELATION 6
2.18. WASHING 6
2.19. CROCODILE CRACKS 6
2.20. DEFORMATIONS 7
2.21. STAND-UP 7
2.22. CHALLENGING EDGES 7
2.23. ROUTES 7
2.24. SUMMARY OF PAVEMENT FAILURE 7
2.25. WEARING COURSE MAY FAIL DUE TO 7
2.26. RECONNAISSANCE INVESTIGATION 8
2.27. CAUSES OF PAVEMENT FAILURE ALONG
AGBAJA NWOFE ROAD 8
2.28. INADEQUATE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 8
2.29. UNSKILLED MANPOWER 8
2.30. INCORRECT COMPACTION 9
2.31. A LOT OF CLAY SOIL 9
2.32. INCORRECT SLOPE 9
2.33. POOR STABILIZATION 9
2.34. ACCIDENT 9
2.35. CONGESTION 9
2.36. WATER LOGGING 9
2.37. VEHICLE DAMAGE 9
2.38. MAINTENANCE COSTS 9

CHAPTER THREE

3.0. METHOD OF COLLECTION OF SOIL SAMPLE 10

3.1. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS TEST 10
3.2. STANDARD COMPACTION TEST 10
3.3. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATION (CBR) TEST 11
3.4. ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST 11

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Road network is an essential part of infrastructure development necessary
for economic development. Apart from the severe deficit in road network,
there are few of them in Nigeria maintained. Wearing layer is the area
where deterioration of the road first occurs. This may be due to poor
subgrade below, or mere cracking and wearing away of the wear layer.

Pared road may have flexible or rigid construction. Whatever the choice,
with good engineering, the road should survive its design life and serve
the community well. The main function is to take load from traffic and
transport it through its layer to the subgrade. A good road pavement is
considered defective it can no longer perform that function during its
useful life. Some observations shows that most of the roads in Nigeria are
located in urban areas and today’s rural areas are characterized by
potholes, cracks, ruts, depressions etc.
Some of the causes of these road conditions in Nigeria were use of sub-
standard materials in construction, poor planning and construction, poor
maintenance of roads constructed, poor monitories of road construction
works and the transport of heavy-duty road traffic on the road. Other
causes can be attributed to sudden increase in traffic load especially on
new roads whose design is based on less traffic and the provision of poor
clay sub-base resulting in surface undulations and increase in bumps to
remedy the situation include avoid unnecessary traffic congestions on
road, especially heavy traffic not designed for roads, using appropriate
road design, using construction materials in road construction, timely
maintenance of roads, employing qualified engineering personnel in road
construction, applying appropriate still testing in road construction and
imposing penalties for feature in road construction.
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT
The project investigation of flexible pavement failure along Agbaja
Nwofe Road is a comprehensive study that aims to identify the causes
and factors contributing to the failure of flexible pavements in the country
with Agbaja Nwofe Road as a case study.
1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY
The major goal of this research is to investigate the causes leading to the
early determination of the highway (road) pavement and the remedial
approach to tackle the current situation.
1.3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Highway pavement failure occurs when it can no longer perform its
traditional function of carrying vehicles and people from one location to
another in safety and comfort before the anticipated design life.
Usually highway pavement failure of Nigeria roads results in frequent
road accidents with loss of life and properties, high transportation loss of
goods and services, high maintenance costs of vehicles and increase in
travel time.
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1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF NIGERIAN ROADS
Nigeria has about 200,000km of roads spread all over the country. These
roads are made up of over 32,000 km of federal roads spread over the
thirty size states and the federal capital, over 30,000km of state road, and
over 130,000km Local government roads within the states, the local
government roads are further classified into urban and rural roads.

FEDERAL ROADS
In one of its publications in June 2018, the federal ministry of works
reported that it had over thirty five thousand kilometers of Federal Roads
and bridges in the Thirty six states of the federation and the federal
capital territory, Abuja. These roads are divided into the federal trunk ‘A’
roads and the federal trunk ‘F’ roads. The federal trunk ‘A’ roads are
those roads under the federal government ownership and they are
developed and maintained by the federal government while the federal
trunk ‘F’ roads are those that were formerly under the state ownership,
but were taken over by the federal government, with a view to upgrading
them to federal highway standards.

The problems on most of the Nigerian Federal roads are; depressions on

the road surfaces, presence of potholes and cracks, development of gully
due to erosion, washing away of the road shoulders, faculty street lights,
faulty drainage systems, faulty traffic signals and wiping off of pavement
markings.

STATE ROADS
The state roads are classified as the state trunk ‘B’ roads. These are the
roads under the ownership and management of the various state
governments.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT ROADS
These are grouped as the Local government trunk ‘C’ roads. They are
roads usually under the ownership and management eat of the local
government in the country. These roads are divided into the urban, rural
and village access roads.
URBAN ROADS
This are roads within urban areas that are managed and maintained by
local government authorities such as municipalities and local councils.
These roads play a crucial role in connections residents to local amenities,
services and economic opportunities.
In Nigeria, these are the roads that are in the urban areas. They account
for over twenty one kilometers of Nigeria roads. They include township
streets, lanes, cul-de-sac and avenues. Most of these roads are tarred
while some are still untarred.
In the state capitals the advanced urban roads possess traffic facilities like
street lights, drainage facilities, pavement markings and traffic signals. In
this country, the main faults on most of our urban roads are almost the
same as the ones on the federal and state roads; they are; depressions on
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the road surfaces, presence of pot holes and cracks, development of
gulley due to erosion, washing away of the road shoulders, faulty street
lights, faulty drainage systems, faulty traffic signals and wiping off of
pavement markings.

RURAL ROADS
In Nigeria, rural roads account for over 72,000 km of roads in the
country. These roads that are found in the remote country parts of the
nation. They are mainly earth roads, but within recent developments in
the rural areas some of them are now lightly faired. Here, most of the
faults on our urban roads are also available on our rural roads. Faults like
the depression of the road surface, presence of potholes, cracks gulley
and the wearing away of the road surface are rampant.

VILLAGE ACCESS ROADS

In the local governments these are minor roads that provide access within
various villages we have in the country. They are usually earth roads. The
level of under development of these roads reduces them to level of foot
paths. These village access road account for 35,000km of Nigerian roads.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW

Many organized organizations have developed the use and application of
modern technologies and new concept to address the problem of road
damage.

2.2. DEFINITION OF PAVEMENT

A pavement can be defined as the hard crust of the road surface that lies
above the soil formation or subsoil.
2.3. FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT
The function of the covering is to transfer an acceptable pressure to the
supporting subsoil via the sub soil, which must be less than the load
capacity of the subsoil.

2.4. TYPES OF ROAD PAVEMENT

There are two main types of pavement
i. Flexible pavement
ii. Rigid pavement
2.5. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT: diagram for flexible pavement it consists of
several layers of road building materials compacted without voids and
provided with an elastic surface such as bitumen or asphalt, which
maintain a constant intima and distribute the connection, particle reaction
and cohesion according to stability.

2.6. ADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

For a bituminous pavement to perform well, it must maintain the
following characteristics throughout its working like:
i. Smooth walking or sliding surface
ii. Airtight, impermeable or porous surface
iii. Without cracking or fatigue failure
iv. Weather resistance
v. Moisture resistance
2.7. DISADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
If improperly constructed, it will result in:
i. Poor weather resistance
ii. Presence of cracks
iii. High cost during construction
iv. Failures occur due to fatigue
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2.8. RIGID PAVEMENT:
Type of pavement consists of a reinforced or unreinforced concrete slab.
It consists of two layers: the cement slab and the snobs of granular
materials or stabilized soils. These two large are sprees in separate
construction operation.

2.9. ADVANTAGES OF RIGID PAVEMENT

This type of pavement has a long servile life if properly constructed.
i. Maintenance costs are low
ii. Reinforcement made it inflexible

2.10. Disadvantages of Rigid pavement:

i. Cracking of a concrete pavement slab under combined blending
and direct tension is inevitable
ii. Slabs with longitudinal cracks of more than one width are also
inevitable

2.11. FUNCTION OF PARTS OF THE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

SUB-GRADE: This will support the load of the pavement and the load of
other traffic areas to reduce the effective thickness. The load-bearing
capacity will be reduced by
a. Adequate compaction
b. Stabilization
c. Adequate drainage

2.12. THE SUB-BASE

This is due to poor bearing capacity of the sub soil or high traffic density.
It is manufactured for soil improvement, its function is to transfer the
load of road traffic and distribute it in the form of a beam over a large
area of the subsoil formation plane.

2.13. ROAD BASE

The function of the base is to absorb the late traffic load and the sustained
load on the usable area and to distribute it evenly over a large area of the
sub-base.

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2.14. SURFACING (WEARING COURSE)
The wear track is to distribute the load of the wheels on the road surface
against the surface water. The presence of bitumen improves the water-
repellent properties. It also provides anti-slip properties.

2.15. PAVEMENT FAILURE

Road pavements are doomed to failure for many reasons, not due to
depression or well-localized subsidence, but the most common is lack of
maintenance . From the day the pavement is exposed to traffic, it is
subject to destructive forces. Temporary changes, to traffic, it is subject
to destructive forces. Temporary changes, precipitation, run off and other
natural phenomena that stress the pavement, structure increase. The
additional traffic load on the pavement increases the failure rate. The
serviceability or the quality of use of a new pavement initially decreases
superficially, but over the years, the quality of use begins to deteriorate at
an ever faster rate as maintenance is neglected and the situation worsens.
Rehabilitation costs must certainly increase. A visual prospection can
help determine the condition and degree of failure of the pavement.

2.16. POTHOLES
These are cup-shaped or branch-shaped holes of varying sizes in the rood
surface caused by local decomposition. They are generally caused by a
weakness in the road surface due to little asphalt or too much fine asphalt
or too little fire or poor drainage.
2.17. CORRUGATION
Waves or car-planning are a form of plastic movement.| Waves and
visible on the pavement perpendicular to that direction of traffic.| The
condition is mild and barely visible severe when the waves are so
widespread that they require the diver to reduce speed
2.18. REVELATION
A breakup of visible loose particles or pieces of aggregate, considered
minor when only a few pieces of aggregate detach from the pavement and
settle freely on the road surface.| Moderate when there is enough loose
aggregate to cover a large area of the surface and surveying when the
loose aggregate is so widespread that it makes the surface rough.|
2.19. WASHING
This occurs when the asphalt covers the aggregates in the pavement.| It is
low, the coverage is moderately noticeable when covering large areas and
it is useful when the asphalt completely covers the aggregate.
2.20. CROCODILE CRACKS
This happens when the cracks are like the skin of an alligator.| Cracks are
considered light if they are barely visible, moderate if the cracks are more
than 6% or somewhere 25mm wide but the sides and cracks are not
completely separated.| They are typically associated with an untreated
rectangular foundation that has failed with the existing subgrade require
the diver to reduce speed.
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2.21. DEFORMATIONS
These are normally caused by too little compaction or too many fines in
the surface layer or by settlement such as cracks. Deformations can take
several forms: channeling, damage, shoring, depression and raised
pavement. Deformation is any change in the pavement surface from its
original shape.

2.22. STAND-UP
Localized upward displacement resulting from swelling of the subsoil in a
part of the pavement.| It is often caused by ice penetrating the subsoil but
can also be caused by swelling or moisture effects on exposed soils.
2.23. CHALLENGING EDGES
This is the result of vehicle movement at the edge of the road or the
continued absorption of surface water.| These are deep and shallow
potholes that pose a very serious threat to life and property, including
passing traffic on the road. They typically occur at the edge of a flexible
pavement where there is a separate channel path.
2.24. ROUTES
A known depression in the pavement parallel to the side is very minor if
the depression is less than ½ + 1 inch deep, but not deep enough that the
direction of the pavement generally receives water in the depression,
favoring failure of the pavement. This depression may also be due to
traffic loading exceeding the bearing capacity of the pavement or to poor
construction.
2.25. SUMMARY OF PAVEMENT FAILURE
The pavement fails because the subgrade, the structural base layer of the
surface, has failed. Subgrade failure occurs when the load applied to the
soil displaces all the water and air pressure in the pores of the subgrade,
combined with the force generated by the applied force, such as plastic
deformation, which occurs increasingly with repeated loading and is the
primary cause of pavement failure. Inadequate soil stability, which may
be due to excessive moisture and inadequate compaction of the soil itself,
may be another cause of pavement failure.
BASE FAILURE
(i) Poor materials in the base layer
(ii) Loss of binding or locking properties of the materials.
(iii) Loss of base material
(iv) Loss of actual base support
(v) Poor drainage of surface and subsoil In
(vi) adequate and incorrect compaction Poor material proportions
2.26. WEARING COURSE MAY FAIL DUE TO
(i) Inadequate quality of binder in the mix
(ii) Substandard quality of binder used
(iii) Higher quality of binder than required
(iv) Inadequate binders used Volatilization and oxidation of the binder
causing bituminous stagnation to become brittle and the surface to crack.
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2.27. RECONNAISSANCE INVESTIGATION
A visual investigation was carried out to examine the following:
(i) The topography and features along the pavement,
(ii) The nature and types of pavement materials,
(iii) The drainage pattern in relation to the expected runoff,
(iv) The profile of the pavement, height of support, depth and construction
material
(v) The pavement is flexible and consists of asphalt with crushed stone.
(vi) Poor drainage system The drainage system installed is not available and
hence results in water seepage around the pavement.

2.28. CAUSES OF PAVEMENT FAILURE ALONG AGBAJA NWOFE

ROAD
TRAFFIC INTENSITY
When many loads are applied to the pavement, failure occurs. Wheel
loads are greater than the bearing capacity of the pavement, resulting in
damage as revealed in a study at a site where 600 heavy commercial
vehicles per day ply on the pavement. Although it is not a road, it was
found that most of the heavy vehicles passing by on the road, also from
the traces and measurements submitted, the thickness of the bituminous
pavement is 25mm, loading on a base of 30mm.

2.29. INADEQUATE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Field investigation reveals that the inadequate drainage system at the site
in question is deficient.| Provision of embankments to allow rainwater to
drain away from the road surface resulting in low surface temperatures.|
Causes fatigue failure under traffic loads. This is because as the water
content of the subgrade increases, the bearing capacity of the pavement
also decreases. Since water causes clay to expand and contract when dry,
pavement cracks that develop without effective drainage will worsen
much faster than if they had drainage.
2.30. UNSKILLED MANPOWER
Due to shortage of skilled labour, road structure is substandard, poor
surface finish, uneven rough surfaces, uneven joints and roller marks.| In
addition, to achieve good quality control of the pavement, the inspector
shall consider the following during construction.
(i) Have the truck beds been checked
(ii) Have the truck beds been emptied after ten sprays
(iii) Does the truck meet specifications
(iv) Does the mix appear uniform
(v) Is the overall mix satisfactory
(vi) Are inspection tasks adequately distributed
(vii) Inspection assistants properly trained.
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2.31. INCORRECT COMPACTION
Poor surface finish is observed on the construction site. This is due to
poor compaction. Compaction should be carried out in stages during road
construction to increase the density of the subgrade, sub-base and road
compaction equipment. Bitumen suitable for construction includes
Prismatic rollers with tires Steel rollers Vibratory roller

2.32. A LOT OF CLAY SOIL

From the observation it is clear that the properties of clay are in the
subgrade and for this reason the pavement has soil in the others. Due to
the clay content which creates the possibility of fluid and air pressure in
its pores, the plastic perforation effect has occurred. This air combines
with the forces generated by the load to move the road material. The
deflection resulting from plastic deformation increases with repeated
loading. This is one of the major defects of the road surface.

2.33. INCORRECT SLOPE

Increase the seepage in the road surface from the middle or top of the
road to the roadside to facilitate the drainage of water into the drainage
system. The road was not properly graded, so the asphalt is always cold
during the rainy season. This has led to an increase in the moisture
content in the subsoil and subsequently the formation of potholes on the
road.

2.34. POOR STABILIZATION

Due to inadequate grading in the subgrade, the pavement has failed.
Stabilization is important for grading and chemical treatment of the base
materials or a road to improve the bearing capacity of the soil.
EFFECT OF PAVEMENT FAILURE
2.35. ACCIDENT
Road defects such as potholes cause frequent accidents and also delay
the fast movement of vehicles.

2.36. CONGESTION
The defective road surface delays the slow movement of the vehicle.
2.37. WATER LOGGING
Defective road surfaces such as potholes in the road surface cause water
logging on the roads and thereby increase traffic jams.

2.38. VEHICLE DAMAGE

Defective road surface damages bumpers, clutches, brakes and the
underside of motor vehicles.
2.39. MAINTENANCE COSTS

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 The defective pavement increased maintenance costs and it was necessary
to employ qualified engineers.
CHAPTER THREE

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TESTING IN PAVEMENT DESIGN

Soil testing is a crucial step in the pavement design process as the protesters of
the soil beneath the pavement have a significant impact on the performance and
longevity of the pavement. Some of the key reasons why soil testing is
importance in pavement design include:

(i) Determining soil strength

(ii) Assessing soil compaction
(iii) Identifying soil properties
(iv) Selections appropriate pavement materials
(v) Preventions pavement failures.

3.0. METHOD OF COLLECTION OF SOIL SAMPLE

The road is about 92m (0.92km) long and the soil samples were taken at
different distances from each other, the depth is about 0.5m to 1m depth, the
sample was collected with a shovel and an excavator, put in a bag and brought to
the laboratory. Soil samples, however, including gravel, fine sand and clay.

TEST CARRIED OUT IN LAB

3.1. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS TEST

This is also known as particle size Distribution (PSD) test, it is a laboratory test
used to determine the size range of particles in also or aggregate sample. The test
separates the particles into different size fractions, typically using a combination
of sieving and sedimentation techniques.
The mechanical analysis test provides valuable information on:
i. Particle size distribution
ii. Percentage of sand, silt and clay
iii. Soil classification
iv. Soil gradation
v. Suitability for construction purposes
The test involves:
i. Sieving
ii. Sedimentation
iii. Centrifugation
iv. Weighing
3.2. STANDARD COMPACTION TEST
The standard compaction test, also known as the proctor compaction test, is a
laboratory test used to determine the optimal moisture content and maximum dry
density of a soil or aggregate material.
Objective:
To determine the:
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 i. Maximum dry density (MDD)
ii. Optimum moisture content (OMC)

Test procedure:
i. Preparation
ii. Compaction
iii. Moisture variation
iv. Density measurement
v. Plotting

3.3. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATION (CBR) TEST

The California bearings ration (CBR) test is a penetration test used to evaluate
the bearing capacity and strength of soils and sub grades.
Objective:
To determine the:
i. California Bearing Ration (CBR) value
ii. Bearing capacity of the soil or subgrade

Test procedure:
i. Sample preparation
ii. Mould preparation
iii. Surcharge weight
iv. Penetration
v. Load application

3.4. ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST

The Atterberg Limit Test is a laboratory test used to determine the consistency
and plasticity of fine-grained soils, such as clays and silts. The test measurers the
moisture content at which the soil transitions from a solid to a liquid state.
Objective:
i. Determine the liquid limit (LL)
ii. Determine the plastic Limit (PL)
iii. Calculate the plasticity Index (PI)

Test Procedure:
i. Liquid Limit (LL)
ii. Plastic Limit (PL)
iii. Plasticity Index (PI)

11