Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS 1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Supporting tissues in organisms
2. Vertebrate Skeleton
3. Joints
4. Supporting tissues in plants
5. Nutrition in Animals (Food Substances and Digestive Enzymes)
6. Reproduction
7. Sexual Reproduction
8. Reproduction in Unicellular organisms
9. Irritability and Movement
10. Revision
11. Examination

REFERENCES
 Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T. Ramlingam
 Essential Biology by M.C Michael
 New Biology by H. Stone and Cozen
 SSCE, past questions and answers
 New System Biology by Lam and Kwan
 College Biology by Idodo Umeh
 UTME, SSCE and CAMBRIDGE past questions and answers
 Biology practical text
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

WEEK ONE

Topic: Supporting Tissues and Systems

Introduction

Living organisms including plants and animals need tissues to enable them carry out life processes such
as movement, respiration, etc. For example, without the various bones and tissues, vertebrates may not be
able to stand, respire, move and carry out their life processes.

Skeleton

Skeleton is the bony framework of the body which provides support, shape and protection to the soft
tissues and tissues in animals.

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. We are actually born with more bones (about 300), but many
fuse together as a child grows up. The longest bone in our bodies is the femur (thigh bone). The smallest
bone is the stirrup bone inside the ear. Each hand has 26 bones in it. Your nose and ears are not made of
bone; they are made of cartilage, a flexible substance that is not as hard as bone. The bones support your
body and allow you to move. Bones contain a lot of calcium (an element found in milk and other foods).

Bones manufacture blood cells and store important minerals.

Biological Significance of Skeleton

1. Support and Shape: The skeleton is a support structure, providing shape to the body. It also acts
as the protective framework that is needed to keep the body organs safe.
2. Protection: The bones of the skeleton protect the delicate internal organs and the soft tissue of
the body, keeping the inner body safe from trauma due to falls or injuries.
3. Movement: The bones are connected to skeletal muscles that permit the body to move. Bones act
as levers and when the muscles contract they pull on a bone and allow it to move.
4. Blood Cell Production: Haemopoiesis, or blood cell formation, takes place in the red bone
marrow. Blood cells are essential to life and play a huge role in keeping the body healthy as well.
5. Mineral Storage: Skeletal bones are able to store phosphorous and calcium, which may then be
released in the necessary amount, to keep the body at a level of homeostasis, or a state of balance.

Skeletal Components

The skeleton is composed of fibrous and mineralized connective tissues that give it firmness and
flexibility. It consists of bone, cartilage, tendons, joints, and ligaments.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
1. Bone: A bone is a type of mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and calcium
phosphate, a mineral crystal. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness. Bone tissue may be
compact or spongy. Bones provide support and protection for body organs.
2. Cartilage: This is a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed
collagenous fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin. Cartilage provides flexible
support for certain structures in adult humans including the nose, trachea, and ears. In mammals,
there are three types of cartilages:
3. Hyaline cartilage: This is found in trachea and bronchi which keep them open and the surface of
moveable joints
4. Fibro-cartilage: It is tougher than hyaline cartilage and it is found in the discs between the small
bones (vertebra) of the vertebral column
5. Elastic cartilage: This is found in the external ear (pinnae) and epiglottis

Difference between Bones and Cartilages

Bone Cartilage
Bones is made up of living and non-living cells Cartilage is made up of mainly living cells
It is not flexible, especially in adult It is very flexible both in adults and young ones
It can never be replaced by a cartilage It can easily be replaced by bone
It is made up mainly of mineral salts It is not made up mainly of mineral salts
It is a stronger and more rigid tissue It is not so strong but it is a flexible tissue
1. Tendon: This is a fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to bone and connects muscle
to bone.
2. Ligament: This is a fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other connective
tissues together at joints.
3. Joint: This is a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined together.

Types of Skeleton

The three types of skeleton are hydrostatic skeleton, endoskeleton and exoskeleton. Hydrostatic skeleton
is found in cold-blooded animals including invertebrates. We human beings have endoskeleton.
Exoskeleton is found in insects.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

It is found in soft-bodied and cold-blooded animals. This skeleton has a coelom, which is a fluid-filled
cavity. This coelom is surrounded by muscles and the rigidity caused by the fluid and the muscles serve
as a supporting structure for the organisms. The fluid pressure along with the motion of the supporting
muscles helps the organisms to change shape and move. Echinoderms, cnidarians, annelids, nematodes
and some other organisms use the hydrostatic skeleton for movement. The Earthworm which is an annelid
is boneless. With the help of hydrostatic skeleton it burrows through the ground. Examples of
echinoderms are the star fish and the sea urchin. The Jelly fish is a cnidarians.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
Endoskeleton

The simplest definition for endoskeleton is that it is the skeleton found inside the body. It forms the frame
work for the animal. The tissues and muscles are formed around the skeletal system and the muscular
forces are transmitted to this skeleton. The Endoskeleton supports the animal structure. It is composed of
mineralized tissues. In Phylum Chordata, Porifera and Echinodermata endoskeleton is present. The
animals that come under Phylum Chordata are all vertebrates including human beings.

Exoskeleton

These are skeletons found outside the body. It forms a protective covering for the animals. It supports as
well as protects the animals. All crustaceans have exoskeleton. Crabs, spiders, lobsters, insects are all
crustaceans. Most invertebrates do possess cuticle which is composed of chitin. Chitin is a non-living
substance commonly found covering the outer part of the body of some animals. Animals with
exoskeleton are usually small. This is because large animals could not be supported by exoskeleton and
need bones to support them. Animals with exoskeleton have a head and abdomen and in some cases, a
thorax. The exoskeleton is soft and thin at the joints where it has to bend. The large exoskeletons are
called shells. Tortoise is one animal that has a shell and endoskeleton.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

WEEK TWO

Topic: Vertebrate Skeleton

Introduction

The skeleton of vertebrates is composed primarily of bone. Cartilage covers articular surfaces between
bones and connects the ribs to the sternum. The skeleton is divided into two major parts:

1. The axial skeleton includes the skull, mandible, hyoid, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae

2. The appendicular skeleton includes the girdle, limb and feet bones

The Human Skeleton

The Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It consists of the skull, the vertebral column, the
ribs and the sternum or breastbone.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

The Skull

The skull consists of 28 different bones (including the ossicles of the ear). The bones of the skull can be
divided into two main groups: the cranium which encloses and protects the brain and the facial bones.

The Skull

The Cranium: The cranium consists of eight flat bones which are rigidly attached to each other with
dentate sutures (joints with teeth-like protrusions). They envelop and protect the brain. The frontal bone
forms the forehead and portions of the eye sockets (or orbits). The occipital bone, at the base of the skull
contains a large opening, called the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord passes. On each side
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
of the opening is the occipital condyle, by means of which the skull articulates with the first neck or
cervical vertebra (the atlas). The organs of hearing are situated in the temporal bone, one on each side.
The openings leading into these organs can also be seen on each side.

The Facial Bones: The facial skeleton consists of fourteen irregular bones, which are all (with the
exception of the lower jawbone) firmly attached to the cranium by means of sutures. They include the
nasal bones, the two jawbones and the cheek bones. The lower jaw articulates with the temporal bone part
of the cheek bone, just in front of the ear. This allows for the necessary movement of the lower jaw when
food is bitten off and chewed. Both upper and lower jaws have alveolar pockets into which teeth fit.

Cranial and Facial bones

The Vertebral Column

Vertebral column is also called back bone or spine and encloses the spinal cord. It is a flexible, curved,
vertical rod, and consists of a row of 33 movably articulated ring like bones called vertebrae. Between
each of the two bones the space is supplemented by pads of fibro-cartilage called the intervertebral discs.
The vertebrae are held together by ligaments which prevent their dislocation, but permit a degree of
movement, making the backbone flexible. The adult vertebral column measures 60-70 cm in length.

The vertebrae are grouped and named according to the region they occupy.

·Seven cervical vertebrae form the neck or cervical region.

·Twelve thoracic vertebrae form the back of the thorax or chest.

·Five lumbar vertebrae form the lumbar region or loins.

·Five sacral vertebrae form the sacrum.

·Four caudal vertebrae form the coccyx or tail.

The vertebrae in the three upper regions remain separate or distinct throughout life, and are called the
movable vertebrae. Those in the two lower regions, the sacrum and coccyx, are united in the adult to form
two bones and are called, the fixed vertebrae.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

Vertebral column

With the exception of the first two cervical vertebrae, all the movable vertebrae have similar structure; a
typical vertebra is a bony ring. Its hole is called the vertebral foramen. The front border of the vertebral
foramen is very thick. It is known as the body or centrum.

The remaining boundary of the vertebral foramen is thin. It is termed as the vertebral arch. Each half of a
vertebral arch has a vertically narrow side, the pedicel, and a broader hind part, the lamina. The two
laminae meet in the midline of the back. The upper and lower margins of the pedicel have concavities
called the vertebral notches. When vertebrae are articulated together, adjacent notches form apertures– the
intervertebral foramina, for the exit of the spinal nerves. The vertebral arch gives off processes to which
the muscles are attached. The processes include a median spinous process and paired articular processes
and transverse processes. The spinous process projects back and often also downward from the junction
of the laminae. The articular processes of the adjacent vertebrae meet to form synovial joints. They
provide limited movement between vertebrae. The vertebral foramina of all the vertebrae when intact
form a vertebral canal that encloses the spinal cord.

In between the adjacent vertebrae, there are elastic pads of fibrocartilage- the intervertebral discs. This
provides mobility to the vertebrae, check undue friction and take up shocks. Displacement of
intervertebral disc is called slip-disc and is dangerous.

The Cervical Vertebrae

The neck region consists of 7 cervical vertebrae. The cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the bones, and
except the first and the second, which are peculiar in shape, the cervical vertebrae possess the following
characters in common. The first cervical vertebra is called atlas. It is almost ring like. It provides up and
down or nodding movement to the skull on it. The second cervical vertebra is termed as axis. Its centrum
bears an odontoid process, which allows side to side or turning movement to the atlas and skull together
on it.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

Cervical vertebrae

The bodies of other cervical vertebrae are small and oblong in shape broader from side to side than from
backward. The neural arch is large. The spinous processes are divided or bifid terminally. The transverse
processes are perforated by foramina for the passage of the vertebral arteries. Thus this important blood
vessel is protected as it passes through the vulnerable region of the neck.

The Thoracic Vertebrae

In vertebrates, thoracic vertebrae compose the middle segment of the vertebral column, between
the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. In humans, there are twelve thoracic vertebrae and they
are intermediate in size between the cervical and lumbar vertebrae; they increase in size going towards
the lumbar vertebrae, with the lower ones being a lot larger than the upper. They are distinguished by the
presence of facets on the sides of the bodies for articulation with the heads of the ribs, and facets on
the transverse processes of all, except the eleventh and twelfth, for articulation with the tubercles of the
ribs. By convention, the human thoracic vertebrae are numbered T1-T12, with the first one (T1) located
closest to the skull and the others going down the spine towards the lumbar region.

Thoracic Vertebrae

Appendicular Skeleton
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs and limb girdles which is directly concerned with
movement in animals.

The limbs: There are two pairs of limbs in every animal, these are the forelimbs and the hind limbs. In
man, the forelimbs are free and are called hands. In other animals except Ape and Gorilla, both the fore
and hind limbs are used for walking. The forelimbs consists of the arm(humerus, ulna and radius) and the
hands(carpals, metacarpals and phalanges) while the hind-limbs consists of the legs(femur, fibula and
tibia) and the feet(tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges).

Limb Girdles: Generally, there are two limb girdles and they support the weight of the body. They are:

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdles: This is a group of large flat bones in the shoulder region to which the
forelimbs are attached.

The Pelvic (Hip) Girdles: This is another group of large flat bones in the hip region to which hind limbs
are attached.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
WEEK THREE

Topic: Joints

Introduction

The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones. The individual bones are attached in such a way
that a large variety of co-ordinated movements are made possible in different parts of the body. These
movements are made possible by skeletal muscles, the fact that the bones act as levers, cartilage which
reduces friction and ligaments which prevent dislocation and the presence of movable joints. The site or
place where two or more bones of the skeleton are attached to each other is called a joint or place of
articulation.

A joint or place of articulation is formed where two or more bones come in close contact in the body and
are attached to each other by ligaments.

Types of Joints

Joints can be classified according to the degree and type of movement they allow. The following types of
joints can be recognized:

1. Fibrous (or Immovable) Joints

These joints are firmly held together by a thin layer of strong connective tissue. There is no movement
between the bones such as the sutures of the skull and the teeth in their sockets.

2. Cartilaginous Joints

Cartilaginous joints are joints where the articular surfaces of the bones forming the joints are attached to
each other by means of white fibro-cartilaginous discs and ligaments which allow only a limited degree of
movement. Examples are the cartilaginous between the vertebrae, the cartilage in the symphysis which
binds the pubic bones together at the front of the pelvic girdle and the cartilage in the joint between the
sacrum and the hip bone.

A cartilaginous joint between two vertebrae

3. Synovial Joints

These are freely movable joints. Most of the joints in the body are of the synovial type. The following are
the main characteristics of a synovial joint:

 The ends of the bones are covered with a layer of smooth hyaline cartilage, called articular
cartilage in the joint regions. This reduces friction at the point.
 The joint is completely enclosed by a bag-like capsular ligament which holds the joint together
and helps to contain the synovial fluid.
 The capsular ligament is lined with a synovial membrane. This membrane secretes synovial fluid
into the synovial cavity and acts as a seal, waterproofing the joint. The synovial fluid lubricates
the joint.
 In addition to the capsule, the bones are also attached and held together by strong, tough
ligaments made of dense connective tissue. These ligaments prevent dislocation during normal
movement. The articulating surfaces of adjacent bones are reciprocally shaped.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
 Synovial joints can be subdivided into the following groups according to the type of movement
they carry out:

4. Ball-and-Socket Joints

These joints are formed where the rounded head of one bone fits into the hollow, cup-shaped socket of
another bone such as the shoulder joint and the hip joint. Such joints allow freedom of movement in all
directions.

5. Hinge Joints

These joints occur where the convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone, so
making movement possible in one plane only. Examples of these joints are the knee and the elbow joints.
Hinge joints have ligaments mainly at the sides of the joints.

6. Gliding Joints

This type of joint allows for gliding movements between flat surfaces as the surfaces slide over one
another. Only a limited amount of movement is allowed such as the joints between the carpal bones, the
joints between the tarsal bones and those between the articular processes (zygapophyses) of successive
vertebrae.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
7. Pivot Joints

This is the Rotation of one bone around another. A bony ring rotates round the pivot (axis) of another
bone such as the ring-like atlas rotating around the odontoid process of the axis, allowing the head to turn
from side to side.

Top of the neck

(atlas and axis bones)

Structure of Joints

Joints consist of bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments and other connective tissue. Muscles keep
the bones in place and also through contraction or extension help move the bones. Cartilage prevents the
bone ends from rubbing directly on to each other. Cartilage is not as hard and rigid as bone, but is stiffer
and less flexible than muscle. Tendons are bands of fibrous tissue that connect muscles to bones.
Ligaments are bands of fibrous tissue that connect the ends of bones together to form a joint.

The Human Joint Structure

The human joint structure

 Cartilage reduces friction. Acts as a shock absorber.

 Synovial fluid lubricates the joint.
 Synovial membrane produces synovial fluid.
 Tendon joins muscle to bone enabling movement.
 Ligament joins bone to bone, stabilising the joint.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
WEEK FOUR

Topic: Supporting Tissues in Plants

The development of stable supporting elements has been an important prerequisite for the evolution of
large terrestrial organisms. Animals have endo- or exoskeletons that correspond in function to the woody
stems or trunks of plants. The strength of tissues protects also against enemies. The hard shell of many
seeds prevents a chewing to pieces or puncturing by animals and avoids that parasites like fungi or
bacteria force their way into them.

Extensive specialized supporting tissues exist only in vascular plants. Vascular plants have up to four
types of supporting tissue:

1. The collenchyma, a tissue of living cells,

2. The sclerenchyma, a tissue of nearly always dead cells, and
3. The vascular tissue consisting of both living and dead cells. It is responsible for the transport and
dispersal of water, nutrients and assimilates.
4. Parenchyma

Parenchyma

The cells of parenchyma are large, thin-walled, and usually have a large central vacuole. They are often
partially separated from each other and are usually stuffed with plastids.

In areas not exposed to light, colourless plastids predominate and food storage is the main function. The
cells of the white potato are parenchyma cells.

Where light is present, e.g., in leaves, chloroplasts predominate and photosynthesis is the main function.

Sclerenchyma

The walls of these cells are very thick and built up in a uniform layer around the entire margin of the cell.
Often, the cell dies after its cell wall is fully formed. Sclerenchyma cells are usually found associated with
other cells types and give them mechanical support.

Sclerenchyma is found in stems and also in leaf veins. Sclerenchyma also makes up the hard outer
covering of seeds and nuts.

Collenchyma

Collenchyma cells have thick walls that are especially thick at their corners. These cells provide
mechanical support for the plant. They are most often found in areas that are growing rapidly and need to
be strengthened. The petiole (“stalk”) of leaves is usually reinforced with collenchyma.

Vascular Tissues

Vascular tissues do not only fulfill supporting functions. Their conductive functions are more important.
They consist of water-conducting xylem and food-conducting phloem. Only the xylem has still
supporting functions. Xylem and phloem are combined in a structure that is called vascular bundle.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
 Xylem:

Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts of the plant. In
angiosperms, most of the water travels in the xylem vessels. These are thick-walled tubes that can extend
vertically through several feet of xylem tissue. Their diameter may be as large as 0.7 mm. Their walls are
thickened with secondary deposits of cellulose and are usually further strengthened by impregnation with
lignin. The secondary walls of the xylem vessels are deposited in spirals and rings and are usually
perforated by pits.

In woody plants, the older xylem ceases to participate in water transport and simply serves to give
strength to the trunk. Wood is xylem. When counting the annual rings of a tree, one is counting rings of
xylem.

 Phloem

The main components of phloem are

 Sieve elements and

 Companion cells.

Sieve elements are so-named because their end walls are perforated. This allows cytoplasmic connections
between vertically-stacked cells. The result is a sieve tube that conducts the products of photosynthesis —
sugars and amino acids — from the place where they are manufactured, e.g., leaves, to the places where
they are consumed or stored; such as roots, growing tips of stems and leaves, flowers, fruits, tubers,
corms, etc.

Sieve elements have no nucleus and only a sparse collection of other organelles. They depend on the
adjacent companion cells for many functions.

Companion cells move sugars, amino acids and a variety of macromolecules into and out of the sieve
elements, then pass on to the cells of their destination.

Uses of Fibres to the Plants

1. All fibres give strength and support to plants

2. They serve mechanical functions when they grow older such as rigidity, flexibility and elasticity
3. They protect the fragile part of the plants
4. They are sclerenchymatous in nature
5. When they are associated with wood or xylem, they are known as wood fibres.

Functions of Supporting Tissues in Plants

Supporting tissues provide the following functions to plants:

1. Strength: The sclerenchyma and collenchyma tissues provide the necessary strength required by
plants
2. Rigidity: The supporting tissues like collenchyma, sclerenchyma and wood fibres provide the
necessary materials to make the plant strong against any external forces.
3. Protection: Some supporting tissues are known to protect the delicate parts of the plants body,
e.g. cambium and phloem vessel
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
4. Flexibility: Some supporting tissues also provide the necessary materials which make the plants
flexible thereby preventing the plants from being broken by the bending and twisting movements
caused by strong winds

Conduction: Some supporting tissues especially xylem and phloem tissues are known to also conduct
water and manufacture food respectively within the plan

WEEK FIVE DATE…………………

TOPIC: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
CONTENT
 Animal Nutrition
 Classes of Food
 Balance Diet and its Importance
 Digestive Enzymes
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animals generally cannot manufacture their food. Rather, they depend directly or indirectly on plants for
their food. Hence they are called heterotrophs. Based on their food types, animals are grouped into three:
a. Carnivores which feed on flesh or other animals e.g. lion.
b. Herbivores which feed on plants e.g goat.
c. Omnivores, which feed on both plants and animals e.g man.

CLASSES OF FOOD SUBTANNCES

Foods eaten by animals are generally classified into seven i. e.
a. Carbohydrate
b. Proteins
c. Fat and oil
d. Mineral Salt
e. Vitamins
f. Water
g. Roughages

CARBOHYDRATE
This is got from food like bread, yam rice etc. It basically consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates are of three types:
a. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars) which include glucose, fructose and galactose
b. Disaccharides (Reducing sugars) which include maltose, sucrose and lactose.
c. Polysaccharides (Complex sugars) e.g starch, cellulose, chitin under the action of enzymes like
ptyalin, maltase, lactase etc, and starch yields glucose as product of its digestion. Excess
carbohydrate is stored in the body in form of glycogen in muscles and liver. This can be
reconverted to glucose during starvation.

Importance of Carbohydrates
a. It gives animals energy.
b. It provides heat needed to maintain body temperature
c. It can be used for lubrication e.g mucus.
d. It provides the body with a strong framework e.g. exoskeleton in insects.

PROTEINS
These are complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. Protein is made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Food like egg, meat, fish, beans etc
gives you protein. Proteins are broken down into amino acids under the action of enzymes like pepsin,
rennin, trypsin and erepsin.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
Importance of Proteins
a. Growth in young ones.
b. Repair of worn-out tissues.
c. Production of enzymes.
d. Production of hormones.
e. It supports reproduction.
f. It is for tissue and all formation i.e body building.

FATS & OIL (LIPIDS)

Fats are solid lipids at room temperature while oil is the liquid. Fat and oil consist of carbon, hydrogen
and little oxygen. When digested, it gives rise to fatty acids and glycerol. Foods like palm oil, groundnut,
Soya beans give fat and oil. Lipids are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol when acted upon by lipase
enzymes.

Importance of Fat and Oil

a. It gives you energy even more than carbohydrates
b. It supplies essential fatty acids to the body.
c. It helps in the maintenance of body temperature
d. It provides the body with fat-soluble vitamins

MINERAL SALT
These are usually taken in very small quantity in the food we eat except sodium chloride (table salt) and
iron tablet, which can be taken directly by man. The lack of these salts results in nutritional deficiency.
The minerals include calcium, magnesium, potassium, Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, iron, Iodine,
fluorine, manganese, copper, cobalt and sodium.

Importance of Mineral Salts

a. Regulate body metabolisms
b. Components of bones and teeth
c. Aids blood formation
d. Control chemical reactions in the body
e. Aids the formation of enzymes and pigment
VITAMINS
These are organic food substances needed by man and other animals in small quantity for normal growth
and development. Lack of or inadequate supply of any of these vitamins results in nutritional deficiency.
Vitamins can be grouped into two:
a. Water-soluble vitamins
b. Fat – soluble vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins include: vitamins B complex and vitamin C. Vitamin B complex include
vitamin, B2, B3 , B5, B6 and B12
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K.

VITAMINS, SOURCE FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS
Vitamin A Liver, eggs, fish (i) Normal growth of (i) Night blindness
milk, palm oil, fish body cells and skin (ii) Reduced resistance to
Vegetables (ii) Proper vision of the eye disease

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, beans, (i) Normal growth Beri-beri (wasting of

Ground nut (ii) Proper functioning of heart Muscles), paralysis
and nervous system
Vitamin B2 Yeast, soya beans, (i) Growth, proper functioning (i) Slow growth
egg, milk, green of the eye (ii) Dermatitis
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
Vegetables (ii) Formation of co-enzymes
Vitamin B3 Yeast, beans, milk, Formation of co-enzymes for Pellagra
Vegetables cellular respiration
Vitamin B12 Kidney, liver, fish Formation of red blood Pernicious
Milk Cells Anaemia
Vitamin C Fresh fruits and (i) Aids wound healing Scurvy
Green vegetables (ii) Helps to resist infection
Vitamin D Fish, milk, egg, (i) Increases absorption Ricket;
Liver, sun’s Of calcium and phosphorus. Osteomalacia
Ultraviolet rays (ii) Calcification and hardening Of
bones
Vitamin E Green vegetables, Promotion of fertility Sterility
Egg, butter, liver In animals Premature abortion
Vitamin K Fresh green Aids blood clotting Hemorrhage
vegetables, liver

WATER
This is of utmost importance to all organisms and it is made up of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
Water can be got from food, river, stream, pond etc. water makes up 75% of the human body.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
a. Metabolic activities of the body of animals.
b. Digestion of food.
c. Maintenance of body temperature.
d. It is a medium of transportation for all nutrients.
e. It helps to maintain the osmotic balance in body tissues.
f. It helps in excretion of metabolic waste from the body e.g urine.

ROUGHAGES
These are indigestible fibrous materials got from vegetables, fruit, carbohydrates and proteins. Roughages
aid digestion, lack of which can lead to constipation.

BALANCED DIET
Balanced diet is a diet containing a correct proportion of all the food substances. On a general note, a
balanced diet contains 15% protein, 15% fat and oil, 10% vitamin, minerals and water and 60%
carbohydrate. Once a food is taken at these proportions, there is a normal growth and development in the
body.

FUNCTIONS OF BALANCED DIET

a. It makes us healthy.
b. It gives ability to be resistant to diseases
c. It makes available energy needed to carry out all biological activities.
d. It prevents malnutrition and deficiency symptoms. For examples, a diet that lacks protein results
into a nutritional disease called kwashiokor in children.

The protein deficient child has the following features

a. Retarded growth.
b. Loss of weight.
c. Swollen legs effect (oedema).
d. Cracked / split stomach and thin legs e.t.c.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic (protein) catalysts produced by living cells which help to speed up and slow down
the rate of chemical reactions. Digestive enzymes aid the breaking down of complex food substances into
simple, soluble and diffusible form. Enzymes have the following characteristics.
a. Enzymes are soluble
b. Enzymes are protein
c. They are specific in their actions
d. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature i. e. they work best between 35 oC to 40oC
e. Enzymes are PH specific
f. Enzymes brings about reversible reactions
g. Enzymes needs co-enzymes to activate them and can be inactivated by inhibitors such as mercury
and cyanide

CLASSES AND FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes are classified based on the type of food they act upon. These include
a. Proteases e. g. pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin. They act on protein.
b. Amylases e. g. ptyalin, lactase, maltase, sucrose. They act on carbohydrates
c. Lipases which act on lipids (fats and oils)
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
WEEK SIX DATE ……………………
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION
CONTENT
- Meaning and Types of Reproduction
- Forms of Asexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation and Fusion of Gametes)
- Meiosis and Importance of Meiosis

MEANING AND TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of an organism to give rise to new individuals of the same species in order to
ensure continuity of life.
There are two types of reproduction
a. asexual reproduction
b. sexual reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction: is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by itself. I.e.
only one parent is presence. No gametes involved thus there is no fusion of nuclei, but the cells
that give rise to the offspring usually divide by means of mitosis. Offspring produced are
identical to the parent in all respect and are called clones
b. Sexual Reproduction: is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the fusion of the
male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced show new variation. The sex
cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division and after fertilization the new individual
continue to grow and produce new cells by mitosis.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a. Binary Fission: Fission is the simplest
form and involves the division of a single organism into two complete organisms, each identical to
the other and to the parent. Fission is common among unicellular organisms such as bacteria, many
protists and some algae.
b. Budding: The parent organism develops
an outgrowth which subsequently forms the new individual organism. These buds break off from the
parent without causing any injury and live an independent life. Budding is common in yeast and
hydra
c. Spore Formation: Spores are DNA-
containing capsules capable of sprouting into new organisms; unlike most seeds, spores are produced
without sexual union of gametes, when dispersed, each spore is capable of developing into a new
organism. Spores are common in lower organisms especially fungi such as rhizopus and penicillum.
d. Fragmentation: A part of the parent
organism breaks up and develops into a new independent organism. This type of reproduction is also
called regeneration. Fragmentation is common in spirogyra and coelenterates.
e. Vegetative Propagation: It occurs in
higher plants. In this process, a new plant grows from any portion of an old one other than the seeds.
There are two methods of vegetative propagation, this include natural and artificial vegetative
propagations.
Natural vegetative propagation involves the use of vegetative parts such as stems, leaves, roots or buds.
The part involved must have a store of food and sometimes able to act as a perennating organ i. e. enable
the plant to survive from one growing season to the next. Organs of vegetative propagation include;
- Bulbil: Axillary buds growing from the veins of leaves e. g. Bryophyllum and Begonia.
- Runners or stolons: Stems that creep horizontally on soil surface. Buds and adventitious roots
develop from the nodes of the parent plants e. g. sweet potato, grass.
- Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stem. It has scaly leaves which cover lateral buds at the
nodes. Lateral buds grow into new aerial shoots e. g. ginger, canna lily.
- Corms: Underground stems which grow vertically in the soil. Buds develop from the axils of
scale leaves, grow upward and form leaves and flowers e. g. cocoyam.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
- Stem tubers: Underground stems which have swollen tips. Axillary buds on tubers give rise to
new aerial shoots e. g. yam, sweet potato
- Suckers: Short underground horizontal branches e. g. banana, pineapple
- Bulb: Underground condensed shoots with compressed stems and scaly leaves e. g. onion, garlic.
Artificial propagation is the use of parts of the parent plant to multiply the plants. Budding, grafting,
layering, cutting and marcotting are types of artificial propagation.

WEEK SEVEN DATE

……………………………
TOPIC: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
There are two types of sexual reproduction, this include conjugation and fusion of gametes.
a. Conjugation: the simplest form of sexual reproduction, as contrasted with asexual
reproduction. This is observed in some unicellular organisms e. g. paramecium, fungi e. g.
rhizopus, algae e. g. spirogyra. Two similar organisms (conjugants) join together and exchange
genetic material contained in their nuclei. After the exchange, the organisms separate. The
zygote or zygosphere form is capable of developing into a new organism.
b. Fusion of Gametes: This occurs in higher organisms where gametes (male and female
sex cells) are produced in special structures by a process known as gametogenesis which
involves meiotic cell divisions. Fertilization, the process in which haploid male and female sex
cells fuse together to producing a single diploid cell (zygote) that develops into an adult
organism occurs after gamatogenesis.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the reduction method of division that leads to the formation of four daughter cells that are
haploids. Meiosis differs from mitosis, in that it involves two consecutive cell divisions instead of one
and the genetic material contained in chromosomes is not copied during the second meiotic division.
Whereas mitosis produces identical daughter cells, meiosis randomly mixes the chromosomes, resulting
in unique combinations of chromosomes in each daughter cell. Meiosis ensures the chromosome number
of an individual remains the same from generation to generation.

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions:

First Meiotic Division

a. Interphase: resting phase, chromosomes are not seen.
b. Prophase I: At early prophase, chromosomes contract and become clearly visible. At middle
prophase, homologous chromosomes come together and spindle is formed. At late prophase
crossing over takes place between homologous chromosomes at a place called chiasma.
c. Metaphase: Nuclear membrane disappears, the bivalent chromosomes assemble at the equator and
are attached to the spindle by their centromere.
d. Anaphase: Bivalent chromosomes separate completely and move to the opposite pole of the cell.
e. Telophase: bivalent chromosomes arrived at the pole, nuclear membrane are formed around the
chromosomes at the two poles, two daughter cells result with half the number of chromosomes in
the parent cell.

Second Meiotic Division

It consists of four stages similar to mitosis, no resting stage and no replication of chromosomes. At the
end, four daughter cells are formed.

Importance of Meiosis
Meiosis aids the formation of
a. Spermatozoa.
b. Ova or egg cells.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
c. Pollen grains in flowering plants.
d. Ovules in flowering plants.

WEEK EIGHT DATE

……………………
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND INVERTEBRATES
CONTENT

REPRODUCTION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission and multiple fission (sporulation) during adverse
condition.
In binary fission when an amoeba reaches full size, it stops moving and divides into two equal parts
starting from the nucleus. This is followed by the division of the cytoplasm, after which two daughter
amoebae are formed.
In multiple fission amoeba becomes rounded and secretes around itself a cyst. Inside the cyst, the
nucleus divides several times. When conditions becomes favourable, the cyst burst; each nucleus
surrounded by a part of the cytoplasm of the parent. In this way, very small amoebae are formed.

REPRODUCTION IN PARAMECIUM
Paramecium reproduces asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
Binary fission occurs under favourable conditions, the micronucleus divides into two equal halves by
mitosis and each moves to the opposite side of the cell, the meganucleus elongates and the cytoplasm
constricts after which two young paramecia are produced.
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of two individuals of different lines of descent. Stages in
conjugation include
1. Two matured paramecium come together and get fused by their oral grooves.
2. The micronucleus divides twice by meiosis and four nuclei are formed in each conjugant
3. The smaller micronuclei are exchanged between the two conjugants
4. The migatory micronucleus fuses with the stationary micronucleus in each conjugant to form a
zygote
5. The zygote in each conjugant divides thrice to form eight nuclei
6. The ex-conjugant with four meganuclei and four micronuclei divide to form four paramecia each
having a meganucleus and a micronucleus.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________
Conjugation in paramecium

REPRODUCTION IN SPIROGYRA
Spirogyra reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by conjugation.
In fragmentation, when a filament reaches a certain length, parts of it break away and grow into new
filaments
In conjugation
1. The cells of two filaments come to lie side by side and a conjugation tube is formed between
them.
2. the cells in one filament act as the male gamete while the other act as the female
3. The male gamete passes through the conjugation tube to meet the female gamete and fuses to
form a zygote.
4. The zygote secretes a resistant wall around itself and form a zygospore.
5. After a period of rest and favourable condition, the outer coats burst and a young filament grows
out.

REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM
Earthworms are hermaphrodites i. e. each has both male and female sex organs and therefore produces
both male and female gametes.reproduction is by sexual means.

Process of Copulation
Two worms to be engaged in copulation come to lie close together with their ventral surfaces touching.
Copulation takes place at night outside the burrows. The reproductive organs of earthworms are anteriorly
located. The worms lie in such position that the segments 9-15 of one worm are opposite the clitellum
(segments 32-37) of the other and are held firmly by chaetae during copulation.

After copulation, the two worm separate. After few days eggs are laid and fertilized in a cocoon secreted
by the clitellum. The development of the embryo takes place inside the cocoon and one worm hatches
from a batch of eggs in one cocoon.

REPRODUCTION IN COCKROACH
Sexual reproduction takes place in cockroaches and fertilization is internal. Male and female cockroaches
mates and the male introduces sperm into the genital opening of the female. The sperms are then stored in
the sperm pouch until the eggs are released from the two ovaries. As the eggs are released, they are
fertilized by the stored sperm. Fertilized eggs are laid (about 10–16 eggs) in a horny egg case (ootheca)
which the female carries in her abdominal pouch for some time and later deposit it in a safe dark place.
After 30 – 100 days, the eggs hatch into nymphs which are wingless, small and whitish in colour.

The nymphs feed, grow, and become brown, moult about 13 times to become adults.
In the process of moulting, the wings first appear as wing pad and later develop into full grown wings.
Cockroaches require 11 – 20 months to develop from eggs to imagos. Metamorphosis is incomplete.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

REPRODUCTION IN HOUSEFLY
Adult male and female mates and within two to three days fertilized eggs are laid. The laying of eggs
takes place in the day light. Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
2 – 7 batches of eggs (100 – 150 eggs in a batch) are laid by the female housefly in a moist dirty
environment. The eggs hatch into white larvae in about 8 – 24 hours.
The larva called maggot has a segmented body. The head bears a pair of hook for tearing food and
drawing the larva along. On the ventral surface of the segmented body lie spiny pads for movement. It has
two pairs of spiracles for breathing. The larva moults several times and lasts for about 5 – 14 days after
which it moves to a dry place to begin the pupal stage.
The maggot shortens; its skin becomes hard and brown forming the pupal case (puparium). It does not
feed or move. Internal re-organisation takes place at this stage. In about 3 – 10 days, the young adult
hatches out of the puparium.
The adult housefly called imago emerges from the puparium using a sac-like organ (ptilinum) to break it
open. It moves to the surface of the dirt and flies away when the wings are dry.

REPRODUCTION IN SNAIL
Reproduction in land snails is hermaphroditic and fertilization internal. The female snail has a
fertilization pouch for sperm to travel into. The snails will transfer their spermatophores to a place called
epiphallus. The epiphallus is part of the sperm duct to the penis to help put the spermatophores into place
by using their flagellum. From here, sperm is travelled to the bursa duct where fertilization takes place.
During snail development, there is a 180o twist of the visceral mass that brings the anus and the mantle
cavity forward to a position above the head. This process is known as torsion.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________

WEEK NINE DATE……………………

TOPIC: IRRITABILITY / CELL REACTIONS TO ITS ENVIRONMENT

Irritability is the ability of organisms to respond to stimuli. A stimulus is any change in external or
internal environmental condition which can bring about a change in the activity of the whole or part of the
organism.
Response is the term used for the change in activity of the organism. There are three major types of
responses, these include tactic, nastic and tropic movements.
a. TAXIS OR TACTIC MOVEMENT: is a directional movement or response of a whole organism from
one place to another in response to external stimuli such as light, temperature, water and certain
chemicals. Examples of tactic movement include;
o Euglena or chlamydomonas swimming away from high light intensity (Negative phototaxis).
o In a moss plant, sperm swim towards the chemical produced by the egg cell (positive
chemotaxis).
b. NASTISM OR NASTIC MOVEMENT: is a non-directional sleep movement or response of a part of
a plant in response to non-directional stimuli such as light intensity, temperature and humidity.
Example of nastic movement include;
o The folding of the leaflets of mimosa plant when touched.
o Closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low.
c. TROPISM OR TROPIC MOVEMENT: is a unilateral growth and directional movement of a part of a
plant in response to directional stimuli. These responses are experienced in growth regions (root and
shoot apices) and are controlled by certain plant hormones known as auxins. Tropic movement are
named according to the stimuli e.g.
o Shoots bend towards light (positive phototropism) while roots bend away from light (negative
phototropism).
o Shoots bend away from gravity (negative geotropism) while roots bend toward gravity (positive
geotropism).
o Tendrils of climbing plants twine around a support (positive thigmotropism) while root tips grow
away from it (negative thigmotropism).

MOVEMENT
Organisms moves from one place to the other in search of food, water, mates and escaping predator or
harsh weather conditions.

Cyclosis in Cell
Cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming) is the mass rotational movement of the cytoplasm and its contents in
cells. Cyclosis brings about the transportation of substances from one part of the cell to the other and the
exchange of materials between the cell organelles. Cyclosis occur in
a. Protozoa like amoeba known as amoeboid movement.
b. Chloroplasts of some plants where they move independently to place their broad surface parallel to
the surface of the leaf to receive sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.

ORGANELLES FOR MOVEMENT

a. Flagella: they are long whip like projections usually one or two on the cell surface. Flagella are
organelles for movement in Euglena, Trypanosome, Spermatozoa, Chlamydomonas etc.
b. Cilia: They are short hair like structures, numerous and closely packed together on the cell surface.
Cilia can be found in paramecium and on cells lining the human wind pipe.
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class: _________________