Articulating Microtime

Author(s): Horacio Vaggione

Source: Computer Music Journal , Summer, 1996, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Summer, 1996), pp. 33-
38
Published by: The MIT Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3681329

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Horacio Vaggione
Universite de Paris, VIII Articulating Microtime
F-93520, Saint Denis, France

Computers and Music as a Complex System of granular matter (Guyon and Troadec 1994), aim-
ing to define its territory taking distance from both
"Computers are not primarily used for solving micro-physics and chemical analysis-synthesis. But
well-structured problems ... but instead are compo- already, Antoine Lavoisier has clearly traced the
nents in complex systems" (Winograd 1979). Music edge between these domains (Lavoisier 1789):
composition can be envisioned as one of these com-
plex systems, in which the processing power of Granulating and powdering are, strictly speak-
computers is dealing with a variety of concrete ac- ing, nothing other than mechanical prelimi-
tions involving multiple time scales and levels of nary operations, the object of which is to di-
representation. vide, to separate the molecules of a body and
The intersection of music and computers has cre- to reduce them to very fine particles. But so
ated a huge collection of possibilities for research long that one can push forward these opera-
and production. This field represents perhaps one tions, they cannot reach the level of the inter-
of the highest areas of cultural vitality of our time. nal structure of the body: they cannot even
It would be somewhat presumptuous to intend to break their aggregate itself; thus every mole-
sum up such richness in a few lines. Hence I will cule, after granulation, still resembles the origi-
dedicate this article to surveying some of the musi- nal body. This contrast with the true chemical
cally significant consequences of the introduction operations, such as, for example, dissolution,
of the digital tools in the field of sound processing, which changes intimately the structure of
allowing musicians, for the first time, to articu- the body.
late-to compose-at the level of microtime, that Naturally, once this distinction is clearly stated,
is, to elaborate a sonic syntax. there is room to define all kinds of intermediary
(fractional) levels where the different domains can
interact. To refer again to our example concerning
Surface Versus Internal Processing MIDI macro-processing, that we can bring about
changes in the spectral domain as side effects of
To clarify these notions, consider using a MIDI surface movements can be useful if we also have
note processor (a typical macrotime protocol) and the necessary tools to analyze and resynthesize the
increasing the density of notes per second to the morphologies thus obtained. What is interesting for
maximum that it can handle. In this way, we can music composition is the possibility of elaborate
obtain very rich granular surface textures, and even
syntaxes that might take into account the different
provoke morphological changes in the spectral do- time levels, without trying to make them uniform.
main as side effects of these surface movements. In fact, the sense of any compositional action con-
However, we cannot, by this procedure alone, di- scientiously articulating relations between differ-
rectly reach the level of microtime, by which I ent time levels depends essentially on the general
mean we cannot explicitly analyze or control the paradigm adopted by the composer. Evidently, he or
time-varying distribution of the spectral energy. she must make a coherent decision concerning the
The difference between surface and internal pro-status and the nature of the levels involved. This
cessing is well understood today. We can recall, means placing them in a continuum organized
among the disciplines studying the macroscopic do-as a linear hierarchy, or assuming the existence of
main, the recent developments of a macrophysics discontinuities--or simply non-linearities-and
then considering microtime, macrotime, and all
Computer Music Journal, 20:2, pp. 33-38, Summer 1996 intermediary dimensions as relative-even if
@ 1996 Massachusetts Institute of Technology well-defined-domains.

Vaggione 33

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 In this article I will first recall some of the steps Jean-Claude Risset. In this work, trumpet tones
leading to control over the microtime domain as a were analyzed/synthesized by means of additive
compositional dimension, citing some examples of clustering of partials whose temporal behavior was
multi-scale approaches deriving from this per- represented by piecewise linear segments, i.e., artic-
spective. ulated amplitude envelopes. Given the complexity
of the temporal features imbedded in natural
sounds, reproduction of all these features was an
The Edge impossible task. Risset therefore applied a data-
reduction procedure rooted in perceptual judg-
When computers were first introduced, the musical ment-what he called analysis by synthesis, re-
field was concerned only with composition at the verting the normal order of these terms (Risset
level of macrotime-composing with sounds, with 1966, 1969, 1991; Risset and Wessel 1982). Beyond
no attempt to compose the sounds themselves. its success in imitating existing sounds, the histori-
This holds true even in the case of early musique cal importance of the Risset model resides in the
concrete, which basically consisted of selecting re- formulation of an articulation technique at the mi-
corded sounds and combining them by mixing and crotime level, giving birth to a new approach for
splicing. Operations in the spectral domain were re- dealing with the syntax of sound.
duced to imprecise analog filtering and transposi- The panoply of digital synthesis and processing
tion of tonal pitch by means of the variable-speed methods that we have at our disposal today is
recorder, which never allows the separation of the rooted in the foundations provided by Max Ma-
time and spectral domains, and only attains spec- thews and the first sonic-syntactical experiences of
tral redistributions in a casual way. Jean-Claude Risset. Global synthesis techniques
"Electronic music," as developed in the West such as frequency modulation (Chowning 1973)
German radio studio in Cologne (Eimert and Stock- and waveshaping (Arfib 1978; Lebrun 1979) share
hausen 1955), did have the ambition of composing these roots. Long-time considered only as formulae
the sound material after the assumptions of para- for driving synthesis processes (in a non-analytical
metric serialism, theoretically appropriate to be manner), they have recently been reconsidered as
transferred to the level of the "internal structure of non-linear methods of sound transformation,
the body," as Antoine Lavoisier would say. However, strongly linked to spectral analysis (Vaggione 1985;
the technique at hand, being approximate as it was Beauchamp and Horner 1992; Kronland-Martinet
purely analog, was in fact contradicting these as- and Guillemain 1993).
sumptions. On the other hand, the morphological approach
Analog modular synthesizers improved the user derived from the qualitative (non-parametric) as-
interface, but were especially inconvenient due to sumptions of Pierre Schaeffer (1959, 1966) has been
their lack of memory. The control operations pos- passing the time barrier, having been given access
sible with them were not supported by any compo- to microtime control since the development of Ma-
sition theory; articulation (which is mainly a mat- thews's digital system. In the mid-1970s, the Group
ter of local and detailed definition of unary shapes) de Recherches Musicales in Paris developed a digi-
was not allowed beyond the case of some simple tal studio that had as a goal the transfer to algorith-
(and yet difficult to quantify) inter-modulations. mic form the strategies developed previously with
It was only the development of digital synthesis, analog means (Maillard 1976). Specifically, the goal
as pioneered by Max Mathews (1963, 1969), that fi- was to process natural sounds, carrying this pro-
nally allowed composers to reach the level of micro- cessing to "the internal structure of the bodies" in
time, that is, to have access to the internal struc- a way never envisaged with the former analog tech-
ture of sound. One of the first approaches to niques. That trend continued with the SYTER real-
dynamic spectral modeling to emerge from the Ma- time processor (Allouis 1984) and the recent DSP-
thews digital synthesis system was developed by based tools (Teruggi 1995). We can here recall also

34 Computer Music Journal

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the work of Denis Smalley on what he has called and the static frequency-based Fourier transform)
Spectro-morphology (Smalley 1986). into a single one, by means of concatenated short
I have myself employed parametric (elementary) windows or "grains." These grains do not have the
and morphological (figurative) strategies combined same status as the MIDI note-grains discussed ear-
into the same compositional process to link fea- lier, since they constitute an analytical expanse
tures belonging to different time domains. An early into the microtime domain.
example of this is described in (Vaggione 1984), and Meanwhile, the engineering community had
some of the conditions allowing one to think of the been improving techniques for traditional Fourier
numerical sound object as a transparent category analysis, attenuating its static nature by taking
for sonic design are stated in (Vaggione 1991). An- many snapshots of a signal during its evolution.
other approach rooted on the idea of sound object This technique became known as the "short-time
as a main category for representing musical signals Fourier transform" (see e.g., Moore 1979). However,
is being developed around the Kyma music lan- the Gabor transform still remains conceptually in-
guage (Scaletti 1989; Scaletti and Hebel 1991). This novative, because it presents a two-dimensional
is an important area of experience where the idea space of description (Arfib 1991). This original para-
of sound object meets some of the assumptions un- digm, theoretically explored by Iannis Xenakis (Xe-
derlying the object-oriented programming paradigm nakis 1971), has been taken as the starting point for
(Pope 1991, 1994). developing granular synthesis (Roads 1978), and,
The MAX block-diagram graphic language devel- later, the wavelet transform (Kronland-Martinet
oped at IRCAM (Puckette 1988) was strongly in- 1988).
spired by Mathews's family of programs. It has been While the first granular-synthesis technique used
used to define complex interactions using MIDI a stochastic approach (Roads 1988; Truax 1988) and
note processing (a typical macrotime protocol, as hence did not touch the problem of frequency-time
we noted) and finally crossing the edge of micro- local analysis and control-though this aspect was
time with the addition of signal processing objects considered later (Roads 1991)-the wavelet trans-
(Puckette 1991; Settel and Lippe 1994). This allows form gave one a straightforward analytical orienta-
one to create control structures that include sig- tion. The main difference between the wavelet
nificant bridges between different time scales. transform and the original Gabor transform is that
in the later, the actual changes are analyzed with a
grain of unvarying size, whereas in the wavelet
New Representations of Sound transform, the grain (the analyzing wavelet) can fol-
low these changes (this is why it is said to be a
Accessing the microtime domain has confronted time-scale transform).
composers with the necessity of using a variety The wavelet analytic approach, while still in the
of sound representations. A survey of this subject beginning of its application to sound processing, is
must include the important work of Denis Gabor interesting also because it is being applied in other
(1946, 1947), who was perhaps the first to propose fields; for example, in modeling physical problems
a method of sound analysis derived from quantum such as fully developed turbulence, and analyzing
physics. Mr. Gabor followed Norbert Wiener's prop- multi-fractal formalisms (Arneodo 1995; Mallat
ositions of 1925 (see Wiener 1964) about the neces- 1995). Thus it contributes to extend the study of
sity of assuming the existence in the field of sound non-linear systems, where the problem of scaling is
of an uncertainty problem concerning the correla- crucial. The somewhat artificial attempts made to
tion between time and pitch (similar to the one date to relate chaos theory to algorithmic music
stated by Heisenberg, regarding the correlation be- production can find here a significant bridge be-
tween the velocity and position of a given particle). tween different levels of description of time-varying
From this, Denis Gabor proposed to merge the two sonic structures.
classic representations (the time-varying wave-form It is to be stressed that all these new develop-

Vaggione 35

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ments are in fact enriching the traditional Fourier effective framework in which to connect surface
paradigm, rather than replacing it. In other words, harmony (the tonal pitch domain) with timbre (the
they do not free us of the uncertainty problem con- spectral frequency/time domain).
cerning the correlation between time and pitch,
but rather give a larger framework in which to deal
with it. MultiScale Approaches: Beyond Microtime
Another recent technique used to explicitly con-
front the basic acoustic dualism was developed by In any case, it is quite possible that, in years to
Xavier Serra and Julius Smith (1990). They pro- come, the two main paradigms--spectral and physi-
posed a "spectral modeling synthesis" approach, cal modeling-will be increasingly developed into
based on a combination of a deterministic and a one comprehensive field of sound analysis, synthe-
stochastic decomposition. The deterministic part sis, and transformation. To reach this goal, it is per-
included the representation of Fourier-like compo-
haps pertinent to introduce simultaneously a third
nents (harmonic and inharmonic) in terms of sepa-analytical field based on a hierarchic syntactic ap-
rate sinusoidal components evolving in time, and proach (Strawn 1980; Vaggione 1994). This ap-
the stochastic part provided what was not captured
proach can serve as a framework for articulating
within the Fourier paradigm, namely, the noise ele-
the different dimensions manipulated by the con-
ments, often present in the attack portion, but also
current models, as well as deal with the many non-
linearities that arise between microtime and mac-
throughout the production of a sound (think of the
noise produced by a bow, or by the breath, etc.). rotime structuring. Object-oriented software tech-
The mention of these latter elements leads us to nology can be utilized here to encapsulate features
recall the existence of another different approachbelonging
to to different time levels, making them cir-
sound analysis and synthesis, which cannot be char-culate in a unique, multi-layered, compositional
acterized in terms of spectral modeling, but must network (Vaggione 1991).
be identified by physical modeling. Pioneered by Moreover, there are in progress several comple-
the work of Lejaren Hiller and Pierre Ruiz (1971) mentary approaches dealing with intermediary
and later expanded by Claude Cadoz and his col- scales relating microtime and macrotime features,
leagues (1984), today this approach has a consider-such as Larry Polansky's morphological mutation
able following, with many systems attempting itsfunctions (Polansky 1991, 1992), and Curtis Roads's
development (Smith 1992; Morrison and Adrien pulsar synthesis (Roads 1995). One can cite as
1993; Cadoz et al. 1994). well-among others-some recent integrated sys-
I regard physical modeling as a field in itself, tems, such as Common Music/Stella (Taube 1991,
which seeks to model the source of a sound, and1993), or the ISPW software (Lippe and Puckette
not its acoustic structure. However, I think it gives1991). These systems support different multi-scale
a complementary and significant picture of sound approaches to composition, allowing a parallel ar-
as an articulated phenomenon. Physical modeling ticulation of different-and not always linearly
can be effective in creating very interesting sounds related-time levels, defining specific types of
by extending and transforming the causal attri- interaction, and amplifying the space of the
composable.
butes of the original models. In turn, it lacks acous-
tical and perceptual analytic power on the side of Having reached microtime, we can now project
the sonic results. Spectral modeling brings us the our findings to the whole compositional process,
tools for such analysis, even if we have to pay forcovering all possible time levels that can be inter-
this facility by facing certain difficulties in dealing
actively defined and articulated. This situation, as
with typical time-domain problems. In spite of Otto Laske says (Laske 1991a, but see also Laske
these difficulties, spectral modeling has the advan-1991 b) "paves the way for musical software that
tage of its strong link with a long practice, that ofnot only supports creative work on the microtime
harmonic analysis, and hence the power to give anlevel, but also allows for acquiring empirical knowl-

36 Computer Music Journal

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edge about a composer's work at that level, with an Solving the Wave Equation for Vibrating Objects." Jour-
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