INTRODUCTION

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive

features on the earth’s surface. This is achieved by the measurement of
distances, directions and elevations. In general, surveying is limited to
operations concerned with the representation of ground features in plan. A
branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of the relative
heights of the features is known as levelling

IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING

The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of

engineering. Every engineering project such as water supply and irrigation
schemes, rail roads and transmission lines, mines, bridges and buildings, etc.
require surveys. Before plans and estimates are prepared, boundaries should
be determined and the topography of the site should be ascertained. After the
plans are made, the structures must be stated out on the ground. As the work
progresses, lines and grades must be given

OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING

The main object of any survey is the preparation of a plan or a map

showing all the features of the area under consideration. A plan may be
defined as a projection of the ground and the features upon it on a horizontal
plane. So, a plan is the representation to some scale of the area and the
objects contained in it. The representation is called a map if the scale
adopted is small, while it is called a plan if the scale is large. For example, a
map of India, a plan of a building.

TYPES OF SURVEYING

The surveying may be primarily divided into two types: plane

surveying and geodetic surveying

 Plane Surveying

The surveying in which earth surface is assumed as a plane and the

curvature of the earth is ignored is known as plane surveying. As the plane
survey extends only over small areas, the line connecting two points on the
earth is considered as a straight line and the angle between any two lines is
considered as plane angle. Surveys covering an area up to 260 km2 may be
treated as plane surveys. Such plane surveys are carried out for engineering
projects and for geographical, geological, navigational and military
purposes. Plane surveys are used for the layout of highways, railways,
canals, construction of bridges, dams, buildings, etc. The scope and use of
plane surveying is wide. In order to have proper, economical and accurate
planning of projects plane surveys are basically needed.

 Geodetic Surveying

The surface of the earth is not plane but spheroidal. Therefore, the line
connecting any two points on the earth’s surface is not a straight line but a
curve. The surveying in which curvature of the earth is taken into account
for all measurements is known as geodetic surveying. The result obtained
from the above surveying will possess a high degree of accuracy as it
considers the effect of curvature of the earth also. This surveying extends
over large areas and so any line connecting two points on the earth’s surface
is considered as an arc. The angle between any two such arcs is treated as a
spherical angle. To undertake this method of surveying, a thorough
knowledge in spherical trigonometry is required. Geodetic surveys need
sophisticated instruments and accurate methods of observations. In order to
eliminate the errors in observations due to atmospheric refraction, angular
observations are generally taken only in nights and arc lamps are used as
signals on survey stations. In India, geodetic surveys are carried out by the
Department of the Survey of India under the direction of the Surveyor
General of India

PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

The two main principles of surveying are

(i) working from the whole to the part, and

(ii) fixing new points by at least two independent processes.
1. Working from the whole to the part Whether it is a plane surveyor
or geodetic survey, the main principle adopted is to work from the whole to
the part. In the case of surveying of extensive areas, such as a town or a big
estate, the survey is started by establishing a system of control points with
high precision. The line joining these points will form the boundary lines of
the area, otherwise, this is the main skeleton of the survey. The above
control points may be established by triangulation or by running a traverse
surrounding the area. The main triangles and traverses are then broken into
smaller ones and measured using less laborious methods. The main reason to
work from the whole to the part is to avoid the accumulation of errors and to
control any localised errors. If, on the other hand, the survey is carried out
from the part to the whole, the errors will be magnified in each and every
step and will become uncontrollable at the end. The above principle is also
fit to levelling also
2. Fixing new points by at least two independent processes The use
of two independent processes to fix a new point, helps in taking one set of
measurements from one process and the same may be checked by another
set of measurements. The above is explained by the following two
techniques as indicated in Fig.

Let A and B the two given control points established by

triangulation. Then, to fix the position of the point C,

(a) the distance AC and BC may be measured and the position of C may be
fixed by drawing the arcs; or
(b) by dropping a perpendicular from C to the base line AB. Here, the
distance CD and 90° angle of intersection are the two different
measurements made to locate C.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
The two main methods of determining the distances between two
points on the surface of the earth are the direct method and the computative
method. In the case of the direct method, distances are measured using tapes,
chains, etc. In the latter case, distances are obtained by calculation using
tacheometry, triangulation, etc.

Different Methods of Direct Measurements

Following are the methods of measuring the distances directly:
(a) Pacing
(b) Measurement with passometer
(c) Measurement with pedometer
(d) Measurement by odometer and speedometer
(e) Chaining

Pacing Measurements of distances by pacing are chiefly confined to the

preliminary surveys and explorations where a surveyor is called upon to
make a rough survey as quickly as possible. This method consists of
counting the number of paces between the two points of a line. A length of
pace more nearly to that of ones natural step is preferable.
Passometer It is an instrument, shaped like a watch and is carried in pocket
or attached to one leg. The mechanism of the instrument is operated by
motion of the body and it automatically registers the number of paces. Then
it can be multiplied by the average length of the pace to get the distance.
Pedometer It is similar to the passometer except that it is adjusted to the
length of the pace of the person carrying it. It registers the total distance
covered by any number of paces.
Odometer and Speedometer Odometer is an instrument for registering the
number of revolutions of a wheel. The odometer is fitted to a wheel which is
rolled along the line whose length is required. The number of revolutions
registered by the odometer can be multiplied by the circumference of the
wheel to get the distance.
Chaining Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance
either with the help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of
making direct measurements
Chain
The chain is generally composed of 100 or 150 links. The links
are formed by pieces of galvanized loops and connected together by means
of three oval-shaped rings. The ovalshaped rings afford flexibility to the
chain. In good-quality chains, the joints of links are welded so that change in
length will be reduced considerably due to stretching. The ends of the chain
are provided with brass handles with swivel joints so that the chain can be
turned round without twisting. The outside of the handle is the zero point or
the end of the chain. The length of a link is the distance between the centres
of the two consecutive middle rings. The end links also include the handles.
Metallic tags of different patterns called tallies are fixed at specific points of
a chain, for quick and easy reading of the distance. For every five metres,
there will be a tally. On tallies, the letter M will be engraved so as to
distinguish a metric chain from a nonmetric chain. The length of the chain
will be available in standard length of 20 or 30 m on the handle for easy
identification. The details of a metric chain is shown in Fig

Principle of Chain Surveying

The principle of chain surveying is to divide the area into a
number of triangles of suitable sides. A network of triangles is preferred here
as triangle is the simple plane geometrical figure which can be plotted with
the lengths of its sides alone. Chain surveying is the simplest kind of
surveying. In this case, there is no need for measuring angles

Suitability of Chain Surveying

1. It is suitable when the ground is fairly level and open with simple details.
2. When large scale plans are needed, this type is suitable.
3. It is suitable when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small in
extent.
4. It is suitable for ordinary works as its length alters due to continued use.
5. Sagging of chain due to its heavy weight reduces the accuracy of
measurements.
6. It can be read easily and repaired in the field itself.
7. It is suitable for rough usage.

Unsuitability of Chain Surveying

1. It is unsuitable for large areas crowded with many details.
2. It is unsuitable for wooded areas and undulating areas.

Technical Terms in Chain Surveying

These terms are explained below with reference to Fig.
1.Main Survey Station It is the point where two sides of a main triangle
meet.
2. Tie Stations These are the stations selected on the main survey lines for
running auxiliary lines. These are otherwise called as subsidiary stations.
3. Base Line It is the longest of the main survey lines. This line is the main
reference line for fixing the positions of various stations and also to fix the
direction of other lines. This should be carefully measured and laid as the
accuracy of entire triangulation critically depends on this measurement.
4. Check Line A check line is used in the field in order to check the
accuracy of the measurements made.
5. Tie Line The chain line joining the tie stations and subsidiary stations is
called so.
6. Offset While survey is carried out, important details such as boundaries,
fences, buildings and towers are located with respect to main chain lines by
means of lateral measurements. The two types of offsets shown in Fig. are
the perpendicular offset and the oblique offset.
4. Check Line A check line is used in the field in order to check the
accuracy of the measurements made.
5. Tie Line The chain line joining the tie stations and subsidiary stations is
called so.
6. Offset While survey is carried out, important details such as boundaries,
fences, buildings and towers are located with respect to main chain lines by
means of lateral measurements. The two types of offsets shown in Fig. are
the perpendicular offset and the oblique offset.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES

The instruments commonly used for measurement of angles are the

compass and the theodolite. Sometimes, a box sextant is also used

Method of Measurement of Angles

The horizontal angles may be measured in two ways:

1. Included angles, as indicated in Fig

2. Deflection angles between successive lines, as shown in Fig

Compass

This instrument essentially consists of a freely suspended magnetic needle

on a pivot, which can move over a graduated scale. In addition to the above,
it has an object vane and an eye vane which will be useful to get the line of
sight. This instrument will be supported by a tripod stand while taking
observations.

The two types of compass are the prismatic compass and the surveyor’s
compass.

1. Prismatic Compass It is the most suitable type of rough surveys where

speed is very important rather than accuracy. It is commonly used for
 the preliminary survey
for a road, railway,
military purposes, a
rough traverse, etc. The
result from compass
observations may be
unrealistic in places
where there is more local
attraction due to
magnetic rock or iron
ore deposits. Figure
shows the different parts
of a prismatic compass.

2. Surveyor’s Compass This

type is not often used now for
land surveying. In general, it is
similar to a prismatic compass
except that it has another plain
sight having a narrow vertical
slit in place of the prism as
detailed in Fig.

Bearing

Bearing is the
horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the survey line. It is
measured in the clockwise direction. Bearings are classified into different
types and each of the type is described in this section.
1. True Bearing

True bearing of a line is the angle which a line makes with the
true north or geographical north, measured always in the clockwise
direction. The range of measurement is from 0°–360°.

2. Magnetic Bearing

It is the angle which a line makes with the magnetic north

measured always in the clockwise direction. The measuring range is from
0°–360°.

3. Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)

Since the range of 0° to 360° completes a circle, any angle

measured in between 0° to 360° directly is called a whole circle bearing. The
magnetic and true bearing are just whole circle bearings.

4. Reduced Bearing (RB)

This is based on quadrantal system wherein any angle is

measured with respect to the north – south line, towards east or west as
shown in Fig.

5. Fore Bearing (FB)

The angle measured from a survey station to the other station, in

the direction in which survey is conducted, is called the fore bearing. In Fig.
9.11, the bearing of line A to B is the fore bearing.

6. Back Bearing (BB) It is the bearing taken from the next station to its
preceding station from which the fore bearing was taken. Referring to Fig.
9.11, the bearing taken from station B towards station A is the back bearing
of the line AB. In WCB system, BB = FB ± 180° using +ve sign if the FB is
less than 180° and –ve sign if the FB is greater than 180°. In RB system, to
convert FB into BB or vice versa, N is replaced by S, S by N, E by W and W
by E without changing the numerical value of its bearing.
Local Attraction

If external magnetic influences are present in the place of observation

using a compass, The needle will be seriously deflected from its normal
position. Such disturbance due to the surrounding magnetic field is called
local attraction. The readings observed will be affected due to the presence
of magnetic rocks or iron-ore deposits, steel structures, railways, iron lamp
posts, electrical steel towers, etc. The actual bearing may be affected if we
carelessly keep a bunch of iron keys, knife, iron buttons, steel-framed
spectacles, the chain itself, arrows, etc. near the instrument. To detect its
presence, one has to find the fore and back bearing of a line and obtain the
difference between them. If the difference is not exactly equal to 180° then it
indicates the presence of local attraction, provided there are no instrumental
and
observational
errors.

Definition

It is defined as
the art of
determining the
relative heights
of points on the
earth’s surface.
This technique of
surveying deals
with
measurements in
vertical planes.

Objectives

Levelling provides an accurate network of heights, covering the entire area

of the project. For the execution of many engineering projects levelling
becomes very essential. For instance, the construction of railways, highways,
canals, dams, water supply, sanitary lines, etc. is done through the
determination of elevations of different points along the alignment
(alignment involves the fixing of the centre line of railway or highway as the
case may be). Greater the accuracy in the observations, the greater will be
the saving in expenditure during project execution. A good network of levels
provides an excellent idea of the existing terrain for the engineer, who can
then plan and design his project keeping in view the economy and safety.

Technical Terms used in Levelling

 Level surface The surface which is normal to the direction of gravity at

all points is called a level surface. Every point on the level surface will be
equidistant from the centre of the earth. For example, the surface of a still
lake forms a level surface.
 Horizontal plane The plane tangential to the level surface at any point
is known as a horizontal plane.
 Vertical plane The plane which contains vertical line at a place is called
a vertical plane. The vertical line at any point will be perpendicular to the
level surface at that point.
 Datum surface This is an arbitrary surface with reference to which the
heights (elevations) of points are measured and compared.
 Reduced level (RL) Reduced level of a point is its height above or below
the datum.
 Back sight (BS) It is the first staff reading taken after setting up the
instrument in any position. This will always be a reading on a point of
known height.
 Fore sight (FS) This is the last staff reading taken on a point before
shifting the instrument. This will always be a point whose height has to
be determined.
 Intermediate sight (IS) Intermediate sight refers to any staff reading
taken on a point of unknown elevation after the back sight and before the
foresight. This is necessary if it is needed to take more than two readings
from the same position of the instrument.
 Change point (CP) A change point indicates the shifting of the
instrument. Both the back sight and the foresight are taken on a change
point.
 Benchmark (BM) A benchmark is a fixed point of reference of known
elevation. The reduced level of the benchmark is used to determine the
reduced levels of other points.

Benchmarks are classified into the following types:

(a) Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmarks (GTS benchmarks)

(b) Permanent benchmarks

(c) Arbitrary benchmarks

(d) Temporary benchmarks

GTS benchmarks are those established by the Survey of India

Department. The notation of a Benchmark. In small levelling works, the
reduced level of a welldefined reference point is arbitrarily assumed and
is called as an arbitrary benchmark. Temporary benchmarks are the
reference points which are established when there is a break in the work

Instruments for Levelling

Instruments
needed for levelling
are the Dumpy
levels and the
levelling staff.

1. Dumpy
Levels Figure shows
the different parts of
a Dumpy level
which was designed by Gravatt. This is also called the solid Dumpy
level. In this, the telescope is rigidly fixed to the base so that the
telescope can neither be rotated about its longitudinal axis nor it can be
removed from the supports. This instrument consists of a long bubble
 tube attached to the fixed telescope. Dumpy literally means short and
thick. This is more stable than the other types.

2. Levelling Staff A levelling staff is a straight rectangular wooden

rod graduated in metres
and smaller divisions.
The bottom-most
reading is zero and the
reading given by the
line of sight on the staff
is the height of the
point on which the staff
is held. The telescopic
levelling staff shown in
Fig. is made of three
pieces, the topmost and
the central pieces are
1.25 m long, the
bottom-most being 1.5
m long. The central and
the bottom rods are
hollow and the top one
is solid. The top staff
slides into the central piece telescopically so that the staff is compact
when not used. The markings are same as that of the folding staff except
the metre numerals are replaced by the alphabet M and the graduations
marked erect so that when viewed through the telescope, it is inverted.

CONTOURING

An imaginary line, on the ground, joining the points of equal elevation

above the assumed datum is called a contour.
Survey work, including office work in the
preparation of a contour plan is known as
contouring.
 The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called
contour interval.
The least horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is
called horizontal equivalent.
To get a clear concept of contouring, let us consider the case of
conducting the survey work on the boundary of still water in a pond. If the
level of water surface is 100 m, then the periphery of water represents a
contour of 100 m. Now, if the water level is lowered by 5 m, then the new
boundary represents a contour of 95 m as shown in Fig

SOILS
General Soil is a complex material produced by the weathering
of solid rock. It is the unaggregated or uncemented deposits of mineral
and/or organic particles or fragments covering a large portion of the
earth’s crust. For engineering purposes, soil is defined as a natural
aggregate of mineral grains, that have the capacity of being separated
by means of simple mechanical processes, e.g., by agitation in water.
Soil Engineering, Soil Mechanics or Geotechnique is one of the
youngest disciplines of civil engineering involving the study of soil,
its behavior and application as an engineering material.

Types of Soils
The various types of soils are as follows:
1. Gravel
2. Sand
3. Silt
4. Clay
 1. Gravel Soil particles of which more than 50 per cent have a
size larger than 4.75 mm are called gravel. It is cohesionless and
consists of unaltered mineral grains, which are angular to well-
rounded in shape. Gravel is a very good foundation soil.
2. Sand It consists of cohesionless particles, of which more
than 50 per cent have a size smaller than 4.75 mm. Sand particles are
mostly unaltered mineral grains. Sand is also a good foundation soil.
3. Silt Silt comprises fine particles of weathered rocks with
little or no plasticity. The presence of flake-shaped particles and/or
organic and vegetable matters makes the silt plastic. Organic silts are
highly compressible and they have a light grey to dark grey colour.
Silt is not quite suitable for building foundation.
4. Clay It is composed of microscopic and sub-microscopic
particles of weathered rock. Clay becomes plastic in the presence of
water. Plastic clay has very low permeability. Clay is not a good
foundation soil at places where water is likely to come in contact with
the soil.
ORIGIN OF SOILS
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical
disintegration or chemical decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed
to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into
small particles and thus the soils are formed.

Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the

geologic cycle which goes on continuously in nature. The geologic cycle
consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil (Fig. 1.8).
Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical
processes. The products of erosion are picked up by agencies of trans-
portation, such as water and wind, and are carried to new locations where
they are deposited.
 The shifting of the materials disturb the equilibrium of forces on the
earth and causes large scale earth movements and upheavals. This process
results in further exposure of rocks and the geologic cycle gets repeated.

If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is
known as residual soil or sedentary soil. When the soil has been deposited at
a place away from the place of its origin, it is called a transported soil. The
engineering properties of residual soils vary considerably from the top layer
to the bottom layer. Residual soils have a gradual transition from relatively
fine material near the surface to large fragments of stones at greater depth.
The properties of the bottom layer resemble that of the parent rock in many
respects. The thickness of the residual soil formation is generally limited to a
few metres.

The engineering properties of transported soils are entirely different from the
properties of the rock at the place of deposition. Deposits of transported soils
are quite thick and are usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits with which
a geotechnical engineer has to deal are transported soils.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION

The following are the essential requirements of a good foundation:

1. The foundation should be so located that it is able to resist any

unexpected future influence which may adversely affect its performance.

2. The foundation should be stable or safe against any possible failure.

3. The foundation should not settle or deflect to such an extent that

will impair its usefulness.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Foundation may be broadly classified into the following two

categories.

1. Shallow foundation

2. Deep foundation
 A shallow foundation is one in which the depth is equal to or less
than its width. When the depth is more than the width, it is termed as a deep
foundation

Shallow Foundation When the depth of the foundation is less than or

equal to its width, it is defined as a shallow foundation. The two main types
of shallow foundation discussed in this section are the isolated footing and
the combined footing.

The various types of shallow foundations are

• Isolated column footing

• Wall footing

• Combined footing

• Cantilever footing

• Continuous footing

• Inverted arch footing

• Grillage foundation

• Raft or Mat foundation

• Stepped Foundation

Deep Foundation

Deep foundation consists of pile and pier foundations. Pier

foundations are rarely used for buildings. This consists in carrying down
through the soil a huge masonry cylinder which may be supported on solid
rock.

GEOSYNTHETICS

Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain. They are

generally polymeric products used to solve civil engineering problems.
This includes eight main product
categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay
liners, geofoam, geocells and geocomposites. The polymeric nature of the
products makes them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of
durability are required. They can also be used in exposed applications.
Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials. These
products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many
civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and
private development applicationsincluding roads, airfields, railroads, emban
kments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion
control, sediment control, landfill liners, landfill
covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.

Geotextiles
Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetics. They are
textiles consisting of synthetic fibers rather than natural ones such as cotton,
wool, or silk. This makes them less susceptible to bio-degradation. These
synthetic fibers are made into flexible, porous fabrics by standard weaving
machinery or are matted together in a random non woven manner. Some are
also knitted. Geotextiles are porous to liquid flow across their manufactured
plane and also within their thickness, but to a widely varying degree. There
are at least 100 specific application areas for geotextiles that have been
developed; however, the fabric always performs at least one of four discrete
functions: separation, reinforcement, filtration, and/or drainage.

Geogrids

Geogrids are used to prevent sliding on long and steep slopes during
installation and use of a landfill capping system.[1]
 Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment within geosynthetics.
Rather than being a woven, nonwoven or knitted textile fabric, geogrids are
polymers formed into a very open, grid like configuration, i.e., they have
large apertures between individual ribs in the transverse and longitudinal
directions. Geogrids are (a) either stretched in one, two or three directions
for improved physical properties, (b) made on weaving or knitting
machinery by standard textile manufacturing methods, or (c) by laser or
ultrasonically bonding rods or straps together. There are many specific
application areas; however, geogrids function almost exclusively as
reinforcement materials.

Geonets/Geospacers
Geonets, and the related geospacers by some, constitute another
specialized segment within the geosynthetics area. They are formed by a
continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric ribs at acute angles to one
another. When the ribs are opened, relatively large apertures are formed into
a netlike configuration. Two types are most common, either biplanar or
triplanar. Alternatively many very different types of drainage cores are
available. They consist of nubbed, dimpled or cuspated polymer sheets,
three-dimensional networks of stiff polymer fibers in different
configurations and small drainage pipes or spacers within geotextiles. Their
design function is completely within the drainage area where they are used
to convey liquids or gases of all types.

Geomembranes
Geomembranes represent the other largest group of geosynthetics, and in
dollar volume their sales are greater than that of geotextiles. Their growth in
the United States and Germany was stimulated by governmental regulations
originally enacted in the early 1980s for the lining of solid-waste landfills.
The materials themselves are relatively thin, impervious sheets of polymeric
material used primarily for linings and covers of liquids- or solid-storage
facilities. This includes all types of landfills, surface impoundments, canals,
and other containment facilities. Thus the primary function is always
containment as a liquid or vapor barrier or both. The range of applications,
however, is great, and in addition to the environmental area, applications are
rapidly growing in geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic, and private
development engineering (such as aquaculture, agriculture, heap leach
mining, etc.).

Geosynthetic clay liners

 Geosynthetic clay liners, or GCLs, are an interesting juxtaposition of
polymeric materials and natural soils. They are rolls of factory fabricated
thin layers of bentonite clay sandwiched between two geotextiles or bonded
to a geomembrane. Structural integrity of the subsequent composite is
obtained by needle-punching, stitching or adhesive bonding. GCLs are used
as a composite component beneath a geomembrane or by themselves in
geoenvironmental and containment applications as well as in transportation,
geotechnical, hydraulic, and many private development applications.

Geofoam
Geofoam is a polymeric product created by processing polystyrene
into a foam consisting of many closed cells filled with air and/or gases. The
skeletal nature of the cell walls resembles bone-structures made of the
unexpanded polymeric material. The resulting product is generally in the
form of large, but extremely light, blocks which are stacked side-by-side and
in layers providing lightweight fill in numerous applications.

Geocells
Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-
dimensional honeycombed cellular structures that form a confinement
system when infilled with compacted soil. Extruded from polymeric
materials into strips welded together ultrasonically in series, the strips are
expanded to form the stiff (and typically textured and perforated) walls of a
flexible 3D cellular mattress. Infilled with soil, a new composite entity is
created from the cell-soil interactions. The cellular confinement reduces the
lateral movement of soil particles, thereby maintaining compaction and
forms a stiffened mattress that distributes loads over a wider area.
Traditionally used in slope protection and earth retention applications,
geocells made from advanced polymers are being increasingly adopted for
long-term road and rail load support. Much larger geocells are also made
from stiff geotextiles sewn into similar, but larger, unit cells that are used for
protection bunkers and walls.

Geocomposites
Installation of a geocomposite drain. Geocomposite drains are often used on
steep slopes of landfill capping systems.
A geocomposite consists of a combination of geotextiles, geogrids,
geonets and/or geomembranes in a factory fabricated unit. Also, any one of
these four materials can be combined with another synthetic material (e.g.,
deformed plastic sheets or steel cables) or even with soil. As examples, a
geonet or geospacer with geotextiles on both surfaces and a GCL consisting
of a geotextile/bentonite/geotextile sandwich are both geocomposites. This
specific category brings out the best creative efforts of the engineer and
manufacturer. The application areas are numerous and constantly growing.
The major functions encompass the entire range of functions listed for
geosynthetics discussed previously: separation, reinforcement, filtration,
drainage, and containment.