IES Darshan Study Material
IES Darshan Study Material
IES Darshan Study Material
h) Knife switch
The knife switch consists of blades hinged at one end and are arranged to go into
forked terminals or jaws at the other end. These are available as single throw
switches or double throw switches.
Socket Outlets
• The socket outlets have all insulated base with moulded or socket base having 3 terminal
sleeves. The two thin terminal sleeves are meant for making connection to the cable, with
the third terminal sleeve, thicker in cross-section, is used for an earth connection.
• The cover is again moulded and has corresponding 3 holes. These are made for 5 amp
and 15-amp loads.
Plugs
• For taking power from socket outlets, 3-pin plugs are used. The thicker pin is used for an
earth connection to the portable appliances. They are also made for 5 amps and 15amps
load.
Terminal Blocks
• Terminal blocks used for termination and connection to the other circuits. A single-way
terminal block is used for differentiating the live line from the neutral when the domestic
connection is given and is called as Connector.
Main Switch
• The main switches are used to control the whole supply for a house or office. These are
of following types:
a) ICDP- use for single phase supply control (15 A, 30A, 60A, 100A, 250 V)
b) ICTP- use for three phase-three wire and three phase four wire supply control
(15A, 30A, 60A, 100A, 150A, 200A, and 500V)
Protective Devices
• When a failure occurs on any part of the electrical power system, it must be quickly
detected and disconnected from the system. There are two reasons for it. Firstly, if the
fault not cleared quickly, it may cause unnecessary interruption of the service to the
customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulty apparatus limits the amount of damage
to it and prevent the effects of fault from spreading into the system.
• The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty part can be achieved by using fuses or
relays in connection with circuit breakers. A fuse can perform both the function but for
low voltage circuit only. For high voltage circuits, relays and circuit breakers are
employed to serve the desire function for automatic protective gear.
• Fuse is the simplest device, which break the circuit under abnormal condition.
• It is only a current interrupting device under fault condition.
• It is not able to make or brake the circuit under normal condition.
• A fuse consists of a metal strip of mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and
enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing.
• The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected
circuit.
• The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminium, or alloys.
• The fuse element may be surrounded by air or by materials to quench the arc. Silica sand
or non-conducting liquids may be used.
• It is used for overload short circuit protection in medium voltage (up to 33 kv) and low
voltage (up to 400v) installation.
• Fuse characteristics are drawn between current and time scale. The curve shows that
fault current and operating time is inversely proportional to each other.
• The time considered is précising time and current is prospective current.
• The fuse characteristics become asymptotic and there is a minimum current below which
the fuse does not operate. This is called minimum fusing current.
FUSE Characteristics
Fuse Characteristics
HRC Fuse
• When the load capacity is very high the level of fault current will also increase. So faulty
clearing device will be under heavy stress.
• HRC fuse is preferred for heavy duty and rapid operation.
• It consists of heat resisting ceramic cylindrical body having low co-efficient of thermal
expansion.
• The fuse element is made up of silver or silver alloy to improve fuse life.
• It is filled with incombustible powder which absorbs the arc produced at the time of
blowing.
• The rating is much more accurate. It is widely used because of silent operation and non-
deteriorating characteristics.
• It is maintenance free and easy to install.
Advantages: -
o Applications: o Applications:
o Domestic and commercial purposes. o Mostly in Domestic purposes.
ELCB Construction
• MCB have the features of good HRC fuse and a good switch.
• These are used for switching purpose under normal condition and circuit break under
overloading and short circuit condition.
• It is normally operated at 1.25 times its rated current.
• It is manufactured with quick reset hand operated facility.
• It is basically operated on two type of working principles:
❖ Thermal operation:
• It is achieved by bimetallic strip which deflects when heated by any over current flowing
through it.
❖ Magnetic operation:
• When short circuit occurs, the rising current energizes the solenoid further operating
plunger to strike the trip lever immediately releasing of latch mechanism.
Construction of MCB
• The casing of MCB is made of moulded thermoplastic polyester. This material is fire
retardant and non-hygroscopic. They are installed directly on Rail in distribution boards,
control panels simply by fixing.
• The contacts are made of Silver- Copper alloy which ensure longer life of contacts. These
have low resistance resulting in low watt loss. The contacts are designed to have zero
Bounce during closing operation.
• Operating Mechanism of MCB has quick make, quick break, and trip-free mechanism.
Application: -
• MCB are used extensively in low voltage domestic, commercial and industrial.
1.7 List various device used in Electrical Circuit. Write the brief note on
ELCB.
Followings Protective Device used in Electrical Circuit: -
(1) Fuse
(2) Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
(4) Relay
ELCB: -
• Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB). An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a
device used to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut the
power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.
• For the protection of human body from the electric shock protective device like fuse or
MCB are used.
• But generally, this device is incapable of measuring small current flowing in human body,
so requirement is to have a device which can sense small current and cut-off the supply
instantly.
• The device used for this purpose is known as Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
There are two types of ELCBs:
Working of ELCB
• It is current operated device designed to operate when a leakage current exceeds the
predefined value.
• It consists of a operating coil and a trip mechanism which operated the circuit when
required.
• The coil is supplied through 1-Ф supply so current in phase & neutral wire will be same.
• This current will produce flux linkages same in magnitude but of opposite direction. This
will result zero net flux in tripping coil of relay.
• When fault or leakage current exceeds the limit higher current will flow in phase
conductor than neutral current.
• Resultant flux now is out of balance in tripping coil of relay. Difference of flux will induce
emf in the coil which opens the contact of ELCB and isolate the circuit from the supply.
1.8 Protective Relays
• Protective relay is a device that detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty element from the rest of the system.
• The relay circuit can be divided in three parts:
a) First is primary winding of the CT which is connected in series with the line to be
protected.
b) Second part is secondary of CT and the relay operating coil.
c) Third is the tripping circuit which may be either ac or dc. It consists of a source of
supply, the trip coil of the CB and the relay stationary contacts.
• Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f of the secondary winding of C.T. is small and the
current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to close the relay contacts. This
keeps the trip coil of the circuit breaker unenergized. Consequently, the contacts of the
circuit breaker remain closed and it carries the normal load current. When a fault occurs,
a large current flow through the primary of C.T. This increases the secondary e.m.f and
hence the current through the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed and the
trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized to open the contacts of the circuit breaker.
Functions of MPCB
• Protection against electrical faults such as short circuits, line-to-ground faults etc.
• Motor overload protection
• Protection against phase unbalances and phase loss
• Thermal delay to prevent the motor from being turned back on immediately after an
overload, giving the motor time to cool down.
• Motor Circuit Switching
• Fault Signalling
• Automatic Reconnection
The main parts of a MPCB
• Thermal over current release
• Electromagnetic over current release
• Main contact system
• Auxiliary switch position
• Switch latch
• Arcing chamber
• Plunger armature
• Differential trip slide
Working
• Thermal protection is used to guard the electric motor against overload.
• Magnetic protection is used when there is a short circuit, line fault, or other high current
electric fault.
• The MPCB is capable of detecting these conditions by measuring the differences among
phase voltages, and disconnects the motor immediately when they occur.
1.10 Isolator
• It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load. Its main
purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to be
opened while current is flowing in the line.
• Such switches are generally used on both sides of circuit breakers in order that repairs
and replacement of circuit breakers can be made without any danger.
• They should never be opened until the circuit breaker in the same circuit has been opened
and should always be closed before the circuit breaker is closed.
• Types of Electrical Isolators
• There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement
such as
a) Double Break Isolator
b) Single Break Isolator
c) Pantograph type Isolator
• Depending upon the position in the power system, the isolators can be categorized as
a) Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
b) Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
c) Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus.
• Operation of Electrical Isolators
Opening Operation of Electrical Isolator
• In the beginning, open the major circuit breaker.
• Then divide the load from a system with isolator opening.
• Close the earth switch. Earth switch can become with an interlock system with isolator.
That’s means when isolator is open only that time earth switch can be closed.
Closing Operation of Electrical Isolator
• Detach the earth switch.
• Shut the isolator.
• Shut the circuit breaker.
1.11 Contactors
• A contactor is an electrical device which is used for switching an electrical circuit on or
off. It is considered to be a special type of relay. However, the basic difference between
the relay and contactor is that the contactor is used in applications with higher current
carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used for lower current applications.
• Contactors can be field mounted easily and are compact in size. Generally, these electrical
devices feature multiple contacts.
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 10
1 Electrical System Components
• These contacts are in most cases normally open and provide operating power to the load
when the contactor coil is energized. Contactors are most commonly used for controlling
electric motors.
The following three are crucial components of the contactor:
• 1. Coil or Electromagnet: This is the most crucial component of a contactor. The driving
force that is required to close the contacts is provided by the coil or electromagnet of the
contactor. The coil or electromagnet and contacts are protected by an enclosure.
• 2. Enclosure: Just like the enclosures used in any other application, contactors also
feature an enclosure, which provides insulation and protection from personnel touching
the contacts. The protective enclosure is made from different materials, such as
polycarbonate, polyester, Nylon 6, Bakelite, thermosetting plastics, and others.
• 3. Contacts: This is yet another important component of this electrical device. The
current carrying task of the contactor is done by the contacts. There are different types
of contacts in a contactor namely, contact springs, auxiliary contacts, and power contacts.
Each type of contact has an individual role to play.
Operating Principle of a Contactor
• The current passing through the contactor excites the electromagnet. The excited
electromagnet produces a magnetic field, causing the contactor core to move the
armature. A normally closed (NC) contact completes the circuit between the fixed
contacts and the moving contacts. This permits the current to pass through these contacts
to the load. When current is removed, the coil is de-energized and opens the circuit. The
contacts of the contactors are known for their rapid open and close action.
1.12 Explain types of wire
• There are different types of wire are listed below:
• Triplex wire: Triplex wires are usually used in single-phase service drop conductors,
between the power pole and weather heads. They are composed of two insulated
aluminum wires wrapped with a third bare wire which is used as a common neutral.
• Non-metallic sheathed wires: Non-metallic sheath wire is used in most homes and has
2-3 conductors, each with plastic insulation, and a bare ground wire. The individual wires
are covered with another layer of non-metallic sheathing. Since it’s relatively cheaper and
available in ratings for 15, 20 and 25 amps, this type is preferred for in-house wiring.
• Single Strand Wire: Single strand wire also uses THHN (Thermoplastic High Heat-
resistant Nylon-coated) wire, though there are other variants. Each wire is separate and
multiple wires can be drawn together through a pipe easily. Single strand wires are the
most popular choice for layouts that use pipes to contain wires.
1.13 Explain types of Cable
• Under ground cable are classified as follow:
• (1) According to voltage level:
(i) Low voltage (L.T.) cable: It consist of one circular core of tinned standed copper
(or aluminium) insulated by layers of impregnated paper.These cable are used up
to 1 kV.
(ii) High voltage (H.T.)cable: It consist of either circular shaped or oval or sector
shaped 3 core stranded copper or aluminium.These cable are used up to 11 kV.
(iii) Super tension (S.T.)cable: The insulation on each core is covered with
aluminium foil or own lead sheath or metallized paper.These cable are used up to
33 kV.
(iv) Extra high tension (E.H.T.) cable: oil filled cable and gas pressure cable
are types of E.H.T. cable. Oil filled cable is consist of oil channel at the center of
core by stranding the conductors wire around the hollow cylindrical steel spiral
tape.Gas pressure cable is laid in a gas tight steel pipe which is filled with dry
nitrogen at 12 to 15 atmosphere pressure produces radial compression and closes
the voids.These cable are used up to 66 kV.
(v) Extra super voltage cable: These cable are used up to 132 kV and above.
• (2) According to insulating material :
• Insulation is provided on conducting material to block the path of leakage current from
the conductor,thus minimizing the risk shock and fire. Normally cables are classified
according to the insulation used over the conductor. The various classification of cable
commonaly used for domestic wiring are as follow:
(i) Vulcanized rubber sheathed (V.I.R.) insulated cables : These consists of a
copper conductor covered with a insulation layer of Vulcanized Indian Rubber
(VIR). A cotton tape covering is provided over this insulation layer to protect the
wire from moisture and to provide mechanical strength to the wire. The thickness
of the Vulcanized Indian Rubber depends on the voltage.
(ii) Cab Tyre sheathed (T.R.S.) cables: These C.T.S or T.R.S wires consists of
vulcanized rubber insulated conductor. This insulation layer is covered by a layer
made of tough rubber (or) tough rubber sheathed covering is provided over this
insulation layer. This covering will be very hard and protects the wire from
moisture and provides mechanical strength to the wire. These wires are available
in single core, twin core, triple core etc. As these wires have tough rubber covering
no additional protection or strength is required.
(iii) Weather –proof cables: These wires consists of conductor provided with an
insulation layer made up of hard rubber. Over this cotton sheathed and cotton tape
covering is provided especially to protect the wire from moisture. These wires are
used where the moisture is present.
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 12
1 Electrical System Components
Armouring
Lead sheath
Conductor
Paper
insulation Bedding Serving
Construction of cable
• Lead Sheath: As the cable is placed under ground, soil may present moisture, gases and
some other liquids. Therefore, to protect the cable metallic sheath made up of lead or
aluminium is provided over the insulation.
• Bedding: To protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and some mechanical injury,
bedding is provided. It is made up of some fibrous material such as jute.
• Armoring: Armoring is used to protect the cable from mechanical injury while handling.
It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape.
• Serving: Serving is provided to protect the armoring from atmospheric conditions. It is
made up of some fibrous material like jute.
• Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
• Always use insulated tools while working.
• Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any
branch circuit or any other electrical circuit.
• Never try repairing energized equipment. Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering
of the service panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before
proceeding with your work.
• Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body. Use a wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.
• Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating.
• Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the
cable is a good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of
underground cabling. Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it
is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.
• Replace immediately broken switches and plugs etc.
• Check that all metallic parts of electrical equipments are effectively earthed.
• Always turn off the mains when perform electric work at your home.
• Never place bare wire of leads in plugs. Fit a plug top.
Fire/Explosion
• Electrical fires may be caused by excessive resistance that generates heat from any of the
following:
➢ Too much current running through wiring where overcurrent protection fails or
does not exist.
➢ Faulty electrical outlets resulting in poor contact or arcing.
➢ Poor wiring connections and old wiring that is damaged and cannot support the
load.
• An explosion can occur when electricity ignites a flammable gas or combustible dust
mixture in the air. Ignition from a short circuit or static charge is possible.
What you can do to stay safe
• Avoid activities that require training
➢ Working with exposed conductors carrying 50 volts or more.
➢ Making repairs or alterations to any electrical equipment.
➢ Opening up the case, or removing barrier guards, of any equipment that utilizes
electricity.
➢ Using any tools or a meter to measure for the presence of electricity.
➢ Resetting a tripped circuit breaker, or replace a blown fuse.
• Grounding
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 16
1 Electrical System Components
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• Durability
• Safety
• Appearance
• Cost
• Accessibility
• Maintenance cost
• It is costly system now – a – days because it needs seasoned, knot free wood.
• There is every risk of fire.
• The labour cost is more because it requires skilled carpenters.
• This system cannot be used in damp places.
CTS or TRS or PVC Sheath Wiring
• CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core or three-core with a circular or oval in
shape.
• CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water proof, steam proof.
• The cables are run or carried on well-seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on
all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
• The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it.
Battens are fixed to the walls or ceilings by means of gutties or wooden plugs.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips spaced at
an interval of 10 cm.
• This system is suitable for low voltage installations.
Advantages
• This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun and rain, unless
preventive steps are taken.
apart. The VIR or PVC cables are drawn into the concealed by means of GI wire of size 18
SWG.
• PVC conduits are increasingly being used in place of steel conduits. PVC conduits are less
expensive and the labour time saved may be as much as 25% to 50% compared to the
time taken when installing steel conduits. PVC conduits are resistant to acids alkalies, oil
and moisture.
Advantages
• Metal conduits provides protection against fire
• Metal conduits provides protection against fire due to short circuit etc.
• The whole system is water proof.
• Its life is long.
• Replacement of defective wiring is easy.
• It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.
• PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is cheap.
• PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
• Concealed conduit wiring appearance is very good.
Disadvantages
• PVC conduit does not provide protection against fire.
• Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
• Metal conduit wiring requires more time.
• Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
• Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
• Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.
2.3 General rules for wiring.
• he following general rules should be kept in mind while executive the electrical wiring
work:
1) The current rating of the cable / conductor should be slightly greater (at least
1.5 times) than the load current.
2) Every live wire / line should be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per
load requirements.
3) Every sub-circuit should be connected with the fuse distribution board.
4) All metal coverings used for the protection of earth must be connected to earth.
5) No switch or fuse is used in earth or neutral conductor.
6) Every apparatus should be provided with a separate switch.
7) No additional load should be connected to the existing installation until it has
been satisfied that the installation can safely carry the additional load.
8) All the switches and starters should be accessible to the operator.
9) A caution notice (danger plate) should be fixed on very equipment.
10) In any building light wiring and power wiring should be kept separately.
11) When the installation has been completed it should be tested before giving the
supply and the leakage in the wiring should not exceed 1/5000 of the
maximum current of the load.
12) In 3-phase, 4 – wire installation the load should be distributed almost equally
on all the phases.
13) In case of 3-phse, 4-wire system, at the main board, indication should be done
in Red, Yellow and Blue. Neutral should be indicated in black.
Electrical Energy Distribution System
• As per the recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights, fans and
socket outlets cannot be exceed beyond 10 and the maximum load that can be connected
in such a circuit is 800 watts. Hence in case of more load or more points to be connected
to the supply system, then it is to be done by having more than one circuit through:
a) Distribution board system
b) Tree system
c) Joint box system
d) Loop-in system
2.4 General requirements of electrical installations
Followings are the general requirements of the electrical installations:
Layout wiring
• Power and heating sub circuits should be kept separate and distinct from lighting and fan
sub-circuits in conformity with IS:732-1983.
• All types of wiring weather concealed or unconcealed, should be capable of easy
inspection.
• The unconcealed wiring when run along the walls should be as near the ceiling as
possible. In all types of wiring due consideration should be given for neatness and good
appearance.
• In 3-phase installations, care should be exercised to ensure balancing of loads on the
three-phase circuit.
• Conductors
• All conductors should be of copper or aluminium. The conductor for final sub-circuit
wiring should have a nominal cross-sectional area not less than 1 sq. mm if copper is used
and 1.50 sq. mm if aluminium is used.
• The cross-sectional of conductor for power wiring should not be less than 1.50 sq. mm
for copper and 2.50 sq. mm for aluminium.
Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
• For purpose of estimating the current to be carried by any conductor, ratings as indicated
as followings: 20 watts for FTLs, 12 watts for LED lamps, 55 watts for Ceiling fans, 100
watts for ordinary socket outlet points, 1000 watt for power socket outlet points unless
actual value specified.
Joint box and looping in system
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 5
2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems
• Where looping-in system of wiring is specified, wiring should be done without any
junction or connection boxes.
• When joint-box system is specified, all joints are made by means of approved mechanical
connections in suitable and approved joint boxes looping-in system is generally
preferred.
Reception and distribution of main supply
• At the entry level there should be a circuit breaker or linked switch on live conductor.
• No break in the neutral wire in the form of switch or fuse throughout the installation.
• All main switches should be either metal clad enclosed or of any insulated enclosed
pattern and should be fixed at close proximity to the point of entry of supply.
IS:732-1983 stipulates that:
• Open type switchboards shall be placed only in dry situations and in ventilated rooms
and they shall not be placed in the vicinity of storage batteries or exposed to chemical
fumes.
• In a damp situation or where inflammable or explosive dust, vapour or gas is likely to be
present, the switch board shall be totally enclosed or made flame proof as may be
necessitated by the particular circumstances.
• Switch boards shall not be erected above gas stoves or sinks, or within 2.5 m of any
washing unit in the washing rooms of laundries, or in bathrooms, or toilets, or kitchens.
• Metal clade switchgear should preferably be mounted on any one of the following type of
boards:
1) Hinged type metal boards
2) Fixed type metal boards
3) Teak wood boards
Arrangement of apparatus on switchboards
• Equipment should be so mounted on the switch board that there is no possibility of an
inadvertent contact with live parts whenever a person is performing operations like
changing fuses, manipulating switches etc.
• No apparatus should project beyond any edge of the board. No fuse body should be
mounted within 2.5 cm of any edge of the board and no hole, other than the holes by
means of which the panel is fixed, should be drilled closer than 1.3 cm from any edge of
the board.
• No live parts, unless they are effectively screwed by substantial barriers of non-
hygroscopic, non-inflammable insulating materials, should be so spaced as to cause an
arc to be struck between live parts and earth.
• Single phase supply
• Three phases, four wire supply
• Sub distribution board
• Sub circuits
• Diversity
• Diversity factor for sub circuit
• This system is used when the consumer’s premises are more than 45 meter away from
the supplier’s distribution pole.
1) PVC or weather proof cable service line
2) Bare conductor service line
• Service mains
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ILLUMINATION
Definition – Laws of illumination – Polar curves – Calculation of MHCP and MSCP. Lamps:
Incandescent lamp, Sodium Vapour lamp, Fluorescent lamp. Requirement of good lighting scheme –
Types, Design and Calculation of illumination. Street lighting and Factory lighting – Numerical Problems
Introduction:
Light is the prime factor in the human life as well as activities of human beings ultimately
depend upon the light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting
produced electrically, on account of its cleanness, ease of control, reliability, steady output, as well as
its low it is playing an increasingly important part in modern everyday life. The science of illumination
engineering is, therefore, becoming of major importance.
Nature of light:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light
and the light emitted by such bodies depend upon the temperature of bodies. Heat energy is radiated
into the medium by a body which is hotter than the medium surrounding it. The heat of the body, as
seen, can be classified as red hot or white-hot.
A hot body about 500-800°C becomes a red hot and about 2,500-3,000°C the body becomes
white hot. While the body is red-hot, the wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and
the energy available in the form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from
red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the
range of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075
mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10-10 mm).
Relative Sensitivity:
The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different wavelengths varies from person to
person, and also varies with age. The average relative sensitivity is shown in Fig
The s ensitivity of eye to yellow-green radiation is taken as unity or 100% and the sensitivity to
other wavelengths is expressed as a fraction or percentage of it. The relative sensitivity at awave length
is written k and is known as relative luminosity factor.
1
Illumination
Colour: The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave lengths of the light radiations.
Visible light can have wave lengths of the light between4,000A and 7,500A as shown in the figure1.1.
Illumination:
Illumination differs from light every much, though generally these terms are used more or less
synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result of that light on surfaces
on which it falls. Thus the illumination makes the surface look more or less bright with certain colour
and it is this brightness and colour which the eye sees and interrupts as something useful or pleasant or
otherwise. Light may be produced by passing electric current through filaments as in the incandescent
lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable gases as in neon and other gas
tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the
passage electric current through mercury vapour. Some bodies reflect light in some measure, and when
illuminated from an original source they become secondary source of light. The good example is the
moon, which illuminates earth by means of the reflected light originating in the sun.
magnitude is shown by =
It is measured in Radians.
The largest angle subtended at a point is ‘2π 'radians.
Radian: The angle subtended at a point by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.
2
Illumination
2. Solid angle : A Solid angle is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle enclosed in
the volume formed by an infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the volume and meeting at the
point. It is represented by greek letter ω.and is measured in steradian.
= =
3. Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon
the human eye. It is usually denoted by ‘Q’expressed in Lumen-Hours and is analogues to watt-hours.
4. Luminous Flux (F): It is defined as tota l qu antity of light energy emitted per second from a
luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘ F’and is measured in Lumens.
5. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the lumino us fl ux per unit solid angle in a given direction.It is
represented by I and is measured in (lumen/ster adia n or) candela (cd).
6. Lumen: Luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power in a unit solid angle.
Lumen= candle power of source X solid angle
=c.p X ω
It is the unit of luminous flux.
7. Candle Power (C P): The candle power of a source is defined as the number of lumens emitted by
that source in a unit solid angle in a given direction.
8. Illumination (E) : Illumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the
surface per unit area. It is repr esented by the s ymbol ‘ E’ a n d si measu red in lux (or
lumen/m 2).
.
= = =
3
Illumination
10. Mean Horizontal Candle Power (M.H.C.P): It is defined as the mean of candle power in all
directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light.
11. Mean Spherical Candle Power (M. S.C. P): It is define d as the mean of candle power in all
directions and in all planes from the so urc e of l ight.
. . . =
):
12. Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (M.H.S.C.P It is defined as the mean of candle power in
all directions above or below horizontal plane passing through the source of light.
13. Reduction Factor: Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle
power to its mean horizontal candle p ower.
. . .
=
. . .
14. Lamp Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in Lumens / Watt.
15. Space Height Ratio: it is the ratio of horizontal distance between lamps and the height of their
mountings.
16. Utilisation Factor or Co-efficient of utilisation (UF): It is the ratio of total lumens reaching the
working plane and the total lumens given out by the lamp.
17. Maintenance Factor (MF): It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination under clear and clean conditions.
18. Depreciation Factor (DF): It is the ratio of initial illumination to the maintained illumination on
the working plane. DF > 1 always.
19. Glare: Brightness within the field of vision such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort,
interference with the vision of eye fatigue. This is found in car head lights.
Solid angle =
= ( )
SZ=OZ-OS
h=r – r cos = r (1-cos ) (2)
Substituting h in eq ( 1) we g
e t− )
(
= −
)
4
Illumination
= (
5
Laws of Illumination: There are two laws of illumination
1. Law of inverse squares
2. lamberts cosine law
Inverse square law :
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of distance
between the surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, S= a point source of luminous intensity
I= candela, the luminous flux emitting from source
A1 A2, and A3= Three parallel surface area’s in square meters,
d, 2d, and 3d =distances of A 1 A2, and A3 from the point source respectively as shown in Fig
=I X = x
= __ (1)
Illumination E1 on surface A 1 =
= X
E1 : E2 : E3 :: : :
( ) ( )
Lambert's cosine law: This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to
the lines of flux as shown in Fig
Let PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O’.
From above fig
POLAR CURVES:
They are the plot drawn between the Candle Power and Angular Position. The light intensity is not same
in all directions in most of the lamps because of their unsymmetrical shape. The luminous intensity in
all directions can be represented by polar curves. They help to find the distribution of candle power, i.e.
light in different directions.
Horizontal polar curves: it is the curve drawn showing the
distribution of candle power on a horizontal plane about a vertical
axis passing through the source of light. The dip at 90º is due to
coiled coil filament occupying an arc subtending an angle less than
360º.
Rousseau’s construction:
When vertical plane is in the form of two lobes, symmetrical about the vertical axis YOY`.
Construction steps:
-The curve CSTGDBHL obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau’s curve. The mean
ordinate of the curve gives the MSCP.
There are several alternative schemes that act as substitute for sunlight. But light be electricity is
pollution free and easy control method. Illumination by electricity is mainly classified into three types
they are:
INCANDESCENT LAMPS:
Electric current is passed through a filament of thin wire placed in vacuum or an inert gas. The current
generates sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the filament to luminosity. Their output depends
on the temperature of the filaments so they are termed as “Temperature Radiators”. The fine wire is
known as filament placed inside it.
Construction:
-High resistivity.
-Ductility
Filament made of tungsten is most preferred instead of carbon filament due to the accumulation of ash
on the walls of the bulb as life goes on leading to reduction of life of bulb.
Aging effect:
Decrease in light output of lamp with time is called aging effect. The cause for aging effect is
evaporation of filament that results in blackening of bulb and also reduces the diameter of the filament
which increases the resistance. The aged filament draws less current and operates at lower temperature
that decreases the light output and efficiency.
The total depreciation of light output is roughly 15% over the life range.
Filament manufacturing:
Pure tungsten powder is pressed in steel mould for small bars. The mechanical strength of the
bars is improved by heating electrically near to the melting point. Bars are then hammered at red heat
and drawn into filaments. To increase the efficiency of the bulb it is filled with inert gas Argon and
small percentage of Nitrogen. To decrease the convectional currents due to gas molecules in the bulb,
the filament is wound into a close spiral and suspended horizontally in the form f a circular arc.
- Efficiency is 30 lumen/watt for a gas filled coiled coil at working temperature of 2500ºC.
The diameter of tungsten filament depends upon voltage and wattage.
- In vacuum:
Heat produced = heat lost by radiat ion .
4
= =
2
=
2
2 =
2
2
4
α( )
α
Clear gas filled incandescent lamps: They facilitate light control. It is used where lighting units are
to be distributed accurately. They are used in flood lights, projectors, car head lights.
Disadvantage is they produce hard shadows and glare from the filament.
Inside frosted gas filled lamps: their luminous output is 2% less than clear glass lamps of same
rating. They produce soft shadows and practically eliminate glare from filaments. Used in industrial open
fittings located in line of sight at low mounting heights. These are used in diffuse fittings of opal glass
type in order to avoid the presence of filament striations on the surface of glass ware.
Inside silica coated lamps has high diffusion of light output due to fine coating of silica. They are
less glaring and produce soft shadows. The brightness of reflection from shiny surfaces is minimized.
Halogen filled incandescent lamps: as the life of incandescent lamp falls with time due to
- Slow evaporation of filament
When the bulb is filled with halogen vapour is filled along with filling gas it restores a part of
evaporated filament due to chemical reaction i.e. by “Regenerative Cycle Process”.
- No depreciation of lumens.
DISCHARGE LAMPS:
An electric current is passed through a gas or vapour which renders its luminous. The light is
produced by the process of gaseous conduction. The commonly used elements are Neon, Mercury,
Sodium vapours. The color depends on the nature of gas or vapour.
Neon: Orange Red Light.
Mercury: Bluish.
Sodium: Orange Yellow.
Discharge lamps are categorized into two types they are:
i) Vapour discharge lamps. ii) Fluorescent lamps.
SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:
This type of the lamp has low luminosity, so length of lamp is large. To get required length it is
made in form of U tube. Two oxide coated electrodes are sealed with the ends. The tube contains
Neon and Sodium gas. The U tube is enclosed in a double walled vacuum flask to keep the
temperature within the working range. It employs high leakage reactance transformer to provide
sufficient voltages to increase the temperature of the oxide coated electrodes that emits the electrons
to liberate light. Due to this transformer the regulation will be poor and the power factor will be low
about 0.3. Capacitor at the input terminals is provided to improve power factor to 0.8.
Working:
Specifications:
Applications:
- Highway lighting.
- Outdoor lighting.
FLUORESCENT LAMPS:
It is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. It consists of a glass tube 25 mm in diameter and 0.6
m, 1.2 m and 1.5 m in length. The tube contains argon gas at low pressure about 2.5 mm of mercury.
At the two ends, two electrodes coated with some electron emissive material are placed.
Fluorescent lighting has a great advantage over other light sources in many applications. The
tubes can be obtained in a variety of length, with illumination in a variety of colours. It is possible to
achieve quite high lighting intensities without excessive temperature rise and owing to the nature of
light sources, the danger of glare is minimized. The efficiency of the fluorescent tube is about 40
lumens per watt, about three times the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp. The
fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube 25m.m in diameter and 0.38m-1.52m in length. The inside
surface of the tube is coated with the thin layer of fluorescent material in the form of a powder
A starting switch is provided in the circuit, which puts the electrodes directly across the supply
mains at the time of starting, so that electrodes may get heated and emit sufficient electrons. A
stabilizing choke is connected in series with it, which acts ballast in running condition and provides a
voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor is connected across the circuit to improve the power factor at
the supply side. The filament is connected to a starter switch which is small with bimetal strip
connecting the two electrodes.
Working:
When the starter is cold the electrodes are open.When supply is given the current traces the
closed path through the mains - choke – electrode 1 - starter – electrode 2 - mains. At this time the
bimetallic strip of the starter operates depending on the type of starter used . when the electrodes
Stroboscopic effect:
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a
cycle’. For 50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be extinguished
twice in a cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this
extinguish phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light falls upon a moving object,
the object appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in reverse direction, sometimes
stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This effect is called as
‘stroboscopic effect’.
In this lead-lag arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with
capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading.
In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions,
the lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after
4,000-5,000 of its working hours.
When light falls on a surface, depending up on the nature of the surface of the light, some portion
of light energy is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface and the rest
is absorbed. The ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor.
beam, the eye is placed in the path of the existence of the light. Moreover, if the eye is placed in
the path of the reflected beam, he sees, not the illuminated surface, but the light source.
The reflection from do not exists in nature. The reflection from any
The distribution of light emitted by lamps is usually controlled to some extent by means of
reflectors and translucent diffusing screens or even lenses. The interior lighting schemes can be
classified as
Adequate lighting of factories is of vital importance, as it provides improved amenities for the
employees, increased production and has a definite economic value in reducing accidents with their
consequent loss of time and compensation payments.
General Requirements and Types of Illumination: A factory lighting installation in common with
other in order equipments should provide an adequate illumination on the working plane and give a
good distribution of light, employ simple and easily cleaned fittings and avoid glare. It is essential not
only to avoid glare from the lamp itself but also reflected glare from any polished surface, which may
be within the line of vision.
General Lighting: The usual scheme in factories workshops is to mount a no. of lamps at a sufficient
height so that uniform distribution of light over the working plane is obtained. Since light colored
walls and ceiling add to the effectiveness of an installation, therefore it is necessary to get white
washing (or) painting done.
Local Lighting: On some points fairly intense illumination is required. For this purpose local
lighting can be provided means of adjustable fittings attached to the machine or bench in question
or mounted on portable floor standards. Such lamps should be mounted in deep reflectors. So that
glare is avoided. Low voltage lamps of not more than 50 volts are recommended for use as
portable hand lamps because such lamps have thicker filament, more robust is also avoided in
these few volt lamps. Local lighting should never be employed alone, good general lighting is
essential so that the dark places between the local lighting units are avoided dark places between
the local lighting units cause fatigue to the eyes on account of its continually to adjust itself to new
conditions.
Emergency Lighting:
Some lights, such as for
(i) internal pilot lighting required for safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main
lighting circuit is off
(ii) external pilot lighting, provided with careful shades leading to shelters required for
evacuation of personnel
(iii) for control posts, first aid centres etc.
(iv) dials and gauges in important plants required to be watched regularly are required
during an air raid when all the factory lights are off as a matter of air raid precaution.
Industrial lighting fittings: Reflectors for industrial purpose must be sinple in design and easily
cleaned. The requirements of most of the installations can be met by one of the following types of
fittings.
Standard Reflectors: These reflectors are made to accommodate lamps of ratings from 40 to 1,500
watts and designed so that they give adequate and uniform illumination when they are mounted at a
spacing equal to about 1.5 times their mounting height above the working plane.
Angle Reflectors: Angle reflectors are used to provide illumination in a vertical plane when
concentrating type reflectors are used. These can be mounted on suitable stanchions or the walls.
Maintenance: In order to maintain the fittings in a condition of reasonable efficiency it is necessary to
clean the light fittings periodically. The frequency of cleaning depends on the conditions in the
particular factory under consideration and varies from once or twice a week for very dirty surroundings
to every four or six weeks under the best conditions.
Types of Lamps : The discharge lamps have been used in where colour rendring is not important, The
fluorescent lamps are widely employed on account of its natural day light colour, its even illumination
and absence of glare and in some cases, the fact that it gives rise to considerably less than filament
lamps of the same light output.
STREET LIGHTING:
The main objectives of street lighting are
(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to promote safety and
convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.
The principle employed for street lighting is different from that of interior lighting. There are no
walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only direct lighting scheme can be employed and
hard shadows and high contrast cannot be avoided.
Two general principles are employed in the design of street lighting installations, namely
(i) diffusion principle (ii) specular reflection principle
Two general principles are usually employed in the design of street lighting installations ,namely
Diffusion and specular reflection principle.
Diffusion principle: In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used. The reflectors are
so designed that they may direct the light downwards and spread as uniformly as possible over the
road surface. in order to avoid glare the reflectors are made to have a cut-off between 300 to 45 0 so
that the filament is not visible except from underneath it. The diffusion nature of the road surface causes
the reflection of a certain proportion of the incident light in the direction of the observer. The illumination
at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying point to point or inverse -square law method.
Over certain properties of the road the surface is illuminated from two lamps and the resultant
illumination is the sum of the illuminations due to each lamp.
Specular Reflection principle:
The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this case, the
reflectors are curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large angle of incidence.
This can be explained with the help of below Fig. An object resides over the road at ‘P’ in between the
lamps S1, S2, and S3 and the observer at ‘Q’.
Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a longer
distance. This method of lighting is only suitable for
straight sections along the road. In this method, it is
observed that the objects on the roadway can be
seen by a smaller expenditure of power than by the
diffusion method of lighting.
Illumination Level For Street Lighting And
Mounting Height Of Lamps:
The illumination required depends up on the class of
street lighting installations. In class A installations
i.e. in important shopping centers and road junctions, illumination level of 30 lumens/m 2 is required
where as a in poorly lighted suburban streets, illumination level of 4 lumens/m2 is sufficient. An
average well lighted street will require illumination level between 8 to 15 lumens/m2 . Excellent
illumination is considered when the distance apart is not more than the roads and as far as possible
lamps near large trees should be avoided.
Types of Lamps for Street Lighting: Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been
found to have certain particular advantage for street lighting purpose: lower power consumption for
a given amount of light,the overall cost of an installation with discharge lamps less than that employing
filament lamps. The color and mono- chromatic nature of the light produced by discharge lamps do not
matter much in street lighting installations.
METHODS OF LIGHTING CALCULATIONS
There are so many methods have been employed for lighting calculation, some of those m ethods are
as follows.
1. Watts-per-square-meter method.
2. Lumen or light flux method
3. Point-to-point method
Watts-per-square-meter method:
This method is very handy for rough calculations.It consists in making an allowance of watt per
square meter of area to be illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of an
average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
Lumen or light flux method:
This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are such as to produce an
approximate uniform illumination over the working plane.
Total lumens required = No.of lamps X wattage of each lamp X efficiency of each lamp (in terms of
lumen/watt) X coefficient of utilization X maintenance factor
Point-to-point method:
This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is
required,the candle power of the sources in the particular direction under consideration being known.
This method is not much used (because of its complicated applications);it is employed only in some
special problems, such as flood lighting,yard ligh ting etc.
Solution:
UF = 0.5, DF = 1.
∴ Maintenance factor,
Given data:
η= 120 lumens/W
E= 150 lux A= 18 × 12 = 216 m2 UF = 0.6 MF= o.75
Let, if 24 lamps are arranged to illuminate the desired area. For space to height ratio unity, i.e., 6
lamps are taken along the length with a space of 18/6 = 3m, and 4 lamps are along the width giving a
space of 12/4 = 3 m.
Example: Four lamps 15 m apart are arranged to illuminate a corridor. Each lamp is suspended at a
height of 8 m above the floor level. Each lamp gives 450 CP in all directions below the horizontal; find
the illumination at the second and the third lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Luminous intensity = 450 CP
Mounting height = 8 m.