10010 Introduction*

The physical and chemical characteristics of waterbodies af- 2. PERIPHYTON (Section 10300): A community of autotrophic
fect the abundance, species composition, stability, productivity, (algae) and heterotrophic (bacteria, fungi, protozoa) organisms
and physiological condition of aquatic organism populations. associated with the surfaces of submersed objects. Some are
Biological methods used to assess water quality include the attached, some move about. Many of the protozoa and other
collection, counting, and identification of aquatic organisms; minute invertebrates and algae found in plankton also occur in
biomass measurements; measurements of metabolic activity periphyton.
rates; measurements of pollutant toxicity, bioconcentration, and 3. MACROPHYTES (Section 10400): Large plants of all types.
bioaccumulation; and processing and interpretation of biological They are sometimes attached at the bottom (benthic), sometimes
data. free-floating, sometimes totally submersed, and sometimes
Information from these methods may serve one or more of the partly emergent. Complex vascular plants usually have true
following purposes: roots, stems, and leaves. Macroalgae are simpler but may have
1. To explain the cause of color, turbidity, odor, taste, or stem- and leaf-like thalli.
visible particulates in water; 4. MACROINVERTEBRATES (Section 10500): The invertebrates
2. To help interpret chemical analyses (e.g., relating the pres- defined here are those retained by a U.S. Standard No. 30 sieve
ence or absence of certain biological forms to oxygen deficiency (0.6-mm openings). They are generally bottom-dwelling organ-
or supersaturation in natural waters); isms (benthos) that live at least part of their life cycles within or
3. To identify the source of one water that is mixing with upon available substrates in lentic (standing) and lotic (flowing)
another; waterbodies.
4. To explain the clogging of pipes, screens, or filters, and to 5. FISHES (Section 10600): Vertebrates of diverse morphology,
help design and operate water and wastewater treatment plants; ecology, and behavior, inhabiting (and generally limited to)
5. To determine optimum times for treating surface water with aquatic systems. They have fins and gills.
algicides and to monitor treatment effectiveness; 6. BENTHIC MEIOFAUNA (Section 10700): The invertebrates
6. To determine the effectiveness of drinking water treatment defined here are those that pass through a U.S. Standard No. 35
stages, to help determine the effective chlorine dose in a water sieve (0.5-mm openings) and are retained by a No. 230 sieve
treatment plant, and to indicate treatment problems or deficien- (0.063-mm openings) or No. 325 sieve (0.044-mm openings).
cies; Benthic meiofauna include nematodes (Section 10750), express
7. To identify the nature, extent, and biological effects of an extreme range of morphological and life history diversity, and
pollution; have free-living, parasitic, or symbiotic trophic habits.
8. To indicate the progress of self-purification in waterbodies; Large numbers of bacteria and fungi are present in plankton
9. To help determine the condition and effectiveness of unit and periphyton, and constitute an essential element of the total
processes and biological wastewater treatment methods in a aquatic ecosystem. Although their interactions with living and
wastewater treatment plant; dead organic matter profoundly affect larger aquatic organisms,
10. To document short- and long-term variability in water techniques for their investigation are not included herein (see
quality caused by natural phenomena and/or human activities; Part 9000).
11. To provide data on the status and trends of an aquatic Amphibians, aquatic reptiles, birds, and mammals are useful
system; in monitoring long-term changes in water quality and the pres-
12. To correlate the biological mass or components with water ence of toxic substances (see Section 8930). These organisms
chemistry or conditions. (NOTE: A statistical correlation may not may be affected directly or indirectly by spills or other dis-
always signify a cause-and-effect relationship because of the charges of pollutants.
presence of confounding variables or unknown covariates.) Field observations are indispensable for meaningful biological
The specific nature of a problem and the reasons for collecting interpretations, but many biological factors cannot be evaluated
samples will dictate which communities of aquatic organisms directly in the field. These must be analyzed as field data or field
will be examined and which sampling and analytical techniques samples in the laboratory. Because the significance of the ana-
will be used. lytical result depends on the representativeness of the sample,
The following communities of aquatic organisms are consid- attention is given to both field methods and associated laboratory
ered in the sections that follow: procedures.
1. PLANKTON (Section 10200): A community of autotrophic Before sampling begins, clearly define study objectives. For
(phytoplankton) and heterotrophic (zooplankton, bacteria, fungi) example, the frequency of a repetitive sampling program may
organisms, usually drifting or suspended in water, nonmotile or vary from hourly, for a detailed study of diel variability, to every
insufficiently motile to overcome transport by currents. In fresh third month (quarterly) for a general assessment of seasonal
water, they generally are small or microscopic; in marine or conditions. The scope of the study must be adjusted based on
estuarine environments, large plankters are often observed. limits in personnel, time, and budget. Before developing a study
plan, examine historic data for the study area and conduct a
literature search to identify related work elsewhere.
* Approved by Standard Methods Committee, 2006. Whenever practicable, biologists should collect their own
Joint Task Group: Michael K. Hein (chair), Byron J. Adams, Steven N. Francoeur,
Donald J. Klemm, Ernst B. Peebles, Donald J. Reish, Miles M. Smart, Ann St. samples. Much of an experienced biologist’s value lies in per-
Amand, Paul V. Zimba. sonal observations of field conditions and in the ability to rec-

1
 (10010)/Introduction

ognize signs of environmental changes as reflected in various Principal emphasis is on methods and equipment, rather than on
aquatic communities. Detecting environmental changes also de- interpretation or application of results. The complex interrela-
pends on the accurate and consistent identification of the organ- tionships existing in an aquatic environment often require many
isms present. Sections 10600 (Fishes), 10750 (Nematological field and laboratory procedures, so frequent cross-references
Examination), and 10900 (Identification of Aquatic Organisms) between sections have been made.
include basic keys, drawings of organisms, and selected refer- Many other types of studies may be, and are being, conducted
ences to help biologists identify the plants and animals collected that are oriented more toward laboratory research. Such labora-
in field surveys. However, these cannot fully replace examina- tory studies will develop further basic knowledge of community
tion by taxonomic experts for key groups. and/or organism responses under controlled conditions and will
The primary orientation of Part 10000 is toward field collec- help predict the effects of future environmental changes on
tion and associated laboratory analyses to help determine the
aquatic communities. However, such studies are not within the
status of aquatic communities under field conditions and inter-
scope of Part 10000.
pret the influence of past and present environmental conditions.