Pavement Design

Sudeep Thapa
Definition & Functions
• A pavement is a stable layer constructed to support the wheel loads
from traffic which is constructed over the natural soil.
• Functions/Quality of Pavement:

Structural
Cost/Economic Comfort Environmental Drainage
Adequacy
• Operation • Withstand all • Riding quality • Dust proof • Impervious
cost the stresses (smooth) • Minimum
• Maintenance • Stresses in • Sufficient effect to the
cost subgrade friction environment
• Hard surface
against
abrasion
Types of Pavement
• Flexible pavement
• Layered System
• Rigid Pavement
• Slab resting on Sub-grade or in Sub-base
• Semi-Rigid Pavement
• Lean Cement Concrete or Soil cement is Used as base/Sub-base
• Composite Pavement
• Multiple, Structurally significant layers of Different Composition
A pavement is a stable layer constructed to support the wheel loads from traffic which is constructed over the
natural soil.
Types of Pavement
• Flexible pavement
• Layered System
• The pavement is characterized by low flexural strength
• Undergoes high deflection and show rebounding nature
• Because of the poor load transferring nature, higher stresses in the subgrade is caused, which may cause the failure of the
subgrade
• The design of the thickness of the pavement is as per the strength of the subgrade
• Rigid Pavement
• Slab resting on Sub-grade or in Sub-base
• In compare to the flexible pavement, the rigid pavement shows very less deflection
• Has high flexural strength (beam strength)
• As long as minimum subgrade strength is met, the performance of the rigid pavement is more governed by the strength of
the slab itself
• Semi-Rigid Pavement
• It has high flexural strength than the flexible as the property of the materials are enhanced though the strength is much
lower than the concrete slabs
• Lean Cement Concrete or Soil cement is Used as base/Sub-base
• Composite Pavement
• Multiple, Structurally significant layers of Different Composition
Types of Pavement
• Flexible Pavement
• The pavement is characterized by low flexural strength
• Undergoes high deflection and show rebounding nature
• Because of the poor load transferring nature, higher stresses in the
subgrade is caused, which may cause the failure of the subgrade
• The design of the thickness of the pavement is as per the strength of
the subgrade
 Structure

Foundation

Construction Load
Minimize frosting by drainage action

H/W 1 List out the functions of each component of pavement

Types of Pavement
• Rigid Pavement
• In compare to the flexible
pavement, the rigid pavement
shows very less deflection
• Has high flexural strength
(beam strength)
• As long as minimum subgrade
strength is met, the
performance of the rigid
pavement is more governed by
the strength of the slab itself
Types of Pavement
• Semi rigid pavement –
• It has high flexural strength than the flexible as the property of the
materials are enhanced though the strength is much lower than the
concrete slabs
• They use lean-concrete base, soil-cement stabilization
• Composite Pavement
• Multiple structural layers
Criteria Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
Surface Bituminous Surface Concrete Surface
Load Carrying Capacity Load Distribution Capacity of the layered Components Load Carrying Capacity due to the higher flexural
strength of the concrete slab itself
Design Based mainly on the strength of subgrade and done Based on the flexural strength of concrete, precise
through empirical methods design method is used
Life Usually is of 10 to 20 years with the requirement of Usually is of 40 years
periodic maintenance.
maintenance Higher Rate but the cost required is low Lower rate but higher cost of maintenance
Initial Cost Less Capital Investment Higher Capital Investment
Stage Construction Possible Not Possible
Availability of material Bitumen (major Requirement and need to be imported) Easily available

Environmental Degradation Maximum Less Hazardous

Traffic dislocation during For few days 28 days is required

Construction
Imperviousness L;ess impermeable than concrete imperviousness
Visibility Problem in night driving Glare during day time
Temperature variation effect Low impact Heavy stress is induced
Factors affecting pavement type selection(Primary factors)
 Traffic: the total volume of traffic affects the geometric requirements of the highway; the percentage of commercial traffic and
frequency of heavy load applications generally have the major effect on the structural design of the pavement.

 Soil characteristics: The load-carrying capability of a native soil, which forms the subgrade for the pavement structure, is of
paramount importance in pavement performance. Even in given limited areas the inherent qualities of such native soils are far from
uniform, and they are further subjected to variations by the influence of weather.

 Weather: it affects subgrade as well as the pavement wearing course. The amount of rainfall, snow and ice, and frost penetration will
seasonally influence the bearing capacity of subgrade materials.

 Construction considerations: Stage construction of the pavement structure may dictate the type of pavement selected. Other
considerations such as speed of construction, accommodating traffic during construction, ease of replacement, anticipated future
widening, seasons of the year when construction must be accomplished, and perhaps others may have a strong influence on paving
type selections in specific cases.

 Recycling: the opportunity to recycle material from an existing pavement structure or other sources may dictate the use of one
pavement type. Future recycling opportunities may also be considered.

 Cost of construction: Where there are no overriding factors and several alternate pavement types would serve satisfactorily, cost
comparison can be used to assist in determining pavement type.
Factors affecting Pavement Type Selection (Secondary Factors)
 Performance of the similar pavement in the area: It is important that the experience and judgment of the highway engineer is based on the
performance of pavements in the immediate area of his jurisdiction. Past performance is a valuable guide, provided there is good correlation
between conditions and service requirements between the reference pavements and the designs under study
 Adjacent existing pavement: if there is no radical change in conditions, the choice of paving type on highway may be influenced by adjacent
existing sections which have given adequate service. The resultant continuity of pavement type will also simplify maintenance operations.
 Conservation of material and energy: Pavement type selection may be determined by the pavement type which contains less of a scarce
critical material or the type whose material production, transportation, and placement requires less energy consumption.
 Availability of local materials: The availability and adaptability of local material may influence the selection of pavement type. Also, the
availability of commercially produced mixes and the equipment capabilities of area contractors may influence the selection of pavement type,
particularly on small projects.
 Traffic safety: The characteristics of wearing course surface, the need for delineation through pavement and shoulder contrast, reflectivity
under highway lighting, and the maintenance of a nonskid surface as affected by the available materials may each influence the paving type
selection in specific locations.
 Carrying out the experiments: In some instances, the performance of material or design concepts must be determined by field testing under
actual construction, environmental, or traffic conditions. Where the material or concept is adaptable to only one paving type, the incorporation
of such experimental features may dictate pavement type selection.
 Promotions of competition: It is desirable that monopoly situations be avoided, and that improvement in products and methods be
encouraged through continued and healthy competition among industries involved in the production of paving materials.
 Preferences of local industries: As per the priority and preference for the promotion of local industries it can be noted for the selection of
pavement type.
Axle Load:
• The axle load refers to the total weight transmitted to the road by all wheels attached to a single axle. It is a critical
factor in determining the structural capacity and design of pavements.
Legal Axle Load:
• The legal axle load is the maximum axle weight permitted by law for a vehicle traveling on public roads. This limit is
set by transportation authorities to prevent excessive road wear and ensure safety. It varies by country, region, and
type of road.
Standard Axle Load:
• The standard axle load is a reference load used in the design and analysis of pavements. It is typically defined as an
18,000-pound (8,165 kg) single axle load in the United States. This standard helps in comparing the effects of
different axle loads on pavements.
Standard Axle:
• A standard axle is an idealized concept used in pavement design to represent a typical axle configuration and
load. It simplifies the calculation of pavement damage by providing a uniform measure for comparison, often based
on the standard axle load of 18,000 pounds.
Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL):
• ESAL is a measure used to express the relative damage caused by different axle loads on pavements compared to
a standard single axle load. It quantifies the impact of various axle configurations and weights on pavement
performance by converting them into equivalent repetitions of a standard axle load.
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL):
• ESWL is the load on a single wheel that causes the same amount of pavement stress or deflection as a more
complex loading condition, such as multiple axles or wheels. It is used in pavement design to simplify the analysis of
wheel load effects.
Factors affecting pavement design
1. Traffic Factors(axle loads, number of load repetition and tyre contact area,
Vehicle Speed),
2. Design Life,
3. Reliability,
4. Sub-grade soil,(in terms of CBR %, resilient modulus=1500*CBR% psi or 10.3 *CBr % Mpa
5. Environmental factors,
6. Material Properties,
1. Traffic factors (axle loads, number of load repetition and tyre contact
area, Vehicle Speed)

• Wheel Load = the load transferred to the pavement through tyres

• Standard design axle load – single axle load
SN Country Standard Axle Load

1 Nepal 8.2 tonnes (80KN)

2 India 8.16 tonnes
3 UK 10.17 tonnes
4 USA 8.2-10.2 tonnes
5 AASHTO 9.1 tonnes

• However, for double axle (tandem configuration) 14.5 tonnes and 20.3
tonnes for tridem axles (triple axle) is considered to be standard
Traffic factors
• Tyre pressure – It depends upon the total axle load, wheel
configuration and contact area. This is responsible for causing
damage to the pavement. A standard of 0.5 MN/m2 (70-100 PSI)
Traffic factors Tandem Axles with Dual
Single Axle with
Single Tire
Tires

Single Axle with Dual Tires

Tridem Axles with Dual Tires

• Repetition of axle load – Pavement distress accumulate

with the repetition of axle load, so the number of
repetition of axle load is one of the important for the
pavement design
Traffic factors
• Equivalent Standard Axle Load & Equivalence Factor – It is essential to convert
the variety of load into a standard axle load system of 80 kN. This is done with
the help of equivalence factor,
𝐿 4
𝐹= , Also known as fourth power law, here Ls = 80 kN
𝐿𝑠
• Calculation of total number of ESAL is made at the base year per day with the
help of the factor
If in a certain road 5 number of 80kN axle vehicle and 8 number of 100kn Vehicle
are moving, find the total number of standard axle vehicle.
: equivalence factor for 100kN vehicle= (100/80)^4=2.44
Equivalence factor for 80 kn load=(80/80)^4=1
Total number of standard axle vehicle (total number of axle repetition)
=5*1+8*2.44=24.52= 25
 Traffic factors
• Pavement has to accommodate the total traffic till its design life. So, the
calculated ESAL of the base year is not sufficient for the design of pavement.
Consideration of growth of the traffic is most important. For this,
365∗𝐴∗ 1+𝑟 𝑛 −1
𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 = *LDF*VDF
𝑟
• Here, r = annual traffic growth rate,
• P=initial traffic at start of construction
• A = Initial traffic at base year per day=initial traffic at end of construction=P(1+r)^y
• y=Base year period
• n = number of years at the end of design year
• LDF=Lane distribution factor
• VDF=Vehicle damage factor=(depends on axle load, axle load Configuraion, terrain
type and from region to region)
VDF
• It is a multiplier to convert the number of commercial vehicles of
different axle load and axle configuration to the number of standard
axle load repetitions.
• It varies with the vehicle axle configuration, axle loading, terrain type
and from region to region.
 Traffic factors
• Distribution of commercial traffic in lane – In absence of adequate and
conclusive data
Types of Road Traffic amount to be considered LDF
Single lane road Total number of commercial vehicles on both 1
direction
Two lane single carriageway road 75% of the total number of commercial 0.75
vehicles in both direction
Four lane single carriageway 40% of the total number of commercial 0.4
road vehicles in both direction
Dual two lane carriageway road 75% of the number of the commercial 0.75
vehicles in each direction
Dual three lane carriageway road 60% of the number of the commercial 0.6
vehicles in each direction
Dual four lane carriageway road 40% of the number of the commercial 0.4
vehicles in each direction
• Problem – A two lane two way road is at present carrying a traffic of 1000
commercial vehicles per day. It is to be strengthened for the growing
traffic needs. The vehicle damage factor has been found to be 3.0. The rate
of growth of traffic is 10 percent per annum. The period of construction is
5 years. The pavement is to be designed for 15 years after the completion.
Calculate the cumulative standard axles to be used in design.
365∗𝐴∗ 1+𝑟 𝑛 −1
𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 = *LDF*VDF
𝑟
- Lane distribution factor:
Vehicle damage factor:
Traffic at end of construction Period (A): p(1+r)^y= -

1000 5 15
2. Design life
• The design life is time between a new pavement to the time of
reconstruction or rehabilitation
• In the design life time, pavement deteriorates to the good initial level
serviceability to its terminal level (minimum acceptable level) of
serviceability
• Term serviceability is a measure of pavement performance or the
pavement ability to serve the present traffic
Highway conditions Analysis period

High-volume, urban 30-50 years

High-volume, rural 20-50 years

Low-volume, paved 15-25 years

Low-volume, aggregate surface 10-20 years

3. Reliability
• It is the probability of the pavement that the possible distress will
remain within the permissible level during the design life. As per the
AASHTO guidelines, reliability adopted are as:
Recommended Level of Reliability

Urban Rural
A standard deviation
National Highways 85-99.9% 80-99.9% for traffic of 0.35
State Highways 80-99% 75-95% and 0.45 for rigid
and flexible
Major District Roads 80-95% 75-95%
pavement is taken
Other District Roads and 50-80% 50-80% respectively
Village Roads
4. Environmental factors
• Temperature and Rainfall are the two main environmental factors used
in evaluating pavement performance
• Effect of temperature includes:
• Stresses induced by thermal action
• Effect of freezing and thawing on subgrade soil.
• Effect of rainfall is due mainly to penetration of the surface water to
the underlying material.
• If penetration occur the properties of the underlying material will
significantly altered.
• Freezing and thawing action effects the subgrade strength significantly
5. Material properties
• It is very important to know the structural property of the materials
in the pavement. In most cases, the structural property of the layer
are defined either in terms of CBR (California Bearing Ratio) or in
Resilient Modulus (MR).
• In flexible pavement, the strength of the subgrade defines the total
thickness with consideration of no overstressing the subgrade which
can be the possibility of failure,
MR= 1500 x CBR (in PSI) and 10.3 * CBR (in MPa)
• the strength parameters of other layers defines spreading of load.
• In case of rigid pavement, parameters as Effective modulus of
subgrade reaction (k), Concrete elastic modulus and concrete
modulus of rupture
 Material properties
• Drainage of Subgrade – One of the main function of subbase and base
layer is to provide proper drainage. So, the design should include the
affect of the proper drainage in the design.
• AASHTO method includes the drainage coefficient in subbase and base
layer to modify its structural capacity as by defining five category in the
basis of quality of drainage:
Quality of Drainage Water removed within
Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month
Very poor Water will not drain
Traffic estimation (Base year Traffic)
• For the determination of the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate
base year traffic flows. The estimate should be the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) currently using the
route, classified into the vehicle categories of cars, light goods vehicles, trucks (heavy goods
vehicles) and buses. The ADT is defined as the average number of traffic summed for both
directions. Further ADT is multiplied by the seasonal factors to convert it into Average Annual Daily
Traffic (AADT). Base year traffic flow can be expressed by using a single number i.e. Passenger Car
Unit. It is recommended that traffic count for the purpose of pavement design is conducted for twenty
four hours and for seven days.
 Traffic estimation (Traffic forecasting)
The extent of future traffic depends on the many factors such as economic, land-use and demographic factors. Therefore, traffic forecasting is an
uncertain process. In a developing economy the problem becomes more difficult because such economies are often very sensitive to the world prices
of just one or two commodities. In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the following three categories:

a) Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new pavement were provided. The commonest method of
forecasting normal traffic is to extrapolate time series data on traffic levels and assume that growth will either remain constant in absolute terms
i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year (a linear extrapolation), or constant in relative terms i.e. a fixed percentage increase.
b) Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project road because of the improved pavement, but still
travels between the same origin and destination. Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually travel on the quickest route although this may not
necessarily be the shortest. Thus, surfacing an existing road may divert traffic from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds are
possible on the surfaced road. Origin and destination surveys should be carried out to provide data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.
Diverted traffic is normally assumed to grow at the same rate as traffic on the road from which it is diverted.
c) Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of the road. Generated traffic arises either
because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time reduction or because of the increased development that is brought about
by the road investment. Generated traffic is difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily overestimated. It is only likely to be significant in
those cases where the road investment brings about large reductions in transport costs. For example, in the case of a small improvement within
an already developed highway system, generated traffic will be small and can normally be ignored. However, in the case of a new road allowing
access to a undeveloped area, there could be large reductions in transport costs as a result of changing mode from, for example, animal-based
transport to motor vehicle transport. In such a case, generated traffic could be the main component of future traffic flow.
A  P(1  r ) x

Traffic estimation (Computation of design Traffic)

• The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative number of standard axles to be carried during the design life of the
pavement. This can be computed as:
365∗𝐴∗ 1+𝑟 𝑛 −1
• 𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 = *D*F
𝑟
Where
• N = the cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms of msa
• A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day
• D = Lane distribution factor
• F = Vehicle damage factor
• n = Design life in year
• r = annual growth rate of commercial vehicle (in the absence of detail traffic study r can be taken as 7% i.e 0.07)
• The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following formula: 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 𝑦
• Where, P is the number of commercial vehicles as per the last traffic count; y is the number of years between the last traffic
count and the year of completion of construction.
Flexible Pavement Design
1. Analytical Design , Mechanistic approach, Theoretical Method
2. Empirical Design
Analytical Methods
• Boussinesq’s Theory
- Assumed elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, Hooke’s law
- The design is based on the assumed deflection in the pavement where,
deflection under circular loading of diameter 2a under the centre of the applied
load is given as
2𝑝𝑎 1.5𝑝𝑎
- Δ= 1 − 𝜇2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜇 = 0.5, Δ = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐸 𝐸
1.18𝑝𝑎
- Δ= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟,
𝐸
- First attempt to make analytical solution

Calculate the deflection at the surface of a pavement due to a wheel load of 40

KN and a tire pressure of 0.5MN/m2. the value of E of the pavement and the
subgrade may be assumed to be uniformly equal to 20MN/m2.
Tire pressure=wheel load/contact area=wheel load/pi*a^2
• Tyre pressure=wheel load /contact area
• 0.5*10^6=40*1000/3.14*a*a
Analytical Methods
• Burmister’s theory (Layered system)
- Two layered system (top layer – surfacing, base and sub base and bottom
layer – subgrade)
2a

Pavement Layer Modulus of Elasticity E1

Subgrade Layer Modulus of Elasticity E2
1.5𝑝𝑎
- Δ = 𝐹𝑤 , where Fw is a Displacement factor which depends upon
𝐸2
E1/E2 and the depth of the pavement, represented by graph
- Thus, deflection depends upon thickness of pavement and E1/E2
Design the thickness of a flexible pavement by Burmister’s two layer analysis for a
wheel load of 40KN and a tyre pressure of 0.5MN/m2. The modulus of elasticity of
the pavement material is 150MN/m2 and that of the Subgrade is 30MN/m2. the
value of displacement factor can be taken from the graph.
1.5𝑝𝑎
Δ = 𝐹𝑤 ,
• Burmister Method 𝐸2
• Design the thickness of a flexible pavement by Burmister’s two layer
analysis for a wheel load of 40KN and a tyre pressure of 0.5MN/m2.
The modulus of elasticity of the pavement material is 150MN/m2 and
that of the Subgrade is 30MN/,2. the value of displacement factor can
be taken from the graph.
Empirical Method
• Group Index method
• CBR method
Notes: CVPD
• IRC Guidelines
• Road note 29
• Road Note 31
• AASHTO Method
• Asphalt Institute method
Note: Cummulative ESAL
Group Index Method
• GI value depends on the property of subgrade (percent fines, liquid
limit and plasticity index of the subgrade material)
• GI value ranges from 0 to 20
• Higher the GI value means weaker the soil, so higher thickness of
pavement is required
• The traffic volume is divided into three groups for this method
Traffic Volume (Commercial Vehicle) Number of vehicles per day
Light Less than 50
Medium 50-300
Heavy Over 300
GI method continued
• GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Where,
GI=Group index Number
.a=that portion of material passing 75micron sieve greater than 35 not
exceeding 75 (expressed as a positive whole number (0-40)
.b=that portion of material passing 75micron sieve greater than 15 not
exceeding 55 (expressed as a positive whole number (0-40)
.c= that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 not exceeding 60 (expressed as a
positive whole number 0-20)
.d= that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 not more than 30 ( expressed as
a positive whole number 0-20)
50CVPD
5.6 inch
=17.6

2inch
Soil subgrade sample collected from the site was analysed and the results obtained are as
given below
Soil portion passing 75 micron sieve=50%
Liquid limit =40%
Plasticity lndex=20%
Design the pavement by GI method for the anticipated traffic volume of 450 CVPD.

Solution,

• a=50-35=15
• b=50-15=35
• c=40-40=0
• d=20-10=10
• GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd=6.5
• Provided anticipated traffic volume=450cvpd
Empirical Method
• CBR Method
- It was introduced by California Division of Highways in USA in 1928
- The design curves provides thickness of pavement required for a
given CBR of subgrade and for a given design load to be taken by the
pavement. Three curves for design wheel load 3175 kg, 4082 kg and
5443 kg were developed
- The CBR method is based on the principle of requirement of sufficient
thickness of material for a given CBR.
Empirical Method (CBR method continue)
1.75 1
𝑡= 𝑃∗ −
𝐶𝐵𝑅 𝑝π

1.75𝑃 𝐴
𝑡= −
𝐶𝐵𝑅 π
Empirical Method (CBR method continue)
• IRC recommend, 7 curves for different volume of commercial heavy
vehicles whose laden (Gross) weight is greater than 3 tonnes
• To calculate the number of design vehicle for the design year, it is
recommended to use
𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 𝑛 in commercial vehicle per day, CVPD
,
50mm

cted soil,
00mm

00mm

cm
mpacted soil

m
cm
Surface=8cm
 Numerical
The pavement of an asphalt concrete is to be completed in 3 years is as follows
• Minimum thickness of asphalt concrete top surface=5cm
• Well graded gravel with CBR 95%
• Fairly Graded gravel with CBR 20%
• Compacted soil with CBR 7%
• Subgrade soil with CBR 4%
The road is catering a present traffic of ADT of 1200heavy vehicles with an annual growth rate
of 8%. Design the section using IRC recommended CBR method.
Notes:
Let us assume design period=10 years
Initial traffic=P=1200 cvpd
Traffic at end of construction=A= p(1+r)y
Traffic at end of design year= A(1+r)n =3263cvpd
Or we can write directly
Design Traffic in terms of cvpd= p(1+r)y+n
=3263 cvpd
Numerical
The pavement of an asphalt concrete is to be completed in 5 years is as follows
• Minimum thickness of asphalt concrete top surface=5cm
• CBR% of base 30%
• CBR % of Sub-base 20%
• Subgrade soil with CBR 4%
The road is catering a present traffic of ADT of 800 heavy vehicles with an
annual growth rate of 10%. Design the section using IRC recommended CBR
method.
Soln :
Traffic at end of construction=A= p(1+r)y
Traffic at end of design year= A(1+r)n
Empirical Method (IRC Guidelines-2001 or IRC 37-2001)
• It provides design catalogue
• The catalogue covers the soils having CBR value ranging from 2-10%
and the traffic upto 150msa.
• The flexible pavement has four layer structure
• Requires subgrade strength and cumulative number of standard axle
load for design
Vehicle Damage Factor
Initial Traffic Volume in Terrain
terms of no. of commercial
Rolling/ Hilly
vehicles per day
Plain
0-150 1.5 0.5
150-1500 3.5 1.5
1500 and above 4.5 2.5
Empirical Method (IRC Guidelines, IRC 37-2001)
• Design the pavement for construction of a new two lane carriageway for
design life of 15 years using IRC method, provided that The initial traffic in
the in each direction is 150 CVPD before construction period and growth
rate is 5% and vehicle damage factor based on load survey is 2.5 standard
axle per commercial vehicle. Design CBR of subgrade is 4%.
Hints (Design Steps)
LDF=0.75 and VDF=2.5
Total traffic (P)=2*150=300CVPD
Let us assume construction period(y)= 3 years
Traffic at end of construction period(A)= P(1+r)^y=300(1+0.05)^3=347
Number of cumulative axles at end of design period=
(365*LDF*VDF*((1+r)n-1)/r))*A=9.87*10^6 esal=10msa
•=
• Design the pavement for construction of a new two lane divided
carriageway for design life of 15 years using IRC method, provided
that The initial traffic in the in each direction is 250 CVPD before
construction period and growth rate is 5% and It took 3 year for the
construction and the Design CBR of subgrade is 5%.
Hints (Design Steps)
Traffic at the start of construction(p)=
Traffic at end of construction=A= p(1+r)y =
Number of cumulative axles= (365*LDF*VDF*((1+r)n-1)/r))*A
Empirical method (Road note 29)
• It covers axle load repetitions as against the old method of expressing
traffic in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day
• It utilizes materials such as rolled asphalt and bituminous macadam, lean
concrete, soil cement and wet mix and dry bound macadam for road base
and surfacing course
• graph
• Different curves have been provided for the estimation of
Subbase thickness based on CBR value of subgrade
Cumulative standard axle is used to determine either
Rolled asphalt and dense macadam road base and surfacing
thickness
Lean concrete, coil cement bound granular materials in road base
Wet mix and dry bound macadam road bases
Design Steps
• Determine the number of commercial vehicles expected to use the
roadway on the day it is opened.
• Project the traffic over the life time of roadway
• Convert the number of commercial vehicles into the equivalent single
axle load to be used for design
• Determine the subbase thickness. If the CBR value of the subgrade is
greater than the minimum requirement for the subbase then
obviously no subbase is required.
• Determine the roadbase and surfacing thickness for the selected
material.
 Road note 29 example
Design a divided two lane flexible pavement for a road expected to carry 1100 commercial
vehicles per day at a time of construction with an expected growth of 3%. Assume each
commercial vehicles to contribute 0.72 standard 80KN axles. The design life is 20 years and the
subgrade CBR is 5%. Design the flexible pavement as per road note 29 .
Solution,
• Let us assume construction period=3 years
• LDF=
• VDF=
• Initial traffic (P)=1100CVPD
• Traffic at end of construction (A)=p(1+r)^y
• Cumulative number of standard axle load at end of design period=6.36msa
• From chart,
• Thickness of subbase=260mm
• Similarly from chart,
• Thickness of base (lean concrete)=182mm CBR of subgrade=5%
• Thickness of surface=100mm
• The axle load distribution of commercial vehicle on a highway is as
under.
range %
0-0.5t 10%
2.5-5.0t 15%
5-7.5t 25%
7.5-10t 40%
10.0-12.5t 10%
Calculate the cumulative standard axles to be used in design for
strengthening the pavement when the current traffic on a two lane two
way road is 2000 commercial vehicles per day. The rate of growth of
traffic is 10.5 per annum and the period of construction is 3years. The
design life is 15 years after construction.
Design the pavement if the CBR of Subgrade is 5% using Road Note 29.
Empirical Method (Road Note 31) or
Catalogue Method
• Issued by Transport Research Laboratory (TRL)
• A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen-Surface Roads
• Design are presented in the form of a structural catalogue
• Traffic classes considered : Subgrade strength classes :
6
T1 = < 0.3 (10 ESAL) T5 = 3.0 – 6.0
S1 = < 2 (CBR %) S4 = 8 – 14
T2 = 0.3 – 0.7 T6 = 6.0 – 10
T3 = 0.7 – 1.5 T7 = 10 – 17 S2 = 3 – 4 S5 = 15 – 29
T4 = 1.5 – 3.0 T8 = 17 – 30 S3 = 5 – 7 S6 = > 30
Design a two lane flexible pavement for a road expected to carry 1100
commercial vehicles per day at a time of construction with an expected
growth of 3%. Assume each commercial vehicles to contribute 0.72
standard 80KN axles. The design life is 20 years and the subgrade CBR is
5%. Design the flexible pavement as per road note 31.
Solution,
• Let us assume construction period=3 years
• LDF=0.75
• VDF=0.72
• Initial traffic (P)=1100CVPD
• Traffic at end of construction (A)=p(1+r)^y
• Cumulative number of standard axle load at end of design
period=6.36msa belongs to T6 Class
• Design CBr value of subgrade=5% belong to S3 class
• From the design chart,
AASHTO Method (Empirical Method)
• Based on the results of AASHTO road test conducted on Ottawa, Illinois.
• Many types of test section were prepared and tested.
• The AASHTO Method of road design is in terms of FPS system
• This method Incorporates various design inputs including :
• Pavement Performance (Loss of serviceability).
• Traffic
• Subgrade soil properties
• Materials of construction
• Drainage
• Reliability
Design Method

• For taking W18 no. of axle load repetition, ZR , So, SN(Structural

capacity of the pavement), MR and ΔPSI are required by the
pavement
SN
3.3
D1
SN
4.4
Fin
SN
+a
D3
SN1=a1*D1
SN2=a1*D1+a2D2m2
SN3=a1*D1+a2D2m2+a3D3m3

a=layer
Depen
m=drai
Design Method
• AASHTO method introduced structural number which depends upon pavement layer
thickness, layer coefficient, & drainage coefficient
• Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the subgrade is given as
SN3 = a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2 + a3 D3 m3
Where, SN3 is calculated with the Mr of subgrade
• Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the given subbase layer
would be given by
SN2 = a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2
Where, SN2 is calculated with the Mr of subbase
• Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the given base layer
would be given by
SN1 = a1 D1
Where, SN is calculated with the Mr of base
• The calculation of depth is in inches and the depths are rounded up to nearest 0.5 inch.
Pavement Performance (in terms of PSI)
• Pavement ability to serve traffic at some instances during its life is
expressed in terms of Present Serviceability Index.
• PSI = Function of ( Roughness or slope variance in the two wheel paths,
the extent & type of cracking, patching, and the pavement rutting
displayed at the surface].
• Initial & terminal serviceability indices must be established to compute
the change in serviceability ( DPSI) in the design equation.
• Initial PSI = Function of ( Pavement type & construction quality) [ 4.2 for
flexible & 4.5 for rigid).
• Terminal PSI = Lowest index that is tolerable for a pavement before it
require rehabilitation [ 2.5 for major highways & 2.0 for other roads].
Traffic
• The traffic is taken as the number of Equivalent standard axle load for
the design period. The standard axle load is taken to be 80 kN or
18000 lbs (18 kips) which can be calculated as:
365 ∗ 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ 1 + 𝑟 𝑛 − 1
𝑟
Soil subgrade properties
• The soil subgrade strength is to be expressed in terms of Resilient
Modulus (Mr)
• If CBR of soil is known and <20% then, Mr in terms of psi = 1500*CBR
Materials of construction
• The quality of material used in construction for different layer of
pavement is expressed in layer coefficient
• a3 for quality of material in subbase
• 𝑎3 = 0.227 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸3 − 0.839, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
• a2 for quality of material inbase
• 𝑎2 = 0.249 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸2 − 0.977, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠
• a1 for quality of asphalt concrete surface course
Values of Layer Coefficient

Resilient
a1 CBR a2 CBR a3
Modulus (psi)

450000 0.44 100 0.14 100 0.14

400000 0.42 55 0.12 40 0.12
300000 0.36 45 0.11 30 0.11
200000 0.3 30 0.09 25 0.1
100000 0.2 20 0.07 15 0.09
10 0.08
Drainage
• Water affect the strength of base and roadbed soil.
• The approach is to provide a suitable drainage layer, and by modifying the
structural layer coefficient by incorporating the factor (mi) for the base and
subbase layer coefficients (a2 & a3)

Reliability
• It provides a predetermined level of assurance (R) that the pavement section will
survive the period for which they were designed.
• Reliability Design Factor: Accounts for chance variations in both traffic prediction
& performance prediction.
• (R) is a mean of incorporating some degree of certainty into the design to ensure
that the various design alternatives will last the analysis periods.
Quality of Percentage of time pavement is exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation
Drainage
Less than 1% 1-5% 5-25% Greater than 25%
Excellent 1.40-1.35 1.35-1.30 1.30-1.20 1.20
Good 1.35-1.25 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.00 1.00
Fair 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.00-0.80 0.80
Poor 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.80 0.80-0.60 0.60
Very Poor 1.05-0.95 0.95-0.75 0.75-0.40 0.40

Modifiers, m2 and m3, for layer coefficients for drainage conditions

Overall standard deviation (So)
• Overall standard deviation that accounts for standard deviation (or
variation) in materials & construction, chance variation in traffic
prediction, and normal variation in pavement performance.
• So = 0.45 for flexible pavement (0.40 - 0.50)
• So = 0.35 for rigid pavements (0.30 -0.40)

ZR = Standard Normal Variate, function of Reliability

Reliability (%) Standard Normal Deviate (ZR)
50 0
60 -0.253
70 -0.524
80 -0.841
90 -1.282
95 -1.645
99 -2.327
99.5 -3.090

Standard Normal Deviate for different values of reliability

Design a flexible pavement for a subgrade CBR value of 3.5%. The expected number of repetitions of the standard axle
load is 5million. The reliability needed is95%. The standard deviation is 0.35.
The loss in serviceability expected is 1.9. The layer coefff of asphalt surface course is 0.44. The stone aggregate base
course has a CBR of 100%. The Subbase has CBR of 30%. The drainage condition of the base is GOOD and that of subase
is Excellent. The pavement is subjected to moisture condition approaching saturation to an extent of 20% of the time.
Solution:
a1=0.44 (layer coefficient of surface course)
• 𝑎3 = 0.227 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸3 − 0.839, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙=0.217
• 𝑎2 = 0.249 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸2 − 0.977, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠=0.311
• For drainage coefficient, on given condition
• For base=provided drainage condition is good=m2=1.15 (assume)
• Sor subbase=provided drainage condition is excellent=m3=1.3 (assume)
• E2=1500*CBR%=1500*100=150000psi
• E3=1500*30=45000psi
• Since E2 and E3 are greater than 40000 psi, so we assume the layer thickness of surface and base course
• Assume,
• D1=3inch (asphalt layer thickness 75mm, 100mm, 50mm)
• D2=6inch( base thickness 150mm, 100mm and onwards)
• For D3, calculating SN3
• Resilient modulus of subgrade (Mr)=1500*3.5=5250psi
• Provided Design traffic=5*10^6 Esal
• Change in PSI=1.9
• So=0.35, R=95%
• From Graph, Sn3=5

• Sn3=a1d1+a2d2m2+a3d3m3=5=0.44*3+0.311*6*1.15+0.217*d3*1.3
Design CBR of Subgrade=3.8%=
Resilient modulus of subgrade (M
Design traffic=18.6*10^6Esal
R=95%
S0=0.35

SN1=a1D1=3.4=0.42*D1
Sn2=a1d1+a2d2m2=4.6=0.42*D1
Sn3=a1d1+a2d2m2+a3d3m3

,
For calculating SN1,
we use resilient modulus of base
 Asphalt Institute Method
• Design Principle
• Method is based on two assumed
stress –strain conditions:
• Wheel load (W) is transmitted to the
pavement surface through the tire at a
uniform vertical pressure (Po). The stresses
are then spread through the pavement
structure to produce a reduced max. vertical
stress (P1) at the subgrade surface.
• The wheel load (W) causes the pavement
structure to deflect creating both
compressive & tensile stresses in the
pavement structure.
 Asphalt Institute Method
• Design Principle
• This method considers the
following strains as being
responsible for the most
common traffic related
distresses:
1. Max. Horizontal tensile
strains (𝜖𝑡 ) on the bottom of
the asphalt layer (causes
fatigue cracking).
2. Max. Vertical compressive
strains (𝜖𝑐 ) on the top of
subgrade (causes permanent
deformation).
• 𝜖𝑡 & 𝜖𝑐 are used as failure
criteria
Asphalt Institute Method
• Design Method
• Asphalt Institute thickness design manual was prepared using a computer
program and suitable data.
• The charts have been prepared for a range of traffic load, which are usually
adequate for normal traffic volume encountered in practice, when this range is
exceeded the computer version should be used.
• The manual includes charts for different types of pavement structures, and three
sets of environmental conditions based on the mean annual air temp. (45o(<7oC),
60o (15.5oC), and 75o F(>24oC).
Asphalt Institute Method
• The type of pavements are
1. Full depth asphalt concrete.
2. Asphalt concrete surface and emulsified asphalt base.
1. Type I: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with processed dense-graded
aggregates.
2. Type II: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with semi-processed, crusher-run, pit-
run, or bank-run aggregates.
3. Type III: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with sands or silty sands.
3. Asphalt concrete and untreated aggregate base.
1. Base thickness of 4”
2. Base thickness of 6”
3. Base thickness of 8”
4. Base thickness of 10”
5. Base thickness of 12”.
Design Procedure (Asphalt Institute Method)
1. Select or determine Input data.
2. Select surface and base material.
3. Determine minimum thickness required for input data.
4. Assume a 75mm surface course and find the corresponding base
thickness
5. Divide the thickness of emulsified asphalt base by the thickness
of asphalt concrete base to obtain a substitution ratio
1
𝑑2 𝐸1 3
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑑1 𝐸2
 Subgrade Engineering Properties
• The main engineering property required for
the subgrade is its Resilient Modulus (Mr).
• The design subgrade (Mr) should be based on
expected level of traffic expressed in ESALs.
• To ensure more conservative design, lower
value of (Mr) is used for higher volumes of
traffic.
• Mr = 10.3CBR in Mpa
• It is recommended that (Mr) is found for (6 to
8) samples of subgrade.
• Arrange Mr values in descending order.
• Plot as cumulative distribution.
• Chose design subgrade (Mr) from the curve
as follows:
Subbase & Base engineering Properties
• Certain requirements are needed, which are given in terms of
Step 3 “Selection of thickness for given
repetition of Load
For Asphalt concrete laid over unbound
granular base (contd)
• The minimum thickness for the pavement type using untreated
aggregate base is given in table as:
Design a flexible pavement by using asphalt institute method from the following
data of a stretch of existing four lane divided Carriageway,
• Current traffic (Sum of Both Direction) = 380 CVPD
• % of single, Tandem and Tridem axles are 45%, 45% and 10% respectively
• Vehicle damage factor (based on axle load survey)= 5.2
• Traffic growth rate=6%
• Design period=15 years
• Construction period=16 months
• CBR of the subgrade to be taken=5%
• Elastic modulus of asphalt concrete surface course, bituminous treated base
and Granular Sub-base course are 2500MPa, 1200MPa and 125MPa
respectively.
1. Design a flexible pavement by using asphalt institute method from
the following data of a stretch of existing two lane roads,
Current traffic of 80KN equivalent single axle load= 0.95*103EAL/day
• Traffic growth rate=7.5%
• Design period=15 years
• construction period=16 months=16/12 year
• CBR of the subgrade to be taken=5%
• Elastic modulus of asphalt concrete surface course, bituminous treated
base and Granular Sub-base course are 2500MPa, 1200MPa and 125MPa
respectively.
1
𝑑2 𝐸1 3
• Notes 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑑1 𝐸2