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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

3 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROP

1. INTRODUCTION

Every crop requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed interval, throughout its
period of growth. If the natural rain is sufficient to satisfy both these requirements, no irrigation
water is required for raising that crop. But in a tropical country like India, the natural rainfall
is either insufficient or the water does not fall regularly.
The area where irrigation is a must for agriculture is called the arid region, while the area in
which inferior crops can be grown without irrigation is called semi-arid region.

2. IMPORTANT TERMS

2.1. Crop Period and Base Period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting
is called the crop period. The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its
sowing to its last watering before harvesting is called the base period or base of the crop.
Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for all practical purposes, they are
taken as one and the same thing, and generally expressed in days. Growth period, base
period crop period are same thing and represented by ‘B’.
2.2. Delta of a Crop
Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed interval of time,
throughout its period of growth.
The summation of the total water depth supplied during the base period of a crop for its
full growth will evidently represent the total quantity of water required by the crop for its
full growth. It may be expressed in hectare-m or simply depth to which water would stand
on the irrigated area, if the total quantity supplied were to stand above the surface
without percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop
to come to maturity is called its delta (Δ).

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Delta for certain crops
Delta on field
Crop
(cm)
1. Sugarcane 120

2. Rice 120

3. Tobacco 75

4. Cotton 50

5. Wheat 40

6. Barley 30

7. Maize 25

8. Fodder 22.5

9. Peas 15
2.3. Duty of Water
The duty of the water is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of
the crop it matures. It may be defined as the number of hectare of land irrigated for full
growth of a given crop by supply of 1 m3/sec of water continuously during the entire
base period (B) of that crop. The duty of water is generally represented by D.
Relation between Duty and Delta:
Let there be a crop of base period B days. Let one cumec of water be applied to this
crop on the field for B days.
⟹ V = 1 × 60 × 60 × 24 × B m3
V = 86400 B m3
By the definition of duty, one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D hectares of
land. Therefore, this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D sqm of
area.
Total depth of the water applied on this land.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 86400 𝐵 8.64 𝐵
= = 4
= 𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 10 𝐷 𝐷
8.64 𝐵
∴ 𝛥 = 𝑚
𝐷
864 𝐵
𝛥 = 𝑐𝑚
𝐷
Where,
B is in days and D is in ha/m3
Duty of crop is of two types:
(i) Flow Duty: In direct irrigation, duty is always expressed in hectare/ cumec. It is
them called as flow duty or duty.

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(ii) Quantity Duty: In storage irrigation, duty may sometimes be expressed in
hectares/million cubic meter of water available in the reservoir. It eventually means that
every million cubic meters of water available in the reservoir will mature so many
hectares of a particular crop. Hence, the irrigation capacity of the reservoir is directly
known. When duty is expressed in this manner, it is called quantity duty or storage
duty.
Duty of water depends upon following factors
(i) Type of crop: Duty will be less for a crop requiring more water and vice versa.
(ii) Climate and Season: Duty includes the water lost in evaporation and percolation.
Hence, duty varies from season to season and also from time to time in the same
season.
(iii) Useful Rainfall: More the useful rainfall, less will be the requirement of irrigation
water, and hence, more will be the duty of irrigation water.
(iv) Type of Soil: If the permeability of the soil under the irrigated crop is high, the
water lost due to percolation will be more and hence, duty will be less.
(v) Efficiency of Cultivation Method: If the of cultivation method is faulty and less
efficient, resulting in the wastage of water, the duty of water will naturally be less. If
the irrigation water is used economically, then the duty of water will improve, as the
same quantity of water would be able to irrigate more area.
Example: Find the delta of a crop having duty 460 hectare/cumec and base period of
45 days.
Solution:
Delta of a crop given as
8.64 𝐵
𝛥 = 𝑚
𝐷
8.64 × 45
⇒ ∆= = 0.84 𝑚 = 84 𝑐𝑚
460
2.4. Gross Commanded Area
This is the total area which can be irrigated which can be irrigated without considering
the limitation of irrigation system.
2.5. Culturable commanded Area
The cultivable part of gross commanded area is known as culturable commanded area.
2.6. Intensity of Irrigation
It is defined as the percentage of culturable commanded area irrigated during a
particular season or annually.

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2.7. Kharif-Rabi Ratio or Crop Ratio
From the agricultural point of view, the year can be divided into two principal cropping
seasons i.e. Rabi and Kharif. Normally, Rabi starts from 1st October and ends on 31st
March while Kharif starts from 1st April and ends on 30th September.
The Kharif crops are rice, bajra, jowar, maize, cotton, tobacco etc.
The Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, mustard, potatoes etc.
Kharif crops are also called ‘summer crops’ and Rabi crops as ‘winter crops’.
There are two more seasons, Zaid and Perennial. Zaid season is from April to June and
includes vegetables fruits and fodder whereas perennial crop have base period ≥ 300
days. Sugarcane is a perennial crop.
The area to be irrigated for Rabi crop in generally more than that for the kharif crop.
This ratio of proposed areas, to be irrigated in kharif season to that in the rabi season
is called, Kharif-Rabi ratio. This ratio is generally, 1:2 i.e. Kharif area is one half of the
Rabi area.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐾ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛
2.8. Paleo Irrigation
Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown the land is very dry. This
particularly happens at the time of sowing of Rabi crops because of hot September when
the soil may be too dry to be sown easily. In such case, the soil is moistened with water,
so as to help in sowing of the crops. This is known as Paleo irrigation.
2.9. Kor Watering
The first watering which is given to a crop, when the crop is a few centimeter high, is
called kor-watering. It is usually the maximum single watering followed by other
waterings at usual interval as required by drying of leaves. The kor watering must be
applied within a fixed limited period called kor period.
The kor period for rice varies from 2 to 4 weeks and that for wheat varies from 3 to 8
weeks.
2.10. Time Factor
The ratio of actual operating period of a canal to the crop period is called the time factor
of the canal.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
2.11. Capacity Factor
The ratio of mean supply discharge in a canal to its design full capacity is known as
capacity factor.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

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3. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES

Efficiencies is the ratio of the water output to the water input and is usually expressed as
percentage. Efficiency is always inversely proportional to the losses. Water is lost in irrigation
during various processes and therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation efficiencies, as
given below.
3.1. Water Conveyance Efficiency (𝛈c)
This is the ratio of the water delivered into fields from the outlet point of the channel to
the water entering into the channel at its starting point.

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝑓 𝑄𝑓

𝜂𝑐 = = × 100 = × 100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑐 𝑄𝑐
It also takes the conveyance or transit losses into consideration.
3.2. Water Application Efficiency (𝛈a)
It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of the crops to the quantity
of water actually delivered into the field. It may also be called on farm efficiency, as it
takes into consideration the water lost in the farm.

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑅𝑍

𝜂𝑎 = = × 100
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝑓
Also,
VRZ = Vf – Run off losses.

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3.3. Water Storage Efficiency (𝛈s)
It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the water needed
in the root zone prior to irrigation.
Mathematically, it is expressed as
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑅𝑍
𝜂𝑠 = = × 100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑍
here,
𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑍 = volume of water required in root zone
3.4. Water Use Efficiency(𝛈u)
It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity of
water delivered. Mathematically, it can be expressed as follow.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑢
𝜂𝑢 = = × 100
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝑓
here,
Vu = volume of water used by plant
Vf = volume of water supplied to field.
3.5. Water Distribution Efficiency (𝛈d)
The water distribution efficiency represents the extent to which the water has penetrated
to a uniform depth, throughout the field. When the water has penetrated uniformly
throughout the field, the deviation from the mean depth is zero and water distribution
efficiency is 1.
The effectiveness of irrigation may also be measured by its water distribution efficiency,
which is defined below.
𝑑
𝜂𝑑 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐷
here,
D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation.
d = Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean.
Example: Water from a distributary canal carrying discharge 0.35 cumec is used to
irrigate a field of area 650 hectares. If the discharge reaching the field is only 0.30 cumec,
calculate the water conveyance efficiency. If the water stored in the roots of plant is 0.28
cumec, what will be the water application efficiency.
Solution:
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.30
Water conveyance efficiency = = × 100 = 85.71%
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 0.35
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 0.28
Water application efficiency = = × 100 = 93.33%
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.30

Example: The depths of penetrations along the length of a border strip at point 30 m
apart were probed. Their observed values are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 meter. Compute
water distribution efficiency.

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Solution:
2.0+1.9+1.8+1.6+1.5
Mean depth = 𝐷 =
5
8.8
⇒ 𝐷 = = 1.76 𝑚.
5

Values of deviations from the mean are,

(2.0 – 1.76), (1.9 – 1.76), (1.8 – 1.76), (1.6 – 1.76), (1.5 – 1.76)
⇒ The absolute value of these deviations from the mean are 0.24, 0.14, 0.04, 0.16 and
0.26.
The average of these absolute values of deviations from the mean
0.24 + 0.14 + 0.04 + 0.16 + 0.26
= 𝑑 =
5
0.84
⇒ 𝑑 = = 0.168𝑚.
5
Now, the efficiency of water distribution (ηd)
𝑑
𝜂𝑑 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐷
0.168
⇒ 𝜂𝑑 = [1 − ] × 100 = 90.5%
1.76
Hence, the water distribution efficiency = 90.5%

4. CONSUMPTIVE USE OR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (Cu)

Consumptive use for a particular crop can be defined as the total amount of water used by the
plant in transpiration and evaporation from adjacent soils or from plant leaves, in any specified
time. The value of consumptive use (Cu) may be different for different crops and may be
different for the same crop at different times and places.
Mathematically,
𝑇 + 𝐸
𝐶𝑢 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵
Here,
T = transpiration
E = Evaporation
B = Base period
Values of monthly consumptive use are used to determine the irrigation requirement of the
crop.
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑧 𝑚𝑚
Frequency of irrigation = = =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Example: If the moisture holding capacity of a soil is 25 cm then what is the frequency of
irrigation if the consumptive use of water is 8 mm/day?
Solution
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 250
Frequency of irrigation = = = 31.25 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 ≈ 31 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 8

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4.1. Determination of Consumptive Use
The methods developed in order to estimate evapotranspiration values of different crops
are classified into two categories:
(a) Direct Method: These methods are either experimental or based on certain
observations. These includes:
(i) Tank Lysimeter method: In this method tanks of cylindrical shape having cross
section 10 m2 depth of 3 m are used. The crop is grown in the tank and these tanks rest
on perforated base plate to simulate the field conditions and the water is applied to the
crop through a measuring mechanism.

𝑑𝑎 − 𝑑𝑒
∴ 𝐶𝑢 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵
here,
da = depth of applied water
de = depth of excess water
Corresponding to optimum water requirement, for maximum growth of the plant the
difference of water applied and excess water collected coming out from the perforated
base plate is called as Cu of water by the respective crop.
(ii) Field Experimental Plots: In this method, irrigation water is applied in selected
field plots such a way that there is neither deep percolation nor surface runoff. A plot is
made between yield obtained from different fields to the amount of water used. For each
type of crop yield increases first with increase in water then start decreasing rapidly. The
break point of curve is known as consumptive use of water.
(iii) Inflow outflow studies: The consumptive use is obtained by studying inflow and
outflow in a certain area.
𝐸 = 𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝑂 + 𝐺𝑠 − 𝐺𝑒
Where,
E = Consumptive use
I = Total inflow
P = Precipitation in that area
O = Total outflow

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Gs = Ground water storage in the starting
Ge = Ground water storage at the end of year
Example: What will be the consumptive use of water if the land having area 465 hectares
receives total inflow equal to 354 Mm3 of water in a year and outflow is 285 Mm3. Assume
the land receives annual precipitation of 645 mm and there are no changes in ground
water storage.
Solution.
Total inflow = 354 Mm3
Total outflow = 285 Mm3
Annual precipitation = 645 mm = 645 × 10-3 × 465 ×104 = 3×106 m3 = 3 Mm3
So, evaporation losses = 354 +3 – 285 = 72 Mm3
72×106
Thus, consumptive use in one year = = 15.48 𝑚𝑚
465×104

(b) Indirect Method: These are based on empirical formula given by different scientists.
(i) Blaney – Criddle Formula: It states that the monthly consumptive use is given as
𝑘. 𝑝
𝐶𝑢 = [1.8𝑡 + 32]
40
here,
k = crop factor, it is determined by experiment for each crop, under the environmental
conditions of the particular area.
t = Mean monthly temperature is °C
p = monthly percent of annual day light hours that occur during the period.
This formula has been extensively used throughout the world for estimating seasonal
water requirements. However, it was found that the value so k based on seasonal
determinations were too low for the short periods between irrigations.
(ii) Hargreaves Class Pan Evaporation Method: In this method, evapotranspiration
is related to pan evaporation by a constant k called consumptive use coefficient. The
formula can be written as
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶𝑢)
= 𝑘
𝑃𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐸𝑝 )
Ep can be measured experimentally as well as empirically.
(iii) Penman Equation: This equation is derived by combining the energy balance and
mass transfer approach of the computation of evaporation and transpiration respectively.
It is given as,
𝐴𝐻𝑛 + 𝐸𝑎 𝛾
𝐸𝑡 =
𝐴+𝛾
Where,
Et = Daily Potential evapotranspiration
A = Slope of the saturation vapour pressure vs temperature curve at the mean air
temperature
Hn = Net incoming solar radiation expressed in mm of evaporable water per day
Ea = A parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit

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γ = psychromatic constant
Factors affecting consumptive use are as follows:
(i) Humidity and climatic condition: As the humidity increases, consumptive use
decreases.
(ii) Mean monthly temperature: As the temperature increases, evaporation also
increases and this leads to increase in Cu.
(iii) Crop period: As the crop period increase the consumptive use also increases.
(iv) Soil and its topography: If the soil is permeable then there will be more
consumptive use and porous soil have less consumptive use.
(v) Wind velocity: As the wind speed increases, the consumptive use increases
accordingly.

5. IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS

(i) Effective rainfall (Peff): It is that portion of natural rainfall which falls during the growth

period of crop and is available for the evapotranspiration need of the crop.

(ii) Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR): It is that part of consumptive use which

has to be supplied by the provision of irrigation and mathematically it is expressed as following.

CIR = Cu – Peff.

(iii) Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR): It takes into consideration the CIR as well as

leaching requirement (i.e. to reduce the salinity of soil in root zone). Mathematically, it is

expressed as follow.

NIR = CIR + LR

Where,

LR = Leaching requirement of soil

(iv) Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR): It takes into consideration the surface runoff
losses occurring over the field and is expressed as following.
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐹𝐼𝑅 =
𝜂𝑎
here, ηa = surface runoff losses.
(v) Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR): It takes into consideration the conveyance and
transmission losses occurring in a canal and is expressed as following.
𝐹𝐼𝑅
𝐺𝐼𝑅 =
𝜂𝑐

****

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