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SURVEYING

2 LINEAR MEASUREMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative merit depends
upon the degree of precision required. These can mainly be divided into three categories.
(i) Direct Measurement: Measurements are made on the ground with the help of a chain or
tape.
(ii) Measurements by Optical Means: Distances are calculated based on observations made
using optical instruments such as telescopes.
(iii) Electromagnetic Methods: Propagation, reflection and reception of Electromagnetic
waves are used to measure distances.

2. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING

2.1. Chain: Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at

the ends and joined with each other by three small circular or oval wire rings. These rings

offer flexibility to the chain.

There are following types of chains.

(i) Metric chain: 20 m [100 links]/30m [150 links]/30 m [100 links]

(ii) Gunter’s chain: 66 ft [100 links]

(iii) Engineers chain: 100 ft [100 links]

(iv) Revenue chain: 33 ft [16 links]

2.2. Tape: Tapes are used for more accurate measurements and are classed according to the

material of which they are made such as follows,

(i) Cloth Tape: It is rarely used for accurate measurements because it is affected by

moisture, likely to twist and has the problem of stretching.

(ii) Metallic Tape: It is made of brass and copper. It is superior to cloth tape.

(iii) Steel Tape: It is made of steel and superior to metallic tape.

(iv) Invar Tape: It is made from an alloy of nickel and steel. Its coefficient of thermal

expansion is very low as compared to steel. It is generally used for baseline measurement

because of high degree of precision as the error induced due to temperature variations is

very low.

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2.3. Location Devices

(i) Arrows: An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain length measured on
the ground. Arrows are made of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in
diameter and are black enamelled. The length of the arrow may vary from 25 cm to 50
cm, the most common length being 40 cm.

(ii) Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark positions of the stations or terminal points of
a survey line. They are generally 15 cm long, tapered at the end.

2.4. Ranging devices

(i) Ranging Rod: It has a length of either 2m or 3m; the 2m length being more common.
These are painted in alternative bands of either black and white or red and white or
black, red and white in succession. Ranging rods are used for ranging some intermediate
points in the survey line.

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(ii) Offset Rod: An offset rod is similar to a ranging rod and has a length of 3m. These

are mainly used for measuring rough offsets nearby.

2.5. Instruments for Setting Out Right Angles

(i) Cross Staff: It is the simplest instrument for setting out right angles. It consists of

either a frame or a box with two pairs of vertical slits at right angles to each other.

(ii) Optical Square: It is more convenient and accurate than the cross staff. It is made

up of a pair of mirrors mounted in a box at 45° to each other which collectively allow for

setting up right angles as the total angle of deflection from the two mirrors is 90°.

(iii) Prism Square: It works on the same principle as the optical square but is more

precise since instead of two independent mirrors, a single prism is used to get the 90°

angle of deflection.

(iv) Site Square: It is made up of a cylindrical metal case containing two telescopes set

at 90° to each other.

3. DIFFERENT LINES IN CHAIN SURVEYING

(i) Main Line: Line joining main stations.

(ii) Base Line: Biggest central line which will divide the whole area into two parts.
(iii) Check Line: Any line used to check accuracy of survey is known as check line. Accuracy
is represented as 1 in r (1 m error over r m measurement)

(iv) Tie Line: Any line used for detailing of features in an area.

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4. ERROR DUE TO INCORRECT CHAIN

If the length of the chain in measuring length of the line is not equal to the true length or the
designated length, the measured length of the line will not be correct and suitable correction
will have to be applied.
If the chain is too long, the measured distance will be less. The error will, therefore, be negative
and the correction is positive. Similarly, if the chain is too short, the measured distance will be
more, the error will be positive and the correction will be negative. Mathematically,
Error = Measured value – True value
Correction = True value – measured value
Correction = -Error
4.1. Correction Due to Incorrect Length of Chain/Tape
Let,
L = True length of chain (designated length),
L’ = Wrong length of chain,
l’ = Wrong length of line measured,
l = true length of line measured,
𝐿′
∴ 𝑙 = ( ) × 𝑙′
𝐿

4.2. Correction Due to Slope

In chain survey, distance between two points is always measured on a horizontal plane.
But due to slope present on ground, distance might have to be measured along sloping
ground. Slope correction is required in such a case. This correction is always negative.
Let,
Θ = Slope of the ground,
Lo = Measured length,
Cslope = Lo (1- cosθ)
4.3. Correction Due to Temperature
Let,
Tm = Temperature at the time of measurement
T0 = Temperature at the time of standardization
α = Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Ctemp = Lα(Tm – To)
4.4. Correction Due to Pull
Let,
P0 = Pull at time of standardization
Pm = pull at time of measurement
Ax = cross section area of tape.
Et = modulus of elasticity of tape.
L0 = measured length
(𝑃𝑚 –𝑃0 )𝐿0
Cpull =
𝐴𝑥 𝐸𝑥

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4.5. Correction Due to Sag

When the tape is stretched between two pints, it takes the form of a horizontal catenary
and the measured distance along the curve is always shorter than the horizontal distance.
The correction due to sag is always negative.
Let,
W = total weight of tape
w = weight per m length
𝑊 2 𝐿0 𝑤2 𝐿30
Csag = 2 = 2
24𝑃𝑚 24𝑃𝑚

Normal Tension: It is the value of pull corresponding to which positive pull correction
becomes exactly the same as the negative sag correction so that both neutralize each
other, and we don’t need to apply any of the two corrections.
(𝑃𝑚 –𝑃0 )𝐿0 𝑊 2 𝐿0
= 2
𝐴𝑥 𝐸𝑥 24𝑃𝑚

4.6. Correction due to Misalignment

The correction due to misalignment is always negative since the measured distance is
always more if the tape is stretched out of line.
Let,
d = perpendicular deviation
𝑑2
Ch =
2𝐿

4.7. Correction due to Mean Sea Level

The distance between two points at the mean sea level is called the Geodetic distance.
This correction is negative if the measurement is above MSL (Mean Sea Level).
Let,
D = Equivalent length at MSL
h = Mean equivalent of the base line above MSL
R = Radius of earth
𝐿ℎ
Cmsl =
𝑅

Example: The distance as measured between two points 597.76m and 528.24m above
the mean sea level was 730m. Calculate the horizontal distance at mean sea level. Radius
of earth is 6370 km.
Sol.
The two points are not at the same level, so in addition to correction for MSL, slope
correction will also be applied.
Mean elevation above MSL, h = (597.76 + 528.33)/2 = 563m
𝐿ℎ 730×563
Cmsl = = = 0.0645𝑚
𝑅 6370×1000

Corrected length for MSL, L1 = 730 – 0.0645 = 729.935m

Horizontal Length = √(𝐿1 )2 − ℎ2 = √729.9352 − (597.76 − 528.24)2 = 726.62𝑚

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5. LIMITING LENGTH OF OFFSET

The allowable length of offset depends upon the degree of accuracy required, scale, method of

setting out the perpendicular and the nature of ground. It is the maximum length of offset

allowed in chain survey due to which no error is reflected on the map. Maximum length of error

allowed on the map is 0.025 cm.

5.1. Error in Laying Direction

Here,

P = actual point on ground

P1 = Point located on paper

θ = error in laying direction

Length of error on ground,

PP1 ≈ PP2 = lsinθ

Scale of map,

1cm = Sm

Maximum Length of error on paper,

𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 0.025 cm
𝑠

Limiting length of offset,

0.025𝑆
l=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

5.2. Error in Laying Direction as Well as in Linear Measurement

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Here,

P = Actual point on ground

P1 = point located on paper

θ = error in laying direction

x = error in linear measurement

Length of error on ground,

PP1 = √(𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 )2 + 𝑥 2

Scale of map,

1cm = Sm

Maximum Length of error on paper,

√(𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 )2 +𝑥 2
= 0.025 cm
𝑆

Limiting length of offset,

1
l = sin  √(0.025𝑆)2 – 𝑥 2

Example: An offset is laid out 2 0 from its true direction on the field. If the scale of plotting

is 1km to 1 cm, find the maximum length of the offset so that the displacement of the

point on the paper may not exceed 0.25 mm.

Sol.
𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
Displacement of the point on the paper = = cm
𝑆 10

This should not exceed 0.025 cm

𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
Hence, = 0.025
10

0.025
⇒l= ×10 = 7.16 m
𝑠𝑖𝑛2°

6. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: The measured length of a survey line was 1500m when it was measured with a
30m chain. It was later found out that the chain was 12cm too short. Find the true length of
the survey line.
Ans. 1506.02m
Problem 2: Two points are at different levels and the measured distance between them was
526m. Find the a) correction in distance, b) horizontal distance if the slope is 6 °.
Ans. -2.88m, 523.12m.

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Problem 3: A 30 m tape was used to measure a line at a temperature of 37°C and the
measured length was 915m. If the standard temperature was 30°C and the slope of the ground
was 3°15’ downwards, find the true length of the line.
The coefficient of expansion is 12×10-6 per °C.
Ans. 913.60m
Problem 4: Calculate the sag correction of a 30m steel chain under a pull of 150N. Unit weight
of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and the area of cross section is 0.05 sq.cm.
Ans. 0.0074m
Problem 5: A steel tape was standardized at 55°F and a pull of 10kg has a nominal length of
20m. What will be the correction for the tape length if the temperature at the time of
measurement was 80°F and the pull was 16 kg. Weight of 1 cm 3 is 7.86g, weight of tape =
0.8kg and E = 2.11×106kg/cm2. Coefficient of expansion of tape is 6.2×10-6/°F.
Ans. +0.00214m
Problem 6: A nominal distance of 30m was set out with a 30m steel tape from a mark on the
top of one peg to a mark on the top of another, the tape being in catenary under a pull of 10kg
and at a mean temperature of 70°F. The top of one peg was 0.25m below the top of the other.
The top of the higher peg was 460m above mean sea level. Calculate the exact horizontal
distance between the marks on the two pegs and reduce it to mean sea level, if the tape was
standardized at a temperature of 60°F, in catenary under a pull of 12kg. Take,
Radius of earth = 6370 km,
Density of tape = 7.86 g/cm3,
Section of tape = 0.08 sq.cm,
Thermal coefficient = 6×10-6/°F,
Young’s modulus = 2×106kg/cm2.
Ans. -0.0132m
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