Physical Science

1st Quarter -Atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus

at its center
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 Big Bang Theory states that the universe began in an
instant, billions of years ago, in an enormous explosion.
This does not refer to conventional explosion but rather .
an incredible burst of expansion. -Electrons orbit the nucleus in empty space.
 Georges Lemaître is the proponent of the Big Bang -Discovered through the gold foil experiment.
Theory.  Bohr Model
 Edwin Hubble observed that the universe is -Proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913.
continuously expanding. -Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels or
 Nuclear fusion is the process in which two or more shells.
atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more -Electrons can jump between these energy levels by
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles absorbing or emitting specific amounts of energy.
(neutrons or protons). Wave Mechanical Model (Quantum Mechanical Model)
 Nuclear of helium and einsteinium will give you  Electron Cloud Model
nobelium. -Modern understanding of the atom.
 -Describes electrons as existing within electron
 Electron: clouds or orbitals, representing the probable
-Charge: Negative (-1) locations of electrons in an atom.
-Mass: Approximately 9.109 x 10^-31 kilogram  Polarity
-Location:Orbits the nucleus of an atom in electron  Polar Bonds: occur when there is a significant difference
Shells in electronegativity between two atoms in a molecule.
-Discovered: Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897  Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to
 Proton: attract and hold onto electrons.
-Charge: Positive (+1 )  Characteristics: In polar bonds, the electrons are pulled
-Mass: Approximately 1.673 x 10^-27 kilogram closer to the more electronegative atom, creating a
-Location: Found in the nucleus of an atom partial negative charge (δ-) on that atom and a partial
-Discovered: Ernest Rutherford positive charge (δ+) on the less electronegative atom.
 Neutron:  Examples of polar covalent bonds include
-Charge: Neutral (No electrical charge) -HCl and H2O, where hydrogen and chlorine/oxygen
-Mass: Approximately 1.675 x 10^-27 kilograms have different electronegativities, leading to
-Location: Found in the nucleus of an atom alongside unequal sharing of electrons
protons -NH2 (amine group) because of the unequal sharing
-Discovered: James Chadwick of electrons between nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H)
 Atom with a greater number of protons compare to atoms in the NH2 group.
electrons it has a positive charge. -H2S (hydrogen sulfide) is a polar molecule because
 Atom with a greater number of electrons compare to of its bent molecular geometry and the difference in
protrons it has a negative charge. electronegativity between hydrogen and sulfur
 Atomic Number: atoms.
-Represents the number of protons in the nucleus of  Non Polar molecules have an even distribution of
an atom. electrons, meaning there is no significant difference in
-Determines the element's identity; each element electronegativity between the atoms in the molecule.
has a unique atomic number.  Nonpolar molecules often consist of atoms of the same
-Elements on the periodic table are arranged in element (e.g., O2, N2) or atoms with similar
order of increasing atomic number. electronegativities.
-In a neutral atom, the number of protons (atomic  They can also occur in symmetrical molecules where the
number) is equal to the number of electrons. polarities of individual bonds cancel each other out
 Mass Number: (e.g., CCl4, CH4).
-Represents the total number of protons and  Nonpolar molecules do not have a net dipole moment
neutrons in an atom's nucleus. because the charges are evenly distributed.
-Determines the atom's mass or atomic mass.  Bonding:
 Number of Protons = Atomic Number of the Element Nonpolar covalent bonds occur between atoms with
 Number of Electrons = Number of Protons similar electronegativities, leading to equal sharing
 Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number of electrons.
 Mass Number = Number of Neautron + Atomic Number  In nonpolar molecules, the electrons are shared equally
 Plum Pudding Model (Thomson Model) among the atoms, resulting in a lack of partial positive
-Proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904. or negative charges.
-Atom is a positively charged sphere with negatively  Physical Properties:
charged electrons embedded throughout, like plums Nonpolar molecules tend to have lower boiling and
in a pudding. melting points compared to polar molecules of
 Rutherford Model similar size.
-Proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911.
 They are often hydrophobic and do not dissolve well in Calcium Oxide (CaO): Calcium (Ca) transfers two electrons to
polar solvents like water but dissolve well in nonpolar oxygen (O) to form Ca2+ and O2- ions, creating the ionic
solvents. compound CaO.
 Examples:  Inorganic Soil:
 Diatomic Molecules: Elements such as oxygen (O2), -Comprises mineral-based particles.
nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen (H2) exist as nonpolar -Common in industrial settings and construction sites.
molecules in their diatomic forms. -Examples include sand, silt, clay, and rocks.
 Hydrocarbons: Compounds consisting of only carbon -Does not contain carbon
and hydrogen, like methane (CH4) and hexane (C6H14), -Acid cleaners are used in this type of soil
are nonpolar due to the similar electronegativities of  Organic Soil:
carbon and hydrogen. -Contains decayed plant and animal matter.
 Covalent Bond form between nonmetal atoms by -Rich in organic compounds, nutrients, and microorganisms.
sharing electrons to achieve a full outer electron shell. -Common in forests, gardens, and agricultural areas.
Sharing Electrons: -Dark and fertile due to the presence of humus.
-Atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to -Alkaline cleaners work best on this type of dirt.
attain a stable electron configuration.  Petroleum Soil:
- Shared electrons belong to the valence shells of -Results from oil spills or leakage.
both atoms, forming a molecule. -Contains hydrocarbon-based substances.
Characteristics: -Often found in areas affected by oil spills, such as oceans or
-Covalent bonds occur between nonmetals and industrial sites.
nonmetals. -Can contaminate soil, water, and wildlife.
-Electrons are shared to achieve a stable, octet (or  Combination Soil:
duet, in the case of hydrogen and helium) electron -Contains a mix of inorganic and organic materials.
configuration. -Common in natural environments, gardens, and farmlands.
Polarity: -Combination soils often provide suitable conditions for plant
-Covalent bonds can be polar or nonpolar based on growth due to the balanced presence of minerals and organic
the electronegativity difference between the atoms. matter.
-Polar covalent bonds have an uneven sharing of  Solvent:
electrons, leading to partial positive and negative Definition: Solvents dissolve dirt and stains.
charges on the atoms. Examples:
- -Nonpolar covalent bonds involve equal sharing of Water: Universal solvent used in many cleaning solutions.
electrons. Alcohol: Ethanol or isopropyl alcohol, effective for
Examples: disinfection.
-Polar Covalent Bond: HCl (hydrogen chloride) - Acetone: Commonly used in nail polish removers.
chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen,  Surfactant:
creating a partial negative charge on chlorine and a Definition: Surfactants reduce surface tension, allowing the
partial positive charge on hydrogen. cleaning solution to spread and penetrate.
-Nonpolar Covalent Bond: O2 (oxygen gas) - the Examples:
electronegativity difference between two oxygen Detergents: Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) found in
atoms is negligible, resulting in equal sharing of dishwashing soap.
electrons. Soaps: Sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids, like sodium
 Ionic Bond form between a metal and a nonmetal by the stearate in bar soap.
transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Biosurfactants: Natural surfactants produced by
Electron Transfer: microorganisms, used in eco-friendly cleaners.
-Metal atoms lose electrons to become positively  Chelating Agents:
charged ions (cations), while nonmetal atoms gain Definition: Chelating agents bind to metal ions, preventing
these electrons to become negatively charged ions them from interfering with cleaning agents.
(anions). Examples:
Characteristics: EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid): Commonly used in
-Ionic bonds occur between metals and nonmetals. household cleaners to remove mineral deposits.
-Attraction between oppositely charged ions results Citric Acid: Natural chelating agent found in citrus fruits, used
in the formation of an ionic compound. in environmentally friendly cleaners.
Polarity:  Saponifiers:
-Ionic bonds are polar due to the significant Definition: Saponifiers convert fats and oils into soap through
difference in electronegativity between metals and a process called saponification.
nonmetals. Examples:
Examples: Sodium Hydroxide (Lye): Converts fats/oils into soap in the
Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Sodium (Na) loses an electron to soap-making process.
become Na+ (cation), and chlorine (Cl) gains that electron to Potassium Hydroxide: Used in liquid soap production.
become Cl- (anion), resulting in the formation of the ionic  Builders:
compound NaCl. Definition: Builders enhance the cleaning efficiency of
surfactants by softening water and preventing the
precipitation of minerals.
Examples:
Phosphates: Traditional builders, but their use is restricted
due to environmental concerns.
 Preservatives:
Definition: Preservatives prevent microbial growth,
prolonging the shelf life of cleaning products.

Be familiarize with different symbols/labels below.