OCENANIC MOVEMENTS :THE OCEAN CURRENTS

PAPER NAME: - OCENOGRAPHY

SUBJECT: - GEOGRAPHY (HONS.)
SEMESTER: - B.A. –IV
PAPER CODE: - (CCT 401)
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY,
DR. SHYMA PRASAD MUKHERJEE UNIVERSITY, RANCHI.
 THE OCEAN CURRENTS

INTRODUCTION
Seas and Oceans are dynamic ecosystems. Oceans are very vast bodies of water representing a
major portion of the hydrosphere. Air-sea interface is an interactive interface. The wind blowing on the
surface of the ocean has the greatest effect on the movement of surface water. The sunlight falling on
the ocean surface has a very significant impact on the temperature of the sea water. These factors induce
the oceanic water masses to move and circulate. Both Vertical and horizontal movement of both surface
and deep water masses happen in the world’s oceans. They are called as Ocean currents. The Ocean
water circulation is an important aspect of study in oceanography. We need to understand the oceanic
currents, waves and tides and their distribution on the globe. This lesson is focused to learn about ocean
water currents.

MEASUREMENT OF OCEAN CURRENTS

When Benjamin Franklin, was a postmaster in the American colonies. In his time, all the letters
and postal packages were transported across the continents through oceans by boats. He heard some
complaints in 1769 that the mail boat from North America which went to Europe reached much faster
than the mail boat which was traveling in the opposite direction. The boats travelling from Europe to
North America took weeks longer than the mail boats which were heading towards the opposite
direction.
He took these complaints very seriously. Since, he was the postmaster, the mail delivery was very
important to him. Franklin wanted to figure out what was going on with the delayed mail delivery
system. Benjamin Franklin crossed the Atlantic several times by boat. He took the temperature
measurements and making other observations of the ocean. He discovered that an ocean current was the
reason behind the delay. Boats going towards Europe were speeded up by the prevailing current of that
region. The Boats that were going towards the North America were slowed down by the oceanic current
flowing in the opposite direction. He called that oceanic current as the Gulf Stream.
FIRST MAP OF CURRENTS
The map that was made by Benjamin Franklin about the Gulf Stream in 1770 was the first map ever made
of this ocean current. Mapping this current’s path was very helpful for all the sailors. Franklin noticed
many features that made the Gulf Stream water different from the surrounding ocean. One of the most
characteristic feature of the Gulf stream was its difference in temperature. The knot (pronounced as not)
is a unit of speed used in oceanographic studies.

KNOTS AND NAUTICAL MILES

One knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour or 1.852 kmph. One knot speed is equal to 0.514444444
metre / second. The abbreviation kn is preferred by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO),
which includes every major sea- faring nation. Measurements of ocean currents are carried out by a
variety of methods.

One popular way to measure ocean currents is to determine the water's velocity at one fixed place in the
ocean. This type of measurement is called Eulerian, in honor of the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler.
This is accomplished by using the electro- mechanical current meters. Current meters m e a s u r e the
velocity of water flow at a single depth. The modern Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) also
can provide a profile of velocity of water flow along with the details of water depth. In addition,
Current measurements are also done using radar-based equipment.

CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
Another direct way to measure ocean currents, is by tagging a lighter material with floats or using color
dyes. The Near-surface ocean currents are measured by so-called drifters. Drifters are buoys which ride at
the ocean surface and are drogues at some depth to negate the direct effects of wind. Tracking this
drifter (by satellite, radar, radio, sound, etc.) will give a description of the ocean current. Sverdrup (Sv)
is the basic unit of volume transport used in physical oceanography. It is equal to one million cubic
meters of water flowing per second.

OCEAN WATER CURRENTS

Currents are large-scale water movements occurring everywhere in the world. They normally move in
certain specific directions. It is due to this circulation the atmospheric moisture is replenished in the
atmosphere of Earth. Because ocean currents circulate water worldwide, they have a significant impact
on the movement of energy and moisture between the oceans and the atmosphere. As a result, they are
important to the world’s weather.

FORCING MECHANISMS
Currents are referred according to their forcing mechanisms. They may be either wind driven or
thermohaline. Many marine life rely on these currents to move from one location to another whether it is
for breeding or for food or for adaptation purposes. Today, ocean currents are also gaining importance
due to the possibility of harnessing alternative energy sources. Because the ocean water is dense, it
carries enormous amount of energy that could possibly be captured and co inverted into a usable form
through the use of turbine generators.

CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

The unequal heating of the earth’s surface and the movement of water masses along the surface by
winds are responsible for the development of currents. Currents are the reflections of the ocean water
circulations. The factors responsible for the oceanic water masses to circulate are wind, salinity, density,
temperature, ocean morphology and relief, and the earth's rotation.

The mechanisms responsible for creation of ocean currents are:

a) Global movement of Winds & Coriolis Force
b) Ekman flow
c) Temperature and Density differences
d) Geostrophic influences- Pressure gradient
e) Upwelling and the
f) Configuration of ocean floors.

PROPERTIES
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by the forces acting
upon it. Ocean currents can flow for great distances, and together they create the great flow of the water
masses. Surface ocean currents can be very large. Surface ocean currents flow in a regular pattern, but
they are not all the same. Some currents are deep and narrow. Other currents are shallow and wide.
Currents are often affected by the shape of the ocean floor. Some move quickly while others move more
slowly. A current can also change somewhat in depth and speed over time. ocean currents show typical
flow patterns

MAJOR OCEAN CURRENTS

Currents are of two general categories as surface water currents and deep water currents.
There are several factors and processes involved in the generation and movement of these two kinds of
ocean currents. In addition, there are specific names given to the currents which are distributed at
different parts of the globe. They are:
1. Equatorial currents
2. Boundary currents
3. Circumpolar currents.
In addition to these, there are some terminologies used to denote the oceanic currents. They are:
Periodic currents, seasonal current, coastal current, longshore current, offshore current, inshore current
and drift currents.

SURFACE WINDS
The water mass present at the ocean surface is moved primarily by winds. Winds blow in certain
directions and patterns. Oceanic water masses are also moved due to the Earth’s rotation and by the
Coriolis Effect. Wind-driven circulation is the large-scale oceanic circulation that results from the actions
of the wind. There are two-components involved as
a) directly-driven Ekman component and
b) an indirect component, geostrophic balance with pressure systems.

The speed of surface currents is greatest closer to the ocean’s surface and decreases at about 100 meters
below the surface. This makes up to 10 % of the oceanic water masses. Because surface currents travel
over long distances, the Coriolis force also plays a role in their movement and deflects them, further
aiding in the creation of their circular pattern. Finally, gravity plays a role in the movement of surface
currents because the top of the ocean is uneven.

DEEP WATER CURRENTS

Deep water currents are another category of ocean currents. They are also called as thermohaline
circulation. They are found below 400 meters and make up about 90% of the ocean. Like surface
currents, gravity plays a dominant role in the creation of deep water currents. This is mainly caused by
density differences in the oceanic water masses.

KINDS OF CURRENTS
The Oceanic Currents are classified according to the force that makes them to flow.
The various kinds of currents include:
a) Tidal Currents
b) Density Currents
c) Wind Driven Currents
d) Gyres
e) Rip Currents and
f) Cold surface currents.
 TIDAL CURRENTS
Tidal currents, as their name suggests, are generated by tides. Tides are essentially long, slow waves
created by the gravitational pull of the moon, and to a lesser degree, the sun, on the earth's surface. Since
the moon is so much closer to the earth than the sun, its pull has more influence on the tides. The tidal
Currents are caused by flooding of water, flowing from one location to another. Normally, the flow speed
of these tidal currents is small (typically less than 0.5 m/s). Tidal currents flow closer to the coasts.

TIDAL CURRENTS
Tidal currents differ from the regular oceanic currents in that they don't flow as a continuous stream.
They also switch directions every time when there is tide transitions between the high tide and the low
tide. Although tides and tidal currents don't have much impact in the open oceans, they can create a rapid
current flow of up to 25 kilometers per hour when they flow in and out of narrower areas like bays,
estuaries and harbors.

DENSITY CURRENTS
A less dense substance will always lie above a more dense substance. When you have water of two
different densities meeting, the lower density (less dense) water will move on top of the higher density
(more dense) water. The different densities actually cause the water to move, forming a density current.
In the oceans, the deep, bottom currents are colder and saltier than the surface currents. Density
differences are a function of temperature and salinity.

ROLE OF GRAVITY
Density currents are driven by gravity. Density differences in a fluid in a gravitational field leads to
pressure differences that drive flows. The density Currents are created due to variation in the density of
water. The more dense, saline water normally starts flowing under the less dense water. This is called a
density current. It is mainly driven by the difference in densities between the two water masses. These
flows are a few cm per second or less.

WIND DRIVEN CURRENTS

The Wind Driven Currents are the strongest currents in the world. As the name implies, they are mainly
driven by the winds. The wind can cause surface flow of nominally 2.5% of the wind speed (10 m/s
wind speed may generate => 25 cm/s of surface flow). This is known as wind drift. A current can also
change its courses somewhat in depth and speed over time. Winds are able to move the top 400 meters of
the ocean creating surface ocean currents. Surface currents are mostly caused by the wind because it
creates friction as it moves over the water. This friction then forces the water to move in a spiral pattern,
creating gyres. In the northern hemisphere, gyres move clockwise and in the southern they spin
counterclockwise.
GYRES
Gyres are yet another types of currents in the oceans. These are "circular", large-scale, ocean flow
patterns. They result from wind forcing, buoyancy forcing, and the Coriolis acceleration. Since the
Coriolis acceleration changes with latitude, gyre circulations are not symmetric and the flow on the
western boundaries is stronger.

Gyres flow in clockwise direction in the oceans of Northern Hemisphere and in counterclockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere oceans. This happens mainly because of the Coriolis Effect
creating surface ocean currents. Near the Earth’s poles, gyres tend to flow in the opposite direction. Some
of the ocean currents move quickly, while others move more slowly.

TYPES OF GYRES
Gyres are of various kinds as:
a) Subtropical gyres
b) Subpolar gyres and
c) Recirculation gyres.
Subtropical gyres are found in all the world's oceans at mid- latitudes. Subpolar gyres have the opposite
circulation and are found poleward of subtropical gyres. Recirculation gyres are flows associated with
major ocean currents and consists of water that recirculates in a closed pattern around most of the ocean
basin.
Large-scale recirculation gyres are associated with fast western boundary currents.
Mesoscale recirculation’s are associated with meandering currents.

RIP CURRENTS
Rip Currents are currents seen closer to the beaches when the waves tend to carry water towards the
coasts. Changes in the bottom topography (e.g. sand banks) can cause water to be moved toward the
beach without allowing the water to return to the deeper sea. The flow of water going back towards the
deeper sea then occurs quite suddenly in the form of a narrow (<5 m wide) current moving quite fast (up
2 m/s). these are called as rip currents.

COLD SURFACE CURRENTS

The next type of currents are the cold surface currents. These currents come from polar and temperate
latitudes, and they tend to flow towards the equator.
Like warm surface currents, the cold surface currents are driven mainly by atmospheric forces and are
influenced by the earth's rotation.

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
Warm water holds less salt than cold water. So, it is less dense. When it is less dense, it rises towards the
surface of the oceans. When it is cold, it becomes denser and this salt laden water sinks down below. As
the warm water rises up, the cold water is forced to move away through upwelling and fill the void left by
the warm waters. By contrast, when the cold water rises, it too leaves a void and the rising warm water is
then forced to fill up the gap, through down welling. These are called as thermohaline circulation. This
thermohaline circulation is induced by differences in temperature (thermos) and salinity (haline).
Thermohaline circulation is known as the Global Conveyor Belt because its circulation of warm and
cold water acts as a submarine river and moves the water masses throughout the oceans. This is one of
the very unique phenomena of the oceanic water masses.

EKMAN TRANSPORT
Surface winds and ocean currents are intimately related to each other. Winds normally blow across water
and drag on the surface. This sets a thin layer of water to move and tries to drag on the water present
below. This process continues downward, and transfer the momentum continuously downwards towards
the deep layers. The energy is lost in the process. As a result, the current speed decreases with depth.
Since earth rotates, the movements of the surface waters are deflected to the right of the wind in the
northern hemisphere. The change in current direction and speed with increasing depth forms a spiral.
This is called as Ekman Spiral. It is named after the pioneering work of the Swedish Oceanographer,
V.W. Ekman, who laid the foundation for dynamical theories of wind-driven ocean circulation.
Ekman transport is the total average flow, integrated over depth, resulting in flow that set up the large-
scale ocean gyres.

UPWELLING
There are places in the ocean where water from the deep sea travels up to the surface. These are called
areas of upwelling. Coastal upwelling is usually induced by Ekman transport. The other significant
component of large-scale ocean circulation flow is wind-driven and is known as Ekman flow. Upwelling
is a mechanism which brings the cold, nutrient-rich water from the depths up to the surface. Earth's
rotation and strong seasonal winds push the surface water away from some coasts, so water rises on the
edges of continents to replace it. Upwelling also happens as a part of El Niño (ENSO) events in the
Pacific Ocean off the coast of Ecuador and Peru. This has an impact on weather, changing the pattern of
precipitation in many areas of the world.

DOWNWELLING
Downwelling is the opposite of upwelling - surface waters pushing down into deeper areas of the ocean.
This happens when winds cause Ekman transport to push water toward a coast and then deeper in the
ocean.
GEOSTROPHIC CURRENTS
Geostrophic currents are controlled by a balance between a pressure gradient force and the Coriolis
deflection. In addition to these, the seafloor topography and the shape of the ocean’s basins have a
greater impact on the surface and deep water currents. These conditions may restrict the flow between
the basin areas where water can move and "funnel" it into another basin area. Surface ocean currents
carry heat from place to place in the Earth system. This affects the regional climatic conditions as we ll.

DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANIC CURRENTS

Based on their flow patterns and their geographic location, ocean currents are named differently in
different regions. As the current circulations in the northern hemisphere is different from those of the
southern hemisphere, the global distribution of major currents are listed according to their locations to
the north of equator or south of the equator.

EQUATORIAL CURRENTS
The North Equatorial Current is a significant Pacific and Atlantic Ocean current that flows east-to-west
between about 10° north and 20° north. The South Equatorial Current is a significant Pacific, Atlantic,
and Indian Ocean current that flows east-to-west between the equator and about 20 degrees south. In the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it extends across the equator to about 5 degrees north. On the equator, the
South Equatorial Current is driven directly by the trade winds which blow from east to west.

EQUATORIAL COUNTER CURRENT

Equatorial currents are typically accompanied by countercurrents, which flow on the surface in a
direction opposite to that of the main current. The Equatorial Counter Current is an eastward moving,
wind-driven flowing 10-15 m deep current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. These exist
on either side of the equator. They are called as the North equatorial and South Equatorial currents.
These currents flow between 3 and 6 kilometers per day and usually extend 100 to 200 meters in depth
below the ocean surface. In addition, there are three Equatorial Counter Currents, which flow towards
the east. These are a partial return of the waters carried westward by the North and South Equatorial
currents. This could be seen in all the three oceans.

NORTH EQUATORIAL COUNTERCURRENT

The North Equatorial Countercurrent (NECC), flows west-to-east at about 3-10°N in the Atlantic and
Pacific basins. It is located between the North Equatorial Current (NEC) and the South Equatorial
Current (SEC).

BOUNDARY CURRENTS
Boundary currents flow parallel to the continental margins, usually in north-south directions. Boundary
currents on the western sides of the ocean basins will be strong. Boundary currents on the eastern sides
of the ocean basins will be weak. The dynamics of the Boundary currents are determined by the
presence of a coastline. They fall into two distinct categories as, western boundary currents and eastern
boundary currents.

WESTERN BOUNDARY CURRENTS

The western boundary currents are currents flowing from the equator to high latitudes regions in the
northern and southern hemispheres. The Western boundary currents are warm, deep, narrow, and fast
flowing currents that form on the west side of ocean basins due to western intensification. They carry
warm water from the tropics poleward.
They have specific names associated with their location as:
North Atlantic - Gulf Stream;
North Pacific - Kuroshio;
South Atlantic - Brazil;
South Pacific - East Australia; and
Indian Ocean - Agulhas.
All of these currents are generally narrow, jet like flows that travel at speeds between 40 and 120
kilometers per day. The Western Boundary Currents are the deepest ocean surface flows, usually
extending to 1000 meters below the ocean surface.

EASTERN BOUNDARY CURRENTS

Eastern boundary currents are relatively shallow, broad and slow- flowing. They are found on the eastern
side of oceanic basins, adjacent to the western coasts of continents. They flow from high latitudes
towards the equator. These are cold water currents. They also have specific names associated with their
location as:
North Atlantic - Canary;
North Pacific - California;
South Atlantic - Benguela;
South Pacific - Peru; and
Indian Ocean - West Australia.
All of these currents are generally broad, shallow moving flows that travel at speeds between 3 and 7
kilometers per day.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the east flowing North Pacific Current and North Atlantic Drift move the
waters of western boundary currents to the starting points of the eastern boundary currents.

ANTARCTIC CIRCUMPOLAR CURRENT

The currents moving along the polar and sub-polar regions are called as circumpolar currents. These are
smaller current flows. The Southern Ocean has no meridional boundaries and its waters are free to
circulate around the world. It serves a s a conveyor belt for the other oceans exchanging waters between
them. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to
east around Antarctica. An alternative name for this is the West Wind Drift. It is the dominant water
circulation feature of the Southern Ocean. The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass
connecting with Antarctica. This condition keeps the warm ocean waters away from Antarctica,
enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet.

NORTH ATLANTIC REGIONS

The distribution of oceanic currents of the North Atlantic Ocean from north pole to south pole are:
1. East Greenland Currents
2. Irminger Current (flowing North + West)
3. West Greenland Current (flowing North)
4. Labrador Current (flowing South + East)
5. Gulf Stream (flowing North)
6. North Atlantic Current (flowing South west)
7. Canaries Current (flowing South west)
8. North Equatorial Current (flowing West)
9. Antilles Current (flowing North West)
10. Guiana Current (flowing North West)
11. Caribbean Current (flowing North West)
12. Equatorial Counter Current (flowing along the Equator towards East)
13. Guinea Current (flowing East).

SOUTH ATLANTIC REGIONS

The distribution of oceanic currents of the South Atlantic are:
1. South Equatorial Current (West)
2. Brazil Current (South)
3. Falkland Current (North)
4. Antarctica Circumpolar Current (East)
5. Benguela Current (North).

INDIAN OCEAN
The distribution of oceanic currents of the Indian Ocean are:
1. Mozambique Current (South)
2. Agulhas Current (South)
3. West Australian Current (West)
4. South Equatorial Current (West)
5. Somali Current (North)
6. Monsoon Drift (East).

SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN

The distribution of oceanic currents of the South Pacific Ocean are :
1 East Australian Current (South)
2 Humboldt Current (North)
 3 Peru Current (North – North West)
4 Equatorial Current (West)
5 South Equatorial Counter Current (E)
6 South Equatorial Current (West).

NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN

The distribution of oceanic currents of the North Pacific Ocean are:
1 Alaska Current (South West)
2 Aleutian Current (South West)
3 Oyashio Current (South)
4 Kuroshio Current (North East)
5 Kuroshio Extension (North East)
6 California Current (South)
7 North Equatorial Current (West)
8 North Equatorial Counter Current (East).

THE GULF STREAM

The Gulf Stream is a surface current that runs between the United States and Europe in the North
Atlantic Ocean. Smaller spinning rings of water called eddies can form from surface ocean currents. The
Gulf Stream is a warm current. It originates in the Gulf of Mexico. It moves northward towards Europe.
Since it is full of warm water, the sea surface temperatures are warm. Because of this, it keeps the places
of Europe warmer than other areas located at similar latitudes. The Gulf Stream carries 4500 times more
water than the Mississippi River. Each second, ninety million cubic meters of water is carried past
Chesapeake Bay (US) in the Gulf Stream.

THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

The Humboldt Current is another example of a current that affects the weather. When this cold current is
normally present off the coast of Chile and Peru, it creates extremely productive waters and keeps the
coast cool and northern Chile arid.

THE LABRADOR CURRENT

The Labrador Current, which flows south out of the Arctic Ocean along the coasts of Newfoundland and
Nova Scotia, is famous for moving icebergs into shipping lanes in the North Atlantic.

THE AGULHAS CURRENT

The Agulhas Current is a warm water current runs south along the east coast of southern Africa. The
amount of water transported amounts to about 70 million cubic metres per second, making it one of the
largest western Boundary Currents in the world. The Agulhas’s has tributaries. The tributaries include the
Mozambique Current, the East Madagascar Current, and anti-clockwise re-circulatory flow in the SW
Indian Ocean.
BENGUELA CURRENT
Benguela Current is a cold, wide current that flows northwards along the west coast of southern Africa.
It is an Eastern Boundary Current and forms the eastern flank of the South Atlantic Gyre.

THE INDIAN OCEAN GYRE.

The Indian Ocean Gyre, is located in the Indian Ocean. It is one of the five major oceanic gyres. In the
winter, it is reversed due to the South Asian Monsoon. Like the other gyres, it contains a garbage patch.

THE INDIAN MONSOON CURRENT

The Indian Monsoon Current refers to the seasonally varying ocean current regime found in the
tropical regions of the northern Indian Ocean. During winter, the flow of the upper ocean is directed
westward from near the Indonesian Archipelago to the Arabian Sea. During the summer, the direction
reverses, with eastward flow extending from Somalia into the Bay of Bengal. These variations are due to
changes in the wind stress associated with the Indian monsoon.

THE NORTH ATLANTIC GYRE

The North Atlantic Gyre, located in the Atlantic Ocean, is one of the five major oceanic gyres. It is a
circular system of ocean currents that stretches across the North Atlantic from near the equator almost to
Iceland, and from the east coast of North America to the west coasts of Europe and Africa.

THE BEAUFORT GYRE

The Beaufort Gyre is a wind-driven ocean current located in the Arctic Ocean polar region. The gyre
contains both ice and water. It accumulates fresh water by the process of melting the ice floating on the
surface of the water

OCEAN EDDIES AND RINGS

Eddies with horizontal diameters varying in size from 50-150km have their own pattern of surface
currents. They form rings due to western boundary currents like the gulf streams. At the equator and along
the ocean boundaries, shallow undercurrents exist, flowing in a direction counter to that at the surface.
These types of currents may affect the operation of submarines or trawlers. One good example is the
equatorial undercurrent.

CONCLUSION
Currents are also important for marine life because they transport most of the marine creatures all around
the world. Currents affect the water temperature in marine ecosystems. Currents play a major role in
controlling the climate. Currents play an important role in the navigation of ships. Knowledge of ocean
currents is essential to carry out the movement of ships, reduction in their shipping costs and fuel
consumption. Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since
traveling with them reduces fuel costs.
 Fig. 1: Ocean Currents

Fig. 2: Major Currents in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.